Laboratory #1: Rock Forming Minerals

Materials Needed 3. Scratch Glass, Porcelain Plate, Copper Penny, Iron Nail, Magnets, HCl 4. Hand lens Introduction To Common Rock Forming Minerals A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses a definite chemical structure, which gives it a unique set of physical properties. Rocks, in turn, are aggregates composed of two or more minerals. Minerals are identified based on their physical properties. Physical properties include crystal form, cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, color, streak, luster, taste, smell, magnetism, and reaction to hydrochloric acid. These properties will be used to identify the common rock forming minerals.
Common Rock Forming Minerals Igneous Rocks Quartz Feldspar Mica Pyroxene (Augite) Amphibole Olivine Sedimentary Rocks Quartz Clay minerals (Kaolinite) Feldspar Calcite Dolomite Gypsum Halite Metamorphic Rocks Quartz Feldspar Mica Garnet Pyroxene (Augite) Staurolite Kyanite

Physical Properties of Minerals

Crystal Form

This is the shape that a crystal has as a result of growth. These minerals grew naturally with this form. They were not cut or broken to achieve the form you see. The crystal form is a reflection of the internal arrangement of atoms within the mineral.
Cleavage

The tendency of a mineral to break along smooth planes. Minerals may have one, two, three or more cleavages. One plane of cleavage Two planes of cleavage, Three planes of cleavage and Four planes of cleavage

Laboratory #2: Igneous Rocks

Materials Needed 1. Rocks Set 2. Scratch Glass, Porcelain Plate, Copper Penny, Iron Nail, Magnets, HCl 3. Hand lens Introduction to Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks form as molten rock cools and solidifies. Magma is considered parent material of igneous rocks and forms from partial melting of rocks inside the Earth. Rocks formed from magma at the surface are classified as extrusive or volcanic rocks. Rocks formed from magma that crystallizes at depth are termed intrusive or plutonic rocks Magma is comprised of three components: a. A liquid portion, called melt that is composed of mobile ions b. Solids, if any, are silicate minerals that have already crystallized from the melt c. Volatiles, or gases dissolved in the melt, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Mineral Composition What happens when magma cools and becomes a rock? The cooling of magma results in the systematic arrangement of ions into orderly patterns, which then form silicate minerals. These silicate minerals crystallize out of the in a predictable order (called Bowens Reaction Series). As a result, the composition of the magma is constantly changing as new mineral are formed Common Felsic Minerals Plagioclase feldspar Quartz Olivine Hornblende Common Mafic Minerals Alkali feldspar Muscovite Pyroxene Biotite

If only mafic minerals are present, then the rock is said to be ultramafic. Rocks that contain mostly mafic minerals are called mafic, and if only felsic minerals are present, then the rock is said to be felsic. Rocks that contain roughly equal amounts of both felsic and mafic minerals are intermediate. Igneous Rock Textures Intrusive igneous rock textures: The cooling of magma inside of the Earth produces crystals that interlock with one another. The resulting rock is usually quite hard. Coarse-grained intrusive rocks have visible crystals that are all roughly the same size, this texture is typical of plutonic rocks such as granite, diorite, gabbro and peridotite. Pegmatite texture is typical of intrusive rocks that form in dikes. These rocks are very coarse-grained and crystal sizes can be several centimeters in size. Fine-grained intrusive rocks have crystals that are so small you cannot see them with the naked eye. Not many intrusive rocks have fine-grained textures, although it can develop in shallow intrusive bodies such as dikes or sills. Extrusive igneous rock textures: Extrusive igneous rocks such as lavas cool as one massive unit. This produces an interlocking crystal pattern, similar to that seen in intrusive igneous rocks. Pyroclastic igneous rocks, such as ashes and tuffs, were molten prior to being ejected into the air. These pyroclastic fragments cool and solidify before they reach the ground. This can produce a rock that may have individual fragments and layering. Aphanitic (fine-grained) textures develop when the molten rock is cooled very rapidly. Individual crystals are not visible to the naked eye. This texture is typical of extrusive igneous rocks such as basalt, rhyolite, and andesite. Porphyritic texture contains large crystals (called phenocrysts) in an aphanitic matrix. The two different grain sizes must be distinct, and not gradual. This type of texture develops in two stages. First, cooling takes place slowly in the Earth, producing the phenocrysts. The magma, with the phenocrysts, is then ejected from the volcano where it cools quickly, forming the aphanitic groundmass. A porphyry is a rock that contains 25% or more phenocrysts; a porphyritic rock contains less than 25% phenocrysts. Glassy textures form from highly viscous lavas that are often felsic in composition. They can also form when the magma cools so rapidly that minerals do not have a chance to crystallize. Obsidian and pumice are two examples of extrusive igneous rocks with 4

glassy textures. Vesicular textures form as gasses are released from the magma as it cools, and are typical of extrusive igneous rocks. Each small cavity is called a vesicle. Rocks that are very vesicular are called scoria; when there are more vesicles than matrix, the rock is called pumice. Sometimes minerals will be deposited in the vesicles after the rock has cooled. These are called amygdules and the rock is said to have an amygdaloidal texture. Pyroclastic textures may have a powdery texture or may appear to be composed of individual fragments stuck together. Volcanic ash is comprised of loose sand to silt size fragments; Tuffs are rocks comprised of silt to pebble sized ash and/or pumice; Welded tuffs are tuffs that were deposited while still partially molten, and may appear streaky or glassy; and Volcanic breccia are rocks with large, broken volcanic rock fragments.

The Lab
The object of the lab is to be able to identify the various types of igneous rocks based upon their color, mineral composition, and texture. First, determine which minerals are present. Then, determine the grain size. Determine what color the rock is (light, dark, gray, pink, etc.). Does the rock have any textures, such as vesicles, phenocrysts, etc.? Use the chart below to help you determine the name of the rock, and whether the rock is extrusive or intrusive. LAB- 2

LAB-3

LAB-4 Sedimentary Rocks

Materials Needed 1. Sedimentary Rocks Set 2. Scratch Glass, Porcelain Plate, Copper Penny, Iron Nail, Magnets, HCl 3. Hand lens Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks form in two stages. First, a sediment is formed; second, the sediment is lithified (literally, turned to stone) to become a rock.

There are three types of sediment:

Clastic or detrital sediment formed from the mechanical weathering and erosion of other rocks into broken bits of rock and mineral pieces. These broken rock and mineral fragments also called grains - form sediments, which are transported from their original source and deposited elsewhere. You can distinguish clastic sediments as they consist of loose grains separated from one another by spaces. Loose sediments clays, silts, sands, gravels, boulders, etc. are held together with either a natural cement or matrix. Chemical sediment forms via the chemical precipitation of compounds out of water (usually seawater). In most chemical sediments, the compounds precipitated out of the water crystallize to form interlocking boundaries with hardly any spaces between the crystals. Biochemical or bioclastic sediment form from the accumulation of parts of organisms. These three types of sediments may remain separate from one another, or may mix together.

The Lab
The object of the lab is to be able to identify the various types of sedimentary rocks based upon their composition and texture. First, identify the type of sediment the rock is composed of. Is the rock comprised of sand, pebbles, or shells? From here, you should be able to determine if the rock is clastic, chemical or bioclastic/biochemical. Next, examine each rock and find a feature or physical property that is unique (or relatively unique) to that rock type. Does it effervesce with HCl? Any fossils? Use the attached charts to help you in identifying the rocks.

Identification of Sedimentary Rocks Detrital sedimentary rocks

CONGLOMERATE :abraded (rounded) pebbles in sandstone, looks like concrete, Coarse (>2 mm), pebbles and cobbles BRECCIA: angular fragments show no signs of abrasion Dark sand-sized rock fragments impart a salt and pepper GRAYWACKE SANDSTONE : appearance; usually rich in clay . Abundant grains of feldspar are typically weathered to dull ARKOSE SANDSTONE : white or dull pink; commonly with some amount of clay Medium (1/16th mm) like coarse sandpaper SANDSTONES QUARTZ SANDSTONE: Relatively pure content of quartz grains; some examples are very porous SILTSTONE: Fine (1/256 - 1/16 mm) like a fine nail file Feels gritty, grains barely detectable with the unaided eye MUDSTONES CLAYSTONE Smooth to very slightly gritty; grains are not detectable with the unaided eye, slick when wet. SHALE Very fine (<1/256 mm) grains not visible Smooth to slightly gritty, grains not detectable with the unaided eye, fissile (i.e., breaks into sheets), slick when wet. FOSSILIFEROUS LIMESTONE COQUINA Shells packed together and cemented with ransparent calcite, or "floating" in opaque lime mud Shells packed together and slightly cemented with calcite, Calcite shell fragments very porous LIMESTONES CHALK Shells too small to be seen with the unaided eye, chalky or powdery, typically white to light gray to light brown PEAT Brown, fibrous, soft, porous; plant fragments visible Plants

COAL Brown to black, non-porous, sooty, commonly spotted with yellowish sulfur compounds.

BIOCHEMICAL / Silicious animals and plants

CHERT (FLINT) Extremely fine crystalline quartz (hardness = 7); crystals too small to be seen, conchoidal fracture, very sharp edges CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Halite (ROCK SALT), Cubic crystals and cubic cleavage usually apparent, hardness = 2.5, salty taste

EVAPORITES
GYPSUM Soft (hardness = 2), very fine crystals impart sugary appearance, usually white or pink TRAVERTINE Coarsely crystalline, typically yellow, red and brown bands Calcite LIMESTONE (MICRITE) Fine-grained character resembles that of mudstone, slightly conchoidal fracture, and slightly sharp edges. LIMESTONES OOLITE Sand-sized grains of calcite called ooids; white to gray; a DOLOSTONE broken ooid exhibits concentric banding about the nucleus. Dolomite Texture ranges from that of mudstone to that of travertine, many samples appear sugary

CHEMICAL
CHERT Quartz Extremely finely crystalline quartz (hardness = 7), crystals too small to be seen, conchoidal fracture, very sharp edges.

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LAB-4

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LAB-5

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Laboratory #6:
Metamorphic Rocks
Introduction to Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphism is the transformation of one rock type into another. Metamorphic rocks are produced from preexisting rocks that have been subjected to temperatures and pressures unlike that in which they were originally formed. Metamorphic rocks are produced from igneous, sedimentary, and other metamorphic rocks. Every metamorphic rock, then, has a parent rock the rock from which it was formed. Metamorphic textures Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of grains within a rock. Metamorphic textures include: foliation, porphyroblastic, granoblastic and non-foliated. Foliation - any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within a rock. Examples of foliation include: the parallel alignment of platy and/or elongated minerals, the parallel alignment of flattened mineral grains and pebbles, compositional banding or slaty cleavage where rocks can be easily split into thin, tabular sheets. Foliation can form in various ways including: the rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals, recrystallization of minerals in the direction of preferred orientation, or by changing the shape of equidimensional grains into elongated shapes that are aligned. Foliated textures 1. Rock or slaty cleavage a. Closely spaced planar surfaces along which rocks split b. Can develop in a number of ways depending on metamorphic conditions and parent rock 2. Schistosity a. Platy minerals are discernible with the unaided eye and exhibit a planar or layered structure b. Rocks having this texture are referred to as schist 3. Gneissic a. During higher grades of metamorphism, ion migration results in the segregation of minerals b. Gneissic rocks exhibit a distinctive banded appearance Other metamorphic textures 1. Those metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are referred to as non-foliated a. Typically composed of minerals that exhibit equidimensional crystals 2. Porphyroblastic textures a. Large grains (porphyroblasts) surrounded by a fine-grained matrix of other minerals b. Porphyroblasts are typically garnet, staurolite, and/or andalusite

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The Lab
The object of the lab is to be able to identify the various types of metamorphic rocks based upon their composition and texture. First, is the rock foliated or non-foliated? What type of texture does it have? Is it fine grained, coarse grained, or does it have a granoblastic texture? Next, examine each rock and find a feature or physical property that is unique (or relatively unique) to that rock type. Does it effervesce with HCl? Any fossils? Finally, determine the minerals present (that you can see with the naked eye). Use the attached charts to help you in identifying the rocks.

LAB-6

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LAB-7

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Laboratory # 8: Topographic Maps

Materials Needed: 1. Pencils 2. Metric/Standard Ruler 3. Calculator 4. Triangles or right edges Introduction Maps are a two dimensional representation, usually depicted on a flat surface such as a piece of paper, of an area or region. There are many types of maps, each with a specific function. Bathymetric maps, for example, illustrate the topography of the ocean floor while topographic maps show the topography of the earths surface above sea level. Street maps show the locations of streets, highways and roads. Demographic maps are used to show statistical changes in a population (age, race, education, etc) for a specific region. And geologic maps show the type of sediment or rocks of an area. While maps may vary in content, scale, and size, they all have several things in common: publishing information (title, the author of the map, year printed), the contour interval, the scale of the map, a North indicator, and a legend stating what each of the symbols and lines on the map represent. Each of these features are important and will be able to guide the user in finding the desired information contained in the map.

Latitude and Longitude

Early explorers used the stars to help them navigate across land and sea. Eventually map makers divided up the Earth into grids to help make navigation more accurate. The Earth was divided up into lines of latitude, which parallel the equator, and lines of longitude, which 17

bisect the Earth from pole to pole. Latitude: The distance between each line of latitude to the next is equal to 1 degree. The equator is said to be 0_, and each pole is at 90_. As one travels north from the equator to the North Pole, the lines of latitude increase 1__at a time until 90_ N latitude is reached. Longitude: Lines of longitude, or meridians, bisect the Earth from pole to pole, like segments of an orange. Each meridian crosses the equator. The latitude line at the equator forms a circle, and all circles can be divided into 360_. Thus there are 360 lines of longitude bisecting the Earth; each 1_ apart at the equator. There is no natural starting point for lines of longitude, so one was created at Greenwich, England. The meridian running through Greenwich, England is said to be the universal prime meridian or zero point of longitude. From this point, longitude is measured in 1_ increments +180_ to the west and -180_ to the east.

Map Contours
Topographic maps indicate the three dimensional shape of the Earths surface on a flat piece of paper. The most precise method of indicating the shape of the Earths surface along with the elevation of different areas above sea level is by means of contour lines. Contour lines are lines that connect points of equal elevation; similar to bathtub rings that form when a bathtub is emptied.

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The vertical distance between contour lines is a fixed number chosen by the people that make the map. This distance is known as the contour interval and is an even number such as 10, 50, or 100 feet (or meters). Contour lines are generally drawn as black or brown lines on a map. Usually, every 5th contour is printed with heavier print than the others and is labeled with the elevation of the contour above sea level. In addition to contour lines, elevations of single points that have been accurately surveyed to the nearest foot are also shown. These points, called a bench mark or B.M., have been surveyed by a survey crew and are usually set on the Earths surface in the field with an approximately 3 inch diameter brass marker set in concrete. Bench marks are stamped with the date of construction and survey, as well as the elevation of a mark on the brass plate. The following are useful general statements regarding contour lines: When contour lines cross streams, they bend upsection. The line forms a V with the apex pointing upstream. Contours do not cross. Closed contours appearing on a map as circles or ellipses represent hills. Closed contours with hachures (short lines points down slope) represent closed depressions or basins. Closely spaced contours represent steep slopes. Widely spaced contours represent gentle slopes. The difference in elevation between the lowest and highest point of a given area is the maximum relief of that area.

Map Scale The scale of a map indicates the relationship between a linear distance on the map and the corresponding linear distance on the Earths surface. Thus features on a map roads, buildings, etc. are drawn proportionally smaller than they are in reality. There are several ways to state the scale of the map. The first of which is a bar scale. The bar scale is a line marked off at regular intervals, where each interval represents a given length on the Earths surface (ie, one mile). One can use a piece of paper (see graphic below) to measure the distance between two points on the map, and then measure the true distance on the bar scale. Bar scales are unique in that they will remain accurate if the map is enlarged or reduced. Next is a statement of equivalency or verbal scale, in which the scale of the map is stated simply as 1 inch equals 1 mile. Thus, one inch measured between two points on the map is equal to one mile in reality. Finally there is the representative fraction or R. F. scale. For example, a scale shown on a map as 1:62,500 indicates that one unit length on the map represents 62,500 of those same units on the Earths surface. The ratio is called the representative fraction or R. F.

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Topographic Profile A topographic profile shows the intersection of the land surface with a vertical plane. Such views of the land surface can be seen in road-cuts, quarries, and canyon walls. A profile can be constructed from a topographic map along any straight line by the method shown in the figure to the below.

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LAB-9 Geologic map- contour drawing LAB-10 Geologic map- contour drawing, topography. LAB-11 Geologic map- contour drawing, topography, cross sections LAB-12 Geologic map- contour drawing, topography, cross sections, dip and strike

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