Previous one mark questions and answers:1.

what are the main functions of DBA

authorizing users to access the database coordinating/monitoring its use acquiring hardware/software resources for upgrades

2. what is meant by data independence

Data independence is the capacity to change the schema at one level of the architecture without having to change the schema at the next higher level. We distinguish between logical and physical data independence according to which two adjacent levels are involved. The former refers to the ability to change the conceptual schema without changing the external schema. The latter refers to the ability to change the internal schema without having to change the conceptual. Logical Data Independence: The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change the external schemas and their associated application programs. Physical Data Independence: The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change the conceptual schema.

3. what are advantages of views

views are virtual(not real but in effect) tables or relations which are based on users view of particular data base.

4. what is referential integrity

A foreign key of relation R is a set of its attributes intended to be used (by each tuple in R) for identifying/referring to a tuple in some relation S. (R is called the referencing relation and S the referenced relation.) For this to make sense, the set of attributes of R forming the foreign key should "correspond to" some superkey of S. Indeed, by definition we require this superkey to be the primary key of S.

This constraint says that, for every tuple in R, the tuple in S to which it refers must actually be in S. Note that a foreign key may refer to a tuple in the same relation and that a foreign key may be part of a primary key . A foreign key may have value null in which case it does not refer to any tuple in the referenced relation. A set of attributes FK in relation schema R1 is a foreign key of R1 that references relation R2 if it satisfies following two rules The attributes in FK fave the same domain(s) as the primary key attributes PK of R2;the attributes FK are said to reference or refer to the relation R2 A value of FK in a tuple t1 of the current state r1(R1) either occurs as a value of PK for some tuple t2 in the current state r2(R2) or is null.In the former case ,we have t1[FK]=t2[PK], and we say that the tuple t1 references or refers to the tuple t2.

5. what is meant by multivalued attribute

multivalued attribute is denoted as shown below. this attribute is attribute capable of storing multiple values .For example DeptLocation in which a department can be in many locations so the possible values for a single department is Delhi ,Mumbai ,kolkata.

the other examples are

Consider a PERSON entity. The person it represents has (one) SSN, (one) date of birth, (one, although composite) name, etc. But that person may have zero or more academic degrees, dependents, or (if the person is a male living in Utah) spouses! How can we model this via attributes AcademicDegrees, Dependents, and Spouses? One way is to allow such attributes to be multi-valued , which is to say that we assign to them a (possibly empty) set of values rather than a single value. Representation of relational database's entities, attributes within those entities, and relationships between those entities Represented as DDL or Visually Example: Employee Ename,Eid,sal,bdate,hiredate,sex where primary key is underlined

6. what is relational schema

7. what is DDL
DDL means Data Definition Language Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external schemas (views). DDL commands are CREATE ALTER TRUNCATE

8. what is Cartesian product

This operation is used to combine tuples from two relations in a combinatorial fashion. Denoted by R(A1, A2, . . ., An) x S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm) Result is a relation Q with degree n + m attributes: i. Q(A1, A2, . . ., An, B1, B2, . . ., Bm), in that order. The resulting relation state has one tuple for each combination of tuplesone from R and one from S. Hence, if R has nR tuples (denoted as |R| = nR ), and S has nS tuples, then R x S will have nR * nS tuples. The two operands do NOT have to be type compatible

9. what is integrity constraint

In a tuple, none of the values of the attributes forming the relation's primary key may have the (non-)value null That means no primary key have null values

10.what is meta data

Meta Data means Data about Data InDBMS catalog is used for storing meta data i.e Data about tables,constraints,datatypes of attributes

11.note on update command

The UPDATE command is used to change attribute values in the database.

UPDATE uses the SET clause to overwrite the value. Change the last name of an Employee:

UPDATE employee SET last_name = 'Smith' WHERE employee_id = 'E1001';

Give an Employee a raise:

UPDATE employee SET salary = salary * 1.05 WHERE employee_id = 'E1001'; SYNTAX: update tablename set columnname = newvalue [,columnxname = newvaluex...] where columnname OPERATOR value [and|or columnnamex OPERATOR valuex];

12.what is data model

A data model ---a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the conceptual/logical structure of a database--- provides the necessary means to achieve this abstraction. By structure is meant the data types, relationships, and constraints that should hold for the data. Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals/updates.

13.what is data redundancy

Repeating the same data again and again is nothing but redundancy.Data redundancy (such as tends to occur in the "file processing" approach) leads to wasted storage space, duplication of effort (when multiple copies of a datum need to be updated), and a higher likelihood of the introduction of inconsistency.

14.write about Nave users

Naive/Parametric end users: Typically the biggest group of users; frequently query/update the database using standard canned transactions that have been carefully programmed and tested in advance. Examples: i. bank tellers check account balances, post withdrawals/deposits ii. reservation clerks for airlines, hotels, etc., check availability of seats/rooms and make reservations. iii. shipping clerks (e.g., at UPS) who use buttons, bar code scanners, etc., to update status of in-transit packages.

15.what is an weak entity set

Weak Entity Types: An entity type that has no set of attributes that qualify as a key is called weak. (Ones that do are strong.)

16.write about composite attribute

17.define candidate key

Any key is called as candidate key. usually candidate key is implemented as unique constraint in sql.

18.what is DBMS
Database management system is software of collection of small programs to perform certain operation on data and manage the data. Two basic operations performed by the DBMS are: Management of Data in the Database Management of Users associated with the database.

19.what is Relational algebra

Relational algebra and relational calculus are formal languages associated with the relational model.

Informally,

relational

algebra

is

(high-level)

procedural

language and relational calculus a non-procedural language. Relational algebra operations work on one or more relations to define another relation without changing the original relations.

20.define catalog
system catalog, which contains a description of the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each field, and the various constraints on the data (i.e., conditions that the data must satisfy). The system catalog is used not only by users (e.g., who need to know the names of tables and attributes, and sometimes data type information and other things), but also by the DBMS software, which certainly needs to "know" how the data is structured/organized in order to interpret it in a manner consistent with that structure.

21.define Data Dictionary

Data dictionary / repository: Used to store schema descriptions and other information such as design decisions, application program descriptions, user information, usage standards, contains all information stored in catalog, but accessed by users rather than dbms.

describes the (logical) structure of the whole database for a community of users. Hides physical storage details, concentrating upon describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations, and constraints. Can be described using either highlevel or implementational data model.