ASSIGNMENT NO.

2 ON PHYSICS OF SENSORS

SUBMITTED TO:MR VINOD SIR ROLL NO: ROE208A15 SECTION: C6803 PROGRAM: B.TECH MBA (ECE)

SUBMITTED BY:JITENDER KUMAR

PART A
1. Describe the construction of a electromagnetic velocity sensor and explain its working. In a bike speedometer the wheel diameter is 80cm what is the frequency of velocity sensor, which gives 1 pulse per rotation of wheel at a speed of 80Km/H?

As:

Construction of electromagnetic velocity sensor

In the electromagnetic sensor, there is a cylindrical magnet having south and North Pole. A coil is wound over it. The coils are called induction coil, and in between it is shown a permanent magnet core. Working of velocity sensor In the velocity sensor, both ends of the magnet are inside the coil. With a single coil, this would give a zero output because the voltage generated by one end of the magnet would cancel the voltage generated by the other end. To overcome this limitation, the coil is divided into two sections. The north pole of the magnet induces a current in one coil, and the South Pole induces a current in the other coil (Fig. 8.1). The two coils are connected in a series-opposite direction to obtain an output proportional to the magnets velocity. The maximum detectable velocity depends primarily on the input stages of the interface electronic circuit. The minimum detectable velocity depends on the noise floor and especially of transmitted noise from nearby high-ac-current equipment. Typical specifications of an electromagnetic sensor are given in Table8.1. This design is very similar to a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)position sensor (Section 7.4 of Chapter 7), except that the LVDT is an active sensor with a moving ferromagnetic core, whereas the velocity sensor is a passive device with a moving permanent magnet; that is, this sensor is a current-generating device which does not need an excitation signal. Naturally, linear velocity sensors detect velocity along a distance that is limited by the size of the sensor; therefore, in most cases, these sensors measure vibration velocity. An angular version of the same sensor can measure rotation rate continuously.

Numerical: Diameter of wheel =80 cm, Speed = 80 km/hr , Speed = 22.22 m/s, Velocity = 22.22 m/s Radius = d/2 = 80/2=40X10-2 =0.4 m, Circumference (l) = 2X3.14X0.4=2.512 m Time period= 2.512/22.22=0.133 s Frequency of velocity sensor =1/T=8.85 Hz.

2. Elaborate the various characteristics of a calibrated acceleration sensor. Explain the theory of operation of three different types of accelerometers. An: various characteristics of a calibrated acceleration sensor
1. Sensitivity is the ratio of an electrical output to the mechanical input. It is usually expressed in terms of volts per unit of acceleration under the specified conditions. For instance, the sensitivity may be specified as 1 V/g (unit of acceleration: g =9.80665 m/s2 at sea level, 45 latitude). The sensitivity is typically measured 8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 at a single reference frequency of a sine-wave shape. In the United States, it is 100 Hz, and in most European countries, it is 160 Hz.2 2. Frequency response is the outputs signal over a range of frequencies where the sensor should be operating. It is specified with respect to a reference frequency, which is where the sensitivity is specified. 3. Resonant frequency in an undamped sensor shows as a clearly defined peak that can be 34 dB higher than the response at the reference frequency. In a near critically damped device, the resonant may not be clearly visible; therefore, the phase shift is measured. At the resonant frequency, it is 180 of that at the reference frequency. 4. Zero stimulus output (for capacitive and piezoresistive sensors) is specified for the position of the sensor where its sensitive (active) axis is perpendicular to Earths gravity; that is, in the sensors which have a dc component in the output signal, the gravitational effect should be eliminated before the output, as no mechanical input is determined. 5. Linearity of the accelerometer is specified over the dynamic range of the input signals.

Theory of operation of three different types of accelerometers

Strain Gauge Strain gauge accelerometers, often called "piezoresistive" accelerometers, use strain gauges acting as arms of a Wheatstone bridge to convert mechanical strain to a DC output voltage. The gauges are either mounted to the spring, or between the seismic mass and the stationary frame. In the picture, strain gauge windings, which contribute to the spring action, are stressed (two in tension, two in compression), and a DC output voltage is generated by the four arms of the bridge that is proportional to the applied acceleration. These accelerometers can be made more sensitive with the use of semiconductor gauges and stiffer springs, yielding higher frequency response and output signal amplitude. And unlike other types of accelerometers, strain gauge accelerometers respond to steady-state accelerations. Capacitive A change in acceleration causes a change in the space between the moving and fixed electrodes of a capacitive accelerometer. The moving electrode is typically a diaphragm-supported seismic mass or a flexure-supported, diskshaped seismic mass. The element can act as the capacitor in the LC or RC portion of an oscillator circuit. The resulting output frequency is proportional to the applied acceleration.

Vibrating Element In a vibrating element accelerometer, a very small displacement of the seismic mass varies the tension of a tungsten wire in a permanent magnetic field. A current through the wire in the presence of the magnetic field causes the wire to vibrate at its resonant frequency (like a guitar string). The circuitry then outputs a frequency modulation (deviation from a center frequency) that is proportional to the applied acceleration. Although the precision of such a device is high, it is quite sensitive to temperature variations and is relatively expensive.

3. What is a gyroscope? Explain the construction and working of a mechanical gyroscope. How is a monolithic silicon gyroscope better than the mechanical gyroscope?
As: A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of conservation of angular momentum. A mechanical gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This orientation changes much less in response to a given external torque than it would without the large angular momentum associated with the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform on which it is mounted.

Construction of mechanical gyroscope:Mechanical gyroscope with a single degree of freedom.. A mechanical gyro is comprised of a massive disk free to rotate about a spin axis (Fig.) which itself is confined within a framework that is free to rotate about one or two axes. Hence, depending on the number of rotating axes, gyros can be either of a single-, or two-degree-of-freedom type. The two qualities of a gyro account for it usefulness are as follows: (1) the spin axis of a free gyroscope will remain fixed with respect to space, provided there are no external forces to act upon it and (2) a gyro can be made to deliver a torque (or output signal) which is proportional to the angular velocity about an axis perpendicular to the spin axis.

Working:
When the wheel (rotor) freely rotates, it tends to preserve its axial position. If the gyro platform rotates around the input axis, the gyro will develop a torque around a perpendicular (output) axis, thus turning its spin axis around the output axis. This phenomenon is called the precession of a gyro. It can be explained by Newtons law of motion for rotation: The time rate of change of angular momentum about any given axis is equal to the torque applied about the given axis. That is to say, when a torque T is applied about the input axis, and the speed of the wheel is held constant, the angular momentum of the rotor may be changed only by rotating the projection of the spin axis with respect to the input axis; that is, the rate of rotation of the spin axis About the output axis is proportional to the applied torque T = I Where is the angular velocity about the output axis and I is the inertia of a gyro Wheel about the spin axis. To determine the direction of precession, the following Rule can be used: Precession is always in such a direction as to align the direction of rotation of the wheel with the direction of rotation of the applied torque.

A monolithic silicon gyroscope is better than the mechanical gyroscope in the following ways:1. Conventional spinning rotor gyroscopes contain parts such as gimbals, support bearings, motors, and rotors which need accurate machining and assembly; these aspects of construction prohibit conventional mechanical gyroscopes from ever becoming a low-cost device. 2. The vibrating gyro is much more robust and can withstand the environments typical of many military and aerospace applications.

4.

Describe the construction and working of a piezoelectric cable? Describe five applications of such a cable?

As:

Construction:
A piezoelectric cable consists of a solid insulated copper sheath having a 3-mm outer diameter, piezoelectric ceramic powder, and an inner copper core (Fig. previous slide). The powder is tightly compressed between the outer sheath and the core. Usually, the cable is welded at one end and connected to a 50 extension cable at the other end. Another method of fabrication of the piezoelectric cables is to use a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) polymer film as a component in the cable insulation (Fig. Previous slide). The PVDF can be made piezoelectric, thus giving the cable sensing properties.

For the cable to possess piezoelectric properties, its sensing component (the ceramic powder or polymer film) must be poled during the manufacturing process; that is, the cable is warmed up to near the Curie temperature, and subjected to high voltage to orient ceramic dipoles in the powder or polymer dipoles in the film, then cooled down while the high voltage is maintained.

Working:
When a mechanical force is applied to the cable, the piezoelectric film / Ceramic is stressed, which results in the development of electric charges of the opposite polarities on it surfaces. The inner copper wire and the braided sheath serve as charge pickup electrodes. The sensors are designed to be sensitive primarily to vertical forces.

Five applications of such a cable:

(1) Piezoelectric cable is frequently used to monitor traffic. The cable is buried in the road across the direction of traffic. As a car passes over the cable an electrical signal is generated. (2) Detection of insects in silos. (3) When the cable sensor is installed in the pavement, its response should be calibrated, because the shape of the signal and its amplitude depend not only on the properties of the cable but also on the type of the pavement and sub grade. The electrical output is proportional to the stress imparted to the cable. (4) Piezoelectric cables are used extensively in security systems. If a piezoelectric cable is attached to a perimeter wall it will act as a microphone, generating a signal if someone attempts to gain access. The cable can also be buried underground and will respond to vibrations when walking on or near it.

(5) Due to its coaxial design, the cable is self-shielded, allowing its use in a high EMI environment.

5. What is pressure? How is it measured traditionally? Describe the construction and working of a piezoresistive pressure sensor.
As. Pressure is the force on an object that is spread over a surface area. The equation for pressure is the force divided by the area where the force is applied. Although this measurement is straightforward when a solid is pushing on a solid, the case of a solid pushing on a liquid or gas requires that the fluid be confined in a container. The force can also be created by the weight of an object. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuumwhich is further divided into two subcategories: high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums has an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 1011 mbar.

Construction of piezoresistive pressure sensor:

This type of pressure sensor consists of a micro-machined silicon diaphragm with piezoresistive strain gauges diffused into it, fused to a silicon or glass backplate.

The resistors have a value of approx. 3.5kOhm. Pressure induced strain increases the value of the radial resistors (r), and decreases the value of the resistors (t) transverse to the radius. This resistance change can be high as 30%. The resistors are connected as a Wheatstone Bridge, the output of which is directly proportional to the pressure.

Whetstone Bridge Circuit

Working of Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors:

A Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor contains several thin wafers of silicon embedded between protective surfaces. The surface is usually connected to a Wheatstone bridge, a device for detecting small differences in resistance. The Wheatstone bridge runs a small amount of current through the sensor. When the resistance changes, less current passes through the pressure sensor. The Wheatstone bridge detects this change and reports a change in pressure.

6.

What is light? What is the physical principle of a light sensor?

Ans. Light is a very efficient form of energy for sensing a great variety of stimuli. Among many others, these include distance, motion, temperature, and chemical composition. Light has an electromagnetic nature. It may be considered a propagation of either quanta of energy or electromagnetic waves. Light is defined as the electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 380 and 750 nm which is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation, such as light, is generated by changes in movement (vibration) of electrically charged particles, such as parts of heated molecules, or electrons in atoms(both processes play a role in the glowing filament of incandescent lamps, whereas the latter occurs in fluorescent lamps). Physical principle of a light sensor:

The LSL 100 light sensor is based on a silicon photodiode, the sensitivity of which in the infrared spectral range has been strongly reduced by the use of filters. For this reason, this component is very suitable for the detection of daylight, in particular if the infrared proportion of the spectrum is large e.g. at sunset. This component contains a built-in operational amplifier and can be used in a similar way to a photoresistor.

Principle of Light Sensor Circuit Diagram