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1

AERODYNAMICS AND
FLIGHT MECHANICS
Thrust and Power Requirements
2
EXAMPLE: BEECHCRAFT QUEEN AIR
The results we have developed so far for lift and drag for a finite wing may also be applied to a
complete airplane. In such relations:
C
D
is drag coefficient for complete airplane
C
D,0
is parasitic drag coefficient, which contains not only profile drag of wing (c
d
) but also
friction and pressure drag of tail surfaces, fuselage, engine nacelles, landing gear and any
other components of airplane exposed to air flow
C
L
is total lift coefficient, including small contributions from horizontal tail and fuselage
Span efficiency for finite wing replaced with Oswald efficiency factor for entire airplane
Example: To see how this works, assume the aerodynamicists have provided all the information
needed about the complete airplane shown below
Beechcraft Queen Air Aircraft Data
W = 38,220 N
S = 27.3 m
2
AR = 7.5
e (complete airplane) = 0.9
C
D,0
(complete airplane) = 0.03
What thrust and power levels are required of
engines to cruise at 220 MPH at sea-level?
How would these results change at 15,000 ft
3
OVERALL AIRPLANE DRAG
No longer concerned with aerodynamic details
Drag for complete airplane, not just wing
eAR
C
C C
L
D D
t
2
0 ,
+ =
eAR
C
C C
L
d D
t
2
+ =
Wing or airfoil Entire Airplane
Landing Gear
Engine Nacelles
Tail Surfaces
4
DRAG POLAR
C
D,0
is parasite drag coefficient at zero lift (o
L
=0)
C
D,i
drag coefficient due to lift (induced drag)
Oswald efficiency factor, e, includes all effects from airplane
C
D,0
and e are known aerodynamics quantities of airplane
i D D
L
D D
C C
eAR
C
C C
, 0 ,
2
0 ,
+ = + =
t
Example of Drag Polar for complete airplane
2
5
4 FORCES ACTING ON AIRPLANE
Model airplane as rigid body with four natural forces acting on it
1. Lift, L
Acts perpendicular to flight path (always perpendicular to relative wind)
2. Drag, D
Acts parallel to flight path direction (parallel to incomingrelative wind)
3. Propulsive Thrust, T
For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in flight path direction
May be inclined with respect to flight path angle, o
T
, usually small angle
4. Weight, W
Always acts vertically toward center of earth
Inclined at angle, u, with respect to lift direction
Apply Newtons Second Law (F=ma) to curvilinear flight path
Force balance in direction parallel to flight path
Force balance in direction perpendicular to flight path
6
GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION (6.2)
c
T lar perpendicu
T parallel
r
V
m W T L F
dt
dV
m W D T F
2
cos sin
sin cos
= + =
= =

u o
u o
Apply Newtons 2
nd
Parallel to flight path:
Apply Newtons 2
nd
Perpendicular to flight path:
Free Body Diagram
7
LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
JSF is flying at constant speed (no accelerations)
Sum of forces = 0 in two perpendicular directions
Entire weight of airplane is perfectly balanced by lift (L = W)
Engines produce just enough thrust to balance total drag at this airspeed (T = D)
For most conventional airplanes o
T
is small enough such that cos(o
T
) ~ 1
T D
L
W
8
LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
L
D
L
D
C
C
W
T
SC V W L
SC V D T
W L
D T
=
= =
= =
=
=
2
2
2
1
2
1

( )
D
L
W
C
C
W
T
D
L
R
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
R
is thrust required to fly at a given velocity in
level, unaccelerated flight
Notice that minimum T
R
is when airplane is at
maximum L/D
L/D is an important aero-performance quantity
3
9
THRUST REQUIREMENT (6.3)
T
R
for airplane at given altitude varies with velocity
Thrust required curve: T
R
vs. V

10
PROCEDURE: THRUST REQUIREMENT
1. Select a flight speed, V

2. Calculate C
L
S V
W
C
L
2
2
1

=

eAR
C
C C
L
D D
t
2
0 ,
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
=
D
L
R
C
C
W
T
3. Calculate C
D
4. Calculate C
L
/C
D
5. Calculate T
R
This is how much thrust engine
must produce to fly at selected V

Recall Homework Problem #5.6, find (L/D)max for NACA 2412 airfoil
Minimum T
R
when airplane
flying at (L/D)
max
11
THRUST REQUIREMENT (6.3)
Different points on T
R
curve correspond to different angles of attack
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
= = =


eAR
C
C S q SC q D
SC q SC V W L
L
D D
L L
t

2
0 ,
2
2
1
At a:
Large q

Small C
L
and o
D large
At b:
Small q

Large C
L
(or C
L
2
) and o to support W
D large
12
THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY
( )
eAR
C
S q SC q T
C C S q SC q D T
L
D R
i D D D R
t
2
0 ,
, 0 ,


+ =
+ = = =
Zero-Lift T
R
(Parasitic Drag)
Lift-Induced T
R
(Induced Drag)
Zero-Lift T
R
~ V
2
(Parasitic Drag)
Lift-Induced T
R
~ 1/V
2
(Induced Drag)
4
13
THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY
i D
L
D
D
R
R R
D R
C
eAR
C
C
eAR S q
W
SC
dq
dT
dq
dV
dV
dT
dq
dT
eAR S q
W
SC q T
,
2
0 ,
2
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
0
= =
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =

t
t
t
At point of minimum T
R
, dT
R
/dV

=0
(or dT
R
/dq

=0)
C
D,0
= C
D,i
at minimum TR and maximum L/D
Zero-Lift Drag = Induced Drag at minimum T
R
and maximum L/D
14
HOW FAST CAN YOU FLY?
Maximum flight speed occurs when thrust available, T
A
=T
R
Reduced throttle settings, T
R
< T
A
Cannot physically achieve more thrust than T
A
which engine can provide
Intersection of T
R
curve and maximum
T
A
defined maximum
flight speed of airplane
15
FURTHER IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN: V
MAX
Maximum velocity at a given altitude is important specification for new airplane
To design airplane for given V
max
, what are most important design parameters?
2
1
0 ,
0 ,
2
max max
max
2
0 ,
2
2
0 , 2 2
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
4
0
(
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= +
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = = =


D
D A A
D
D D
L
L
D D
C
eAR
C
W
T
S
W
S
W
W
T
V
eAR S
W
T q SC q
eAR S q
W
SC q
eAR S q
W
C S q T
S q
W
C
eAR
C
C S q SC q T D

t
t
t t
t
Steady, level flight: T = D
Steady, level flight: L = W
Substitute into drag equation
Turn this equation into a quadratic
equation (by multiplying by q

)
and rearranging
Solve quadratic equation and set
thrust, T, to maximum available
thrust, T
A,max
16
FURTHER IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN: V
MAX
T
A,max
does not appear alone, but only in ratio (T
A
/W)
max
S does not appear alone, but only in ratio (W/S)
V
max
does not depend on thrust alone or weight alone, but rather on ratios
(T
A
/W)
max
: maximum thrust-to-weight ratio
W/S: wing loading
V
max
also depends on density (altitude), C
D,0
, teAR
Increase V
max
by
Increase maximum thrust-to-weight ratio, (T
A
/W)
max
Increasing wing loading, (W/S)
Decreasing zero-lift drag coefficient, C
D,0
2
1
0 ,
0 ,
2
max max
max
4
(
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
D
D A A
C
eAR
C
W
T
S
W
S
W
W
T
V

t
5
17
AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS
Two types of engines common in
aviation today
1. Reciprocating piston engine with
propeller
Average light-weight, general
aviation aircraft
Rated in terms of POWER
2. Jet (Turbojet, turbofan) engine
Large commercial transports
and military aircraft
Rated in terms of THRUST
18
THRUST VS. POWER
Jets Engines (turbojets, turbofans for military and commercial applications) are
usually rate in Thrust
Thrust is a Force with units (N = kg m/s
2
)
For example, the PW4000-112 is rated at 98,000 lb of thrust
Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power
Power is a precise term and can be expressed as:
Energy / time with units (kg m
2
/s
2
) / s = kg m
2
/s
3
= Watts
Note that Energy is expressed in Joules = kg m
2
/s
2
Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s
2
) * (m/s) = kg m
2
/s
3
= Watts
Usually rated in terms of horsepower (1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W)
Example:
Airplane is level, unaccelerated flight at a given altitude with speed V

Power Required, P
R
=T
R
*V

[W] = [N] * [m/s]


19
POWER AVAILABLE (6.6)
Jet Engine Propeller Drive Engine
20
POWER AVAILABLE (6.6)
Jet Engine Propeller Drive Engine
6
21
POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
P
R
vs. V

qualitatively
(Resembles T
R
vs. V

)
22
POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
|
.
|

\
|
= =



D
L
L
D
R
L
D
L
R
L
L
D
L
R R
C
C
SC
C W
P
SC
W
C
C
W
P
SC
W
V SC V W L
V
C
C
W
V T P
2
3 3
2 3
2
1 2
2
2
2
1

P
R
varies inversely as C
L
3/2
/C
D
Recall: T
R
varies inversely as C
L
/C
D
23
POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
( )
eAR
C
SV q V SC q P
V C C S q V SC q DV V T P
L
D R
i D D D R R
t
2
0 ,
, 0 ,


+ =
+ = = = =
Zero-Lift P
R Lift-Induced P
R
Zero-Lift P
R
~ V
3
Lift-Induced P
R
~ 1/V
24
POWER REQUIRED
0
3
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
, 0 ,
2
2
0 ,
3
= |
.
|

\
|
=
+ =



i D D
R
D R
C C S V
dV
dP
eAR S V
W
SC V P

i D D
C C
, 0 ,
3
1
=
At point of minimum P
R
, dP
R
/dV

=0
7
25
POWER REQUIRED
V

for minimum P
R
is less than V

for minimum T
R
i D D
C C
, 0 ,
=
i D D
C C
, 0 ,
3
1
=
26
WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT THIS?
We will show that for a piston-engine propeller combination
To fly longest distance (maximum range) we fly airplane at speed
corresponding to maximum L/D
To stay aloft longest (maximum endurance) we fly the airplane at minimum
P
R
or fly at a velocity where C
L
3/2
/C
D
is a maximum
Power will also provide information on maximum rate of climb and altitude
27
POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY (6.6)
Propeller Drive
Engine
1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W
P
R
P
A
28
POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY (6.6)
Jet Engine
P
R
8
29
ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE (6.7)
Recall P
R
= f(

)
Subscript 0 denotes seal-level conditions
2
1
0
0 , ,
2
1
0
0
|
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|

\
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=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

R ALT R
ALT
P P
V V
30
ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE (6.7)
Propeller-Driven Airplane
V
max,ALT
< V
max,sea-level
31
RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)
Boeing 777: Lift-Off Speed ~ 180 MPH
How fast can it climb to a cruising altitude of 30,000 ft?
32
RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)
u
u
cos
sin
W L
W D T
=
+ =
Governing Equations:
9
33
RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)
u
u
u
u
sin /
sin
sin
sin



=
=

+ =
+ =
V C R
V
W
DV TV
WV DV TV
W D T
Vertical velocity
Rate of Climb:
TV

is power available
DV

is level-flight power required (for small u neglect W)


TV

- DV

is excess power
34
RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)
Jet Engine Propeller Drive Engine
Maximum R/C Occurs when Maximum Excess Power
35
EXAMPLE: F-15 K
Weapon launched from an F-15 fighter by a small two stage rocket, carries a heat-
seeking Miniature Homing Vehicle (MHV) which destroys target by direct impact
at high speed (kinetic energy weapon)
F-15 can bring ALMV under the ground track of its target, as opposed to a ground-
based system, which must wait for a target satellite to overfly its launch site.
36
GLIDING FLIGHT (6.9)
D
L
L
D
1
tan
cos
sin
=
=
u
u
u
u
u
cos
sin
0
W L
W D
T
=
=
=
To maximize range, smallest
u occurs at (L/D)
max
10
37
EXAMPLE: HIGH ASPECT RATIO GLIDER
To maximize range, smallest u occurs at (L/D)
max
A modern sailplane may have a glide ratio as high as 60:1
So u = tan
-1
(1/60) ~ 1
u
RANGE AND ENDURANCE
How far can we fly?
How long can we stay aloft?
How do answers vary for propeller-driven vs. jet-engine?
39
RANGE AND ENDURANCE
Range: Total distance (measured with respect to the ground) traversed by airplane
on a single tank of fuel
Endurance: Total time that airplane stays in air on a single tank of fuel
1. Parameters to maximize range are different from those that maximize endurance
2. Parameters are different for propeller-powered and jet-powered aircraft
Fuel Consumption Definitions
Propeller-Powered:
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time
Jet-Powered:
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time
40
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time
( )( ) hour HP
fuel of lb
SFC =
ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum
number of pounds of fuel per hour
( )
( ) HP SFC
hour
fuel of lb

Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP


Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum power required
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that C
L
3/2
/C
D
is a maximized
11
41
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time
( )( ) hour HP
fuel of lb
SFC =
RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile
( )
( )

V
HP SFC
mile
fuel of lb
Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP/V

Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane


is flying at a velocity such that C
L
/C
D
is a maximum
42
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA
To maximize range:
Largest propeller efficiency, q
Lowest possible SFC
Highest ratio of W
initial
to W
final
, which is obtained with the largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum L/D
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
final
initial
D
L
W
W
C
C
SFC
R ln
q
43
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
final
initial
D
L
W
W
C
C
SFC
R ln
q
Propulsion
Aerodynamics
Structures and Materials
44
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA
To maximize endurance:
Largest propeller efficiency, q
Lowest possible SFC
Largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum C
L
3/2
/C
D
Flight at sea level
( ) |
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
initial final
D
L
W W S
C
C
SFC
E
q
12
45
JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per thrust per unit time
( )( ) hour thrust of lb
fuel of lb
TSFC =
ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum
number of pounds of fuel per hour
( )
( ) Thrust TSFC
hour
fuel of lb

Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum thrust


Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum thrust required
Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that C
L
/C
D
is a maximum
46
JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time
( )( ) hour thrust of lb
fuel of lb
TSFC =
RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile
( )
( )

V
Thrust SFC
mile
fuel of lb
Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum Thrust/V

Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is


flying at a velocity such that C
L
1/2
/C
D
is a maximum
D
L
D
L
R
C
C
C
SC
W
S
V
T
2
1
1 2
2
1
=

47
JET-POWERED: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA
To maximize range:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Flight at maximum C
L
1/2
/C
D
Fly at high altitudes
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
2
1
2
1
1 2
2
final initial
D
L
W W
C
C
TSFC S
R

48
JET-POWERED: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA
To maximize endurance:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Flight at maximum L/D
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
final
initial
D
L
W
W
C
C
TSFC
E ln
1
13
49
SUMMARY: ENDURANCE AND RANGE
Maximum Endurance
Propeller-Driven
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at minimum power required
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at a velocity such that C
L
3/2
/C
D
is a maximized
Jet Engine-Driven
Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at minimum thrust required
Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at a velocity such that C
L
/C
D
is a maximum
Maximum Range
Propeller-Driven
Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that C
L
/C
D
is a maximum
Jet Engine-Driven
Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying at a
velocity such that C
L
1/2
/C
D
is a maximum
EXAMPLES OF DYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
Take-Off Distance
Turning Flight
51
TAKE-OFF AND LANDING ANALYSES (6.15)
F
m V
s
Vdt ds
t
m
F
V
dt
m
F
dV
dt
dV
m ma F
2
2
=
=
=
=
= =
( )
dt
dV
m L W D T R D T F
r
= = =
Rolling resistance

r
= 0.02
s: lift-off distance
52
NUMERICAL SOLUTION FOR TAKE-OFF
14
53
USEFUL APPROXIMATION (T >> D, R)
Lift-off distance very sensitive to weight, varies as W
2
Depends on ambient density
Lift-off distance may be decreased:
Increasing wing area, S
Increasing C
L,max
Increasing thrust, T
T SC g
W
s
L
O L
max ,
2
. .
44 . 1

s
L.O.
: lift-off distance
54
EXAMPLES OF GROUND EFFECT
55
TURNING FLIGHT

= =

=
=
=

=
=
V
n g
R
V
dt
d
n g
V
R
R
V
m F
n W F
W
L
n
W L F
W L
r
r
r
1
1
1
cos
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
u
e
|
Load Factor
R: Turn Radius
e: Turn Rate
56
EXAMPLE: PULL-UP MANEUVER
( )
( )
( )

=
=
= =
V
n g
n g
V
R
R
V
m F
n W W L F
r
r
1
1
1
2
2
e
R: Turn Radius
e: Turn Rate
15
57
V-n DIAGRAMS
S
W
C
V n
W
SC V
W
L
n
L
L
max , 2
max
2
2
1
2
1


=
= =

58
STRUCTURAL LIMITS

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