Chapter 4

Context-Free Grammars and Languages

Context-Free Languages

{a b : n 0}

n n

{ww }

Regular Languages

a *b *

( a + b) *

Context-Free Languages

{a b }

n n

{ww }

Regular Languages

Context-Free Languages

Context-Free Grammars

Pushdown Automata stack automaton

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Context-Free Grammars

Grammars
Grammars express languages Example: the English language

sentence noun _ phrase noun _ phrase article predicate verb

predicate noun

article a article the noun cat noun dog verb runs verb walks
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Example 1:
A derivation of the dog walks:

sentence noun _ phrase noun _ phrase article the noun noun verb

predicate verb verb

the dog verb the dog walks

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Example 2:
A derivation of a cat runs:

sentence noun _ phrase noun _ phrase article a noun noun verb

predicate verb verb

a cat verb a cat runs

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Language of the grammar: L = { a cat runs, a cat walks, the cat runs, the cat walks, a dog runs, a dog walks, the dog runs, the dog walks }
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Notation
Production Rules

noun cat noun dog

Variable Terminal

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Another Example
Grammar:

S aSb S
ab :

Derivation of sentence

S aSb ab S aSb

S
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Grammar:

S aSb S aabb :

Derivation of sentence

S aSb aaSbb aabb

S aSb

S
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Other derivations:

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaaaSbbbb aaaabbbb

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Language of the grammar

S aSb S
L = {a b : n 0}
n n

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More Notation
Grammar

G = (V , T , S , P )
Set of variables Set of terminal symbols Start variable Set of Production rules
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V: T: S: P:

Example
Grammar

S aSb S

G = (V , T , S , P )
V = {S } T = {a, b}

P = {S aSb, S }
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More Notation
Sentential Form: A sentence that contains variables and terminals Example:

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

Sentential Forms sentence
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We write:

S aaabbb

Instead of:

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

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In general we write:

w1 wn

If:

w1 w2 w3 wn

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By default:

w w

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Example
Grammar

S aSb S

Derivations *

S
* * *

S ab S aabb S aaabbb
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Another Grammar Example Grammar G : S Ab A aAb A

Derivations:

S Ab b S Ab aAbb abb S Ab aAbb aaAbbb aabbb

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A Convenient Notation

A aAb A

A aAb |

article a article the

article a | the
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Definition: Context-Free Grammars

Grammar Variables

G = (V , T , S , P )
Terminal symbols Start variable

Productions of the form: Variable

A x

String of variables and terminals

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Definition: Context-Free Languages

A language

is context-free

if and only if there is a context-free grammar with L = L(G )

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Derivation Order

1. S AB

2. A aaA 3. A
2 3 4

4. B Bb 5. B
5

Leftmost derivation:

S AB aaAB aaB aaBb aab

Rightmost derivation:

S AB ABb Ab aaAb aab

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S aAB A bBb B A|
Leftmost derivation:

S aAB abBbB abAbB abbBbbB abbbbB abbbb

Rightmost derivation:

S aAB aA abBb abAb abbBbb abbbb

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Derivation Trees

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S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB
S A B

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S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB aaAB
S A a a A B

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S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB aaAB aaABb
S A a a A B B
b

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S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb

S A a a A B B
b

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S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb aab

Derivation Tree A a a A B S B
b

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S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB aaAB aaABb aaBb aab

Derivation Tree A a a A B S B
b
yield

aab = aab
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Partial Derivation Trees

S AB

A aaA |

B Bb |

S AB
Partial derivation tree

S B
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S AB aaAB
Partial derivation tree

S B A

A a a

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S AB aaAB
Partial derivation tree

sentential form

S B A
yield

A a a

aaAB
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Sometimes, derivation order doesnt matter

S AB aaAB aaB aaBb aab

Rightmost:

Leftmost:

S AB ABb Ab aaAb aab

Same derivation tree
A
a a
A B

B
b

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Ambiguity

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E E + E | E E | (E) | a
a + aa
E E a
+

E E + E a+ E a+ EE a + a E a + a*a
E

leftmost derivation

E a

E a
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E E + E | E E | (E) | a
a + aa
E EE E + EE a+ EE E a + aE a + aa
leftmost derivation

E E a
+

E a

E a

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E E + E | E E | (E) | a
a + aa
Two derivation trees

E E a
+

E E

E E a E a
+

E a

E a

E a

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The grammar

E E + E | E E | (E) | a is ambiguous:
string

a + a a has two derivation trees

E E
E

E
a

+
E

E
E
a

E
a

E
a

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The grammar

E E + E | E E | (E) | a is ambiguous:
string

a + a a has two leftmost derivations

E E + E a+ E a+ EE a + a E a + a*a E EE E + EE a+ EE a + aE a + aa

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Definition:
A context-free grammar if some string

is ambiguous

w L(G ) has:

two or more derivation trees

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In other words: A context-free grammar if some string

is ambiguous

w L(G ) has:

two or more leftmost derivations (or rightmost)

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Why do we care about ambiguity?

a + aa
E E a
+
take

a=2
E

E a

E a

E a

E a

E a

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2 + 22
E E 2
+

E E

E E 2 E 2
+

E 2

E 2

E 2

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2 + 22 = 6
6 E 2 E 2
+

2 + 22 = 8
8 E

4 E

4 E 2 E 2 2 E 2
+

2 E 2

2 E 2

2 E 2

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Correct result:

2 + 22 = 6
6 E

2 E 2

4 E

2 E 2

2 E 2
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 Ambiguity is bad for programming languages

We want to remove ambiguity

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We fix the ambiguous grammar:

E E + E | E E | (E) | a
New non-ambiguous grammar:

E E +T E T T T F T F F (E) F a

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E E +T T +T F +T a +T a +T F a + F F a + aF a + aa

a + aa
T T F a
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E E +T E T T T F T F F (E) F a

E T F a

F a

Unique derivation tree

E E T F a
+

a + aa
T T F a
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F a

The grammar

G:

E E +T E T T T F T F F (E) F a

is non-ambiguous: Every string w L(G ) has a unique derivation tree

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Another Ambiguous Grammar

IF_STMT

if EXPR then STMT

if EXPR then STMT else STMT

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If expr1 then if expr2 then stmt1 else stmt2

IF_STMT if expr1 if then expr2 STMT then stmt1 else stmt2

IF_STMT if expr1 if then expr2 STMT then else stmt1

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stmt2

APPLICATIONS OF CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMARS

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CFGs and Programming Languages

Important uses of formal languages:
to define precisely a programming language. to construct an efficient translator for it.

RLs are used for simple patterns, while CFLs for more complicated aspects.

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CFGs and Programming Languages S-grammars:

<if-statement> ::= if <expression> <then_clause> <else_clause> <then_clause> ::= then <statement> <else_clause> ::= else <statement>

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