TRAFFIC CLEARANCE FOR VIPS VEHICLES WITH DTMF

The main aim of this project is to control the traffic whenever the VIP vehicle will come in that way. The purpose of this project is to overcome the draw backs in the normal traffic controlling system and to design traffic controlling system to enter the password which overcomes the problem of heavy traffic in the cities for VIPs. The main objective of this project is to control the traffic, whenever any time any VIP is coming in that way just they enter the password according to that , in that particular way green light will be ON for clearing the traffic and remaining ways stopped by indicating red light. Whenever enter the password that should be displayed in the LCD. Whenever VIPs entering in that particular way then entered the password for exiting in that way then also they can enter the password. The same procedure will be followed by four sides of the road. The signaling from the four sides will be taken into consideration.

BLOCKDIAGRAM:

POWER SUPPLY
MICRO CONTROLLER DTMF DECODER

LCD

SIGNALLING SYSTEM

MOBILE PHONE

DESCRIPTION:

HARDWARE USED: MICRO CONTROLLER 89C51

INTRODUCTION A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory, various I/O interfaces such as serial port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller, data acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital converter, Digital to Analog converter, integrated on to a single silicon chip. If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go for external memory such as RAM, ROM, EPROM and peripherals. But controller is provided all these facilities on a single chip. Development of a Micro controller reduces PCB size and cost of design. One of the major differences between a Microprocessor and a Micro controller is that a controller often deals with bits not bytes as in the real world application. Intel has introduced a family of Micro controllers called the MCS-51. The Major Features: Compatible with MCS-51 products 4k Bytes of in-system Reprogrammable flash memory Fully static operation: 0HZ to 24MHZ Three level programmable clock 128 * 8 bit timer/counters Six interrupt sources Programmable serial channel Low power idle power-down modes

AT89C51 is 8-bit micro controller, which has 4 KB on chip flash memory, which is just sufficient for our application. The on-chip Flash ROM allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in system or by conventional non-volatile memory Programmer. Moreover ATMEL is the leader in flash technology in todays market place and hence using AT 89C51 is the optimal solution. AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE The 89C51 architecture consists of these specific features: Eight bit CPU with registers A (the accumulator) and B Sixteen-bit program counter (PC) and data pointer (DPTR) Eight- bit stack pointer (PSW) Eight-bit stack pointer (Sp) Internal ROM or EPROM (8751) of 0(8031) to 4K (89C51) Internal RAM of 128 bytes: Thirty two input/output pins arranged as four 8-bit ports:p0-p3 Two 16-bit timer/counters: T0 and T1 Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter: SBUF Control registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP, and IE Two external and three internal interrupts sources. Oscillator and clock circuits.

Fig 3: Functional block diagram of micro controller Types of memory: The 89C51 have three general types of memory. They are on-chip memory, external Code memory and external Ram. On-Chip memory refers to physically existing memory on the micro controller itself. External code memory is the code memory that resides off chip. This is often in the form of an external EPROM. External RAM is the Ram that resides off chip. This often is in the form of standard static RAM or flash RAM. a) Code memory Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 89C51 programs that is to be run. This memory is limited to 64K. Code memory may be found on-chip or off-chip. It is possible to have 4K of code memory on-chip and 60K off chip memory simultaneously. If only off-chip memory is available then there can be 64K of off chip ROM. This is controlled by pin provided as EA. b) Internal RAM

The 89C51 have a bank of 128 of internal RAM. The internal RAM is found onchip. So it is the fastest Ram available. And also it is most flexible in terms of reading and writing. Internal Ram is volatile, so when 89C51 is reset, this memory is cleared. 128 bytes of internal memory are subdivided. The first 32 bytes are divided into 4 register banks. Each bank contains 8 registers. Internal RAM also contains 128 bits, which are addressed from 20h to 2Fh. These bits are bit addressed i.e. each individual bit of a byte can be addressed by the user. They are numbered 00h to 7Fh. The user may make use of these variables with commands such as SETB and CLR. Flash memory is a nonvolatile memory using NOR technology, which allows the user to electrically program and erase information. Flash memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN switches, PC Cards for notebook computers, digital set-up boxes, embedded controllers, and other devices.

Fig 5: - Pin diagram of AT89C51 Pin Description:

VCC: Supply voltage. GND: Ground. Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1sare written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:

Tab 6.2.1 Port pins and their alternate functions RST: Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the micro controller is in external execution mode. PSEN: Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP:

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP. XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. Oscillator Characteristics: XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier, which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figs 6.1 Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 6.2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flipflop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Fig 6.1 Oscillator Connections

Fig 6.2 External Clock Drive Configuration

REGISTERS:

In the CPU, registers are used to store information temporarily. That information could be a byte of data to be processed, or an address pointing to the data to be fetched. The vast majority of 8051 registers are 8bit registers. D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 The most widely used registers of the 8051 are A(accumulator), B, R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, DPTR(data pointer), and PC(program counter). All of the above registers are 8-bits, except DPTR and the program counter. The accumulator, register A, is used for all arithmetic and logic instructions.

SFRs (Special Function Registers)

In the 8051, registers A, B, PSW and DPTR are part of the group of registers commonly referred to as SFR (special function registers). The SFR can be accessed by the names (which is much easier) or by their addresses. For example, register A has address E0h, and register B has been ignited the address F0H, as shown in table. The following two points should note about the SFR addresses. 1. The Special function registers have addresses between 80H and FFH. These addresses are above 80H, since the addresses 00 to 7FH are addresses of RAM memory inside the 8051. 2. Not all the address space of 80H to FFH is used by the SFR. The unused locations 80H to FFH are reserved and must not be used by the 8051 programmer. Symbol ACC B PSW SP DPTR DPL DPH P0 P1 P2 P3 Name Accumulator B register Program status word Stack pointer Data pointer 2 bytes Low byte High byte Port0 Port1 Port2 Port3 Address 0E0H 0F0H 0D0H 81H 82H 83H 80H 90H 0A0H 0B0H

IP IE TMOD TCON T2CON T2MOD TH0 TL0 TH1 TL1 TH2 TL2 RCAP2H RCAP2L SCON SBUF PCON

Interrupt priority control Interrupt enable control Timer/counter mode control Timer/counter control Timer/counter 2 control Timer/counter mode2 control Timer/counter 0high byte Timer/counter 0 low byte Timer/counter 1 high byte Timer/counter 1 low byte Timer/counter 2 high byte Timer/counter 2 low byte T/C 2 capture register high byte T/C 2 capture register low byte Serial control Serial data buffer Power control

0B8H 0A8H 89H 88H 0C8H 0C9H 8CH 8AH 8DH 8BH 0CDH 0CCH 0CBH 0CAH 98H 99H 87H

Table: 8051 Special function register Address A Register (Accumulator):

This is a general-purpose register, which serves for storing intermediate results during operating. A number (an operand) should be added to the accumulator prior to execute an instruction upon it. Once an arithmetical operation is preformed by the ALU, the result is placed into the accumulator

B Register

B register is used during multiply and divide operations which can be performed only upon numbers stored in the A and B registers. All other instructions in the program can use this register as a spare accumulator (A). Registers (R0-R7)

Fig7: Memory organization of RAM This is a common name for the total 8 general purpose registers (R0, R1, R2 ...R7). Even they are not true SFRs, they deserve to be discussed here because of their purpose. The bank is active when the R registers it includes are in use. Similar to the accumulator, they are used for temporary storing variables and intermediate results. Which of the banks will be active depends on two bits included in the PSW Register. These registers are stored in four banks in the scope of RAM. 8051 Register Banks and Stack RAM memory space allocation in the 8051 There are 128 bytes of RAM in the 8051. The 128 bytes of RAM inside the 8051 are assigned addresses 00 to7FH. These 128 bytes are divided into three different groups as follows: 1. A total of 32 bytes from locations 00 to 1FH hex are set aside for register banks and the stack. 2. A total of 16 bytes from locations 20 to 2FH hex are set aside for bitaddressable read/write memory. 3. A total of 80 bytes from locations 30H to 7FH are used for read and write storage, or what is normally called Scratch pad. These 80 locations of RAM

are widely used for the purpose of storing data and parameters nu 8051 programmers. Default register bank Register bank 0; that is, RAM locations 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 are accessed with the names R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7 when programming the 8051.

FIG 8: RAM Allocation in the 8051 PSW Register (Program Status Word)

This is one of the most important SFRs. The Program Status Word (PSW) contains several status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. This register contains: Carry bit, Auxiliary Carry, two register bank select bits, Overflow flag, parity bit, and userdefinable status flag. The ALU automatically changes some of registers bits, which is usually used in regulation of the program performing. P - Parity bit. If a number in accumulator is even then this bit will be automatically set (1), otherwise it will be cleared (0). It is mainly used during data transmission and receiving via serial communication.

OV Overflow occurs when the result of arithmetical operation is greater than 255 (decimal), so that it cannot be stored in one register. In that case, this bit will be set (1). If there is no overflow, this bit will be cleared (0). RS0, RS1 - Register bank select bits. These two bits are used to select one of the four register banks in RAM. By writing zeroes and ones to these bits, a group of registers R0R7 is stored in one of four banks in RAM. RS1 0 0 1 1 RS2 0 1 0 1 Space in RAM Bank0 00h-07h Bank1 08h-0Fh Bank2 10h-17h Bank3 18h-1Fh

F0 - Flag 0. This is a general-purpose bit available to the user. AC - Auxiliary Carry Flag is used for BCD operations only. CY - Carry Flag is the (ninth) auxiliary bit used for all arithmetical operations and shift instructions. DPTR Register (Data Pointer) These registers are not true ones because they do not physically exist. They consist of two separate registers: DPH (Data Pointer High) and (Data Pointer Low). Their 16 bits are used for external memory addressing. They may be handled as a 16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers. Besides, the DPTR Register is usually used for storing data and intermediate results, which have nothing to do with memory locations.

SP Register (Stack Pointer)

The stack is a section of RAM used by the CPU to store information temporily. This information could be data or an address. The CPU needs this storage area since there are only a limited number of registers. How stacks are accessed in the 8051 If the stack is a section of RAM, there must be registers inside the CPU to point to it. The register used to access the stack is called the SP (Stack point) Register. The stack pointer in the 8051 is only 8 bits wide; which means that it can take values of 00 to FFH. When the 8051 is powered up, the SP register contains value 07. This means that RAM location 08 is the first location used for the stack by the 8051. The storing of a CPU register in the stack is called a PUSH, and pulling the contents off the stack back into a CPU register is called a POP. In other words, a register is pushed onto the stack to save it and popped off the stack to retrieve it. The job of the SP is very critical when push and pop actions are performed.

Program counter: The important register in the 8051 is the PC (Program counter). The program counter points to the address of the next instruction to be executed. As the CPU fetches the opcode from the program ROM, the program counter is incremented to point to the next instruction. The program counter in the 8051 is 16bits wide. This means that the 8051 can access program addresses 0000 to FFFFH, a total of 64k bytes of code. However, not all members of the 8051 have the entire 64K bytes of on-chip ROM installed, as we will see soon.

TIMERS
On-chip timing/counting facility has proved the capabilities of the micro controller for implementing the real time application. These includes pulse counting, frequency measurement, pulse width measurement, baud rate generation, etc,. Having sufficient number of timer/counters may be a need in a certain design application. The 8051 has two timers/counters. They can be used either as timers to generate a time delay or as counters to count events happening outside the micro controller. TIMER 0 REGISTERS The 16-bit register of Timer 0 is accessed as low byte and high byte. the low byte register is called TL0(Timer 0 low byte)and the high byte register is referred to as TH0(Timer 0 high byte).These register can be accessed like any other register, such as A,B,R0,R1,R2,etc.

TIMER 1 REGISTERS Timer 1 is also 16-bit register is split into two bytes, referred to as TL1 (Timer 1 low byte) and TH1 (Timer 1 high byte). These registers are accessible n the same way as the register of Timer 0. TMOD (timer mode) REGISTER Both timers 0 and 1 use the same register, called TMOD, to set the various timer operation modes. TMOD is an 8-bit register in which the lower 4 bits are set aside for Timer 0 and the upper 4 bits for Timer 1.in each case; the lower 2 bits are used to set the timer mode and the upper 2 bits to specify the operation.

GATE

Gate control when set. The timer/counter is enabled only while the INTx pin is high and the TRx control pin is set. When cleared, the timer is enabled.

C/T

Timer or counter selected cleared for timer operation (Input from internal system clock).set for counter operation (input TX input pin).

M1 0

M0 0

MODE 0

Operating Mode 13-bit timer mode 8-bit timer/counter THx with TLx as 5-bit prescaler.

16-bit timer mode 16-bit timer/counters THx with TLx are cascaded; there is no prescaler

8-bit auto reload 8-bit auto reload timer/counter;THx Holds a value that is to be reloaded into TLx each time it overflows.

Split timer mode.

C/T (clock/timer): This bit in the TMOD register is used to decide whether the timer is used as a delay generator or an event counter. If C/T=0, it is used as a timer for time delay generation. The clock source for the time delay is the crystal frequency of the 8051.this section is concerned with this choice. The timers use as an event counter is discussed in the next section.

Serial Communication:

Serial data communication uses two methods, asynchronous and synchronous. The synchronous method transfers a block of data at a time, while the asynchronous method transfers a single byte at a time. In data transmission if the data can be transmitted and received, it is a duplex transmission. This is in contrast to simplex transmissions such as with printers, in which the computer only sends data. Duplex transmissions can be half or full duplex, depending on whether or not the data transfer can be simultaneous. If data is transmitted one way at a time, it is referred to as half duplex. If the data can go both ways at the same time, it is full duplex. Of course, full duplex requires two wire conductors for the data lines, one for transmission and one for reception, in order to transfer and receive data simultaneously. Asynchronous serial communication and data framing The data coming in at the receiving end of the data line in a serial data transfer is all 0s and 1s; it is difficult to make sense of the data unless the sender and receiver agree on a set of rules, a protocol, on how the data is packed, how many bits constitute a character, and when the data begins and ends. Start and stop bits Asynchronous serial data communication is widely used for character-oriented transmissions, while block-oriented data transfers use the synchronous method. In the asynchronous method, each character is placed between start and stop bits. This is called framing. In the data framing for asynchronous communications, the data, such as ASCII characters, are packed between a start bit and a stop bit. The start bit is always one bit, but the stop bit can be one or two bits. The start bit is always a 0 (low) and the stop bit (s) is 1 (high). Data transfer rate The rate of data transfer in serial data communication is stated in bps (bits per second). Another widely used terminology for bps is baud rate. However, the baud and bps rates are not necessarily equal. This is due to the fact that baud rate is the modem terminology and is defined as the number of signal changes per second. In modems a single change of signal, sometimes transfers several bits of data. As far as the conductor

wire is concerned, the baud rate and bps are the same, and for this reason we use the bps and baud interchangeably. RS232 Standards To allow compatibility among data communication equipment made by various manufacturers, an interfacing standard called RS232 was set by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960. In 1963 it was modified and called RS232A. RS232B AND RS232C were issued in 1965 and 1969, respectively. Today, RS232 is the most widely used serial I/O interfacing standard. This standard is used in PCs and numerous types of equipment. However, since the standard was set long before the advert of the TTL logic family, its input and output voltage levels are not TTL compatible. In RS232, a 1 is represented by -3 to -25V, while a 0 bit is +3 to +25V, making -3 to +3 undefined. For this reason, to connect any RS232 to a micro controller system we must use voltage converters such as MAX232 to convert the TTL logic levels to the RS232 voltage levels, and vice versa. MAX232 IC chips are commonly referred to as line drivers.

RS232 pins RS232 cable, commonly referred to as the DB-25 connector. In labeling, DB-25P refers to the plug connector (male) and DB-25S is for the socket connector (female). Since not all the pins are used in PC cables, IBM introduced the DB-9 Version of the serial I/O standard, which uses 9 pins only, as shown in table. DB-9 pin connector 12345 6789 Fig 10: DB-9 pin connector (Out of computer and exposed end of cable)

Pin Functions: Pin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Description Data carrier detect (DCD) Received data (RXD) Transmitted data (TXD) Data terminal ready(DTR) Signal ground (GND) Data set ready (DSR) Request to send (RTS) Clear to send (CTS) Ring indicator (RI)

Note: DCD, DSR, RTS and CTS are active low pins. The method used by RS-232 for communication allows for a simple connection of three lines: Tx, Rx, and Ground. The three essential signals for 2-way RS-232 Communications are these: TXD: carries data from DTE to the DCE. RXD: carries data from DCE to the DTE SG: signal ground

8051 connection to RS232

The RS232 standard is not TTL compatible; therefore, it requires a line driver such as the MAX232 chip to convert RS232 voltage levels to TTL levels, and vice versa. The interfacing of 8051 with RS232 connectors via the MAX232 chip is the main topic. The 8051 has two pins that are used specifically for transferring and receiving data serially. These two pins are called TXD and RXD and a part of the port 3 group (P3.0 and P3.1). pin 11 of the 8051 is assigned to TXD and pin 10 is designated as RXD. These pins are TTL compatible; therefore, they require a line driver to make them RS232 compatible. One such line driver is the MAX232 chip. Since the RS232 is not compatible with todays microprocessors and microcontrollers, we need a line driver (voltage converter) to convert the RS232s signals to TTL voltage levels that will be acceptable to the 8051s TXD and RXD pins. One

example of such a converter is MAX232 from Maxim Corp. The MAX232 converts from RS232 voltage levels to TTL voltage levels, and vice versa.

TXD

RXD TXD

2 3 5

Embedded Controller

RXD GND

MAX 232

Fig 11: Interfacing of MAX-232 to controller

INTERRUPTS
A single micro controller can serve several devices. There are two ways to do that: INTERRUPTS or POLLING. INTERRUPTS vs POLLING: The advantage of interrupts is that the micro controller can serve many devices (not all the same time, of course); each device can get the attention of the micro controller based on the priority assigned to it. The polling method cannot assign priority since it checks all devices in round-robin fashion. More importantly, in the interrupt method the micro controller can also ignore (mask) a device request for service. This is again not possible with the polling method. The most important reason that the interrupt method is preferable is that the polling method wastes much of the micro controllers time by polling devices that do not need service. So, in order to avoid tying down the micro controller, interrupts are used.

INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE

For every interrupt, there must be an interrupt service routine (ISR), or interrupt handler. When an interrupt is invoked, the micro controller runs the interrupts service routine. For every interrupt, there is a fixed location in memory that holds the address of its ISR. The group of memory location set aside to hold the addresses of ISRs is called the interrupt vector table. Shown below: Interrupt Vector Table for the 8051: INTERRUPT ROM LOCATION (HEX) Reset External hardware Interrupt 0 Timers 0 interrupt (TF0) External hardware Interrupt 1(INT1) Timers 1 interrupt (TF1) Serial COM (RI and TI) Six Interrupts in the 8051: In reality, only five interrupts are available to the user in the 8051, but many manufacturers data sheets state that there are six interrupts since they include reset .the six interrupts in the 8051 are allocated as above. 1. Reset. When the reset pin is activated, the 8051 jumps to address location 0000.this is the power-up reset. 2. Two interrupts are set aside for the timers: one for Timer 0 and one for Timer 1.Memory location 000BH and 001BH in the interrupt vector table belong to Timer 0 and Timer 1, respectively. 3. Two interrupts are set aside for hardware external harder interrupts. Pin number 12(P3.2) and 13(P3.3) in port 3 is for the external hardware interrupts INT0 and INT1, respectively. These external interrupts are also referred to as EX1 and 001B 0023 Auto Programmer Clears it 0003 000B 0013 P3.3 (13) P3.2 (12) Auto Auto Auto 0000 PIN 9 FLAG CLEARING Auto

EX2.Memory location 0003H and 0013H in the interrupt vector table are assigned to INT0 and INT1, respectively. 4. Serial communication has a single interrupt that belongs to both receive and transmit. The interrupt vector table location 0023H belongs to this interrupt. Interrupt Enable Register D7 EA D6 -D5 ET2 D4 ES D3 ET1 D2 EX1 D1 ET0 D0 EX0

EA

IE.7

disables all interrupts. If EA=0, no interrupts is acknowledged. If EA=1, each interrupt source is individually enabled disabled By setting or clearing its enable bit.

-ET2 only). ES ET1 EX1 ET0 EX0

IE.6

Not implemented, reserved for future use.*

IE.5 Enables or disables Timer 2 overflow or capture interrupt (8052 IE.4 IE.3 IE.2 IE.1 IE.0 Enables or disables the serial ports interrupt. Enables or disables Timers 1 overflow interrupt Enables or disables external interrupt 1. Enables or disables Timer 0 overflow interrupt. Enables or disables external interrupt 0.

DTMF-8870
The following session gives the total description about the DTMF M8870 01 and its interfacing to the controller.

1. General description:
DTMF stands for Dual Tone Multiple Frequency. . It is numbers 0-9 and the * and the # you press on your push-button telephone. This allows us to use mobile phones and house push-button phones to act as remote controls The idea of turning your airconditioner on at home, whilst on the way home from work is only possible with DTMF phone. Every push-button phone and mobile telephone in the world has a DTMF keypad. These telephone DTMF keypads are also fitted to many radios which allow these radios to dial each other up, or into the phone network as they have a DTMF keypad. An interesting fact for scanner users is that a DTMF decoder is available. One Frequency from each the high and low group is assigned to each of the 12 push buttons on your telephone. The four buttons A, B, C & D are not used in telephones, and are found mostly in radios and other devices with DTMF keypads (fig 1).

FIG :31 DTMF keypad The DTMF Matrix, ignoring the last column (A, B, C, and D) bits is a telephone keypad. Every time you press a button on any kind of phone these dual tones (1=697Hz+1209Hz) are both heard by you and sent down the line. A DTMF decoder, of sorts, is in fact part of every telephones circuitry-it needs it, like a decoder, to recognize the tones. The M-8870 is a full DTMF Receiver that integrates both band split filter and decoder functions into a single 18-pin DIP or SOIC package. Manufactured using CMOS process technology, the M-8870 offers low power consumption (35 mW max) and precise data handling. Its filter section uses switched capacitor technology for both the high and low group filters and for dial tone rejection. Its decoder uses digital counting techniques to detect and decode all 16 DTMF tone pairs into a 4-bit code. Minimal external components required include a low-cost 3.579545 MHz color burst crystal, a timing resistor, and a timing capacitor.

3. Functional description:
M-8870 operating functions include a band split filter that separates the high and low tones of the received pair, and a digital decoder that verifies both the frequency and duration of the received tones before passing the resulting 4-bit code to the output bus. 3.1. Filter:

The low and high group tones are separated by applying the dual-tone signal to the inputs of two 6th order switched capacitor band pass filters with bandwidths that correspond to the bands enclosing the low and high group tones. The filter also incorporates notches at 350 and 440 Hz, providing excellent dial tone rejection. Each filter output is followed by a single-order switched capacitor section that smoothes the signals prior to limiting. Signal limiting is performed by high gain comparators provided with hysteresis to prevent detection of unwanted low-level signals and noise. The comparator outputs provide full-rail logic swings at the frequencies of the incoming tones.

3.2. Decoder: The M-8870 decoder uses a digital counting technique to determine the frequencies of the limited tones and to verify that they correspond to standard DTMF frequencies. A complex averaging algorithm is used to protect against tone simulation by extraneous signals (such as voice) while tolerating small frequency variations. The algorithm ensures an optimum combination of immunity to talk off and tolerance to interfering signals (third tones) and noise. When the detector recognizes the simultaneous presence of two valid tones (known as signal condition), it raises the Early Steering flag (ESt). Any subsequent loss of signal condition will cause ESt to fall.
3.3. Steering Circuit:

Before a decoded tone pair is registered, the receiver checks for valid signal duration (referred to as character-recognition-condition). This check is performed by an external RC time constant driven by ESt. A logic high on ESt causes VC to rise as the capacitor discharges. Provided that signal condition is maintained (ESt remains high) for the validation period (tGTF), VC reaches the threshold (VTSt) of the steering logic to register the tone pair, thus latching its corresponding 4-bit code into the output latch (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4). At this point, the GT output is activated and drives VC to VDD. GT continues to drive high as long as ESt remains high. Finally, after a short delay to allow the output latch to settle, the delayed steering output flag (StD) goes high, signaling that a

received tone pair has been registered. The contents of the output latch are made available on the 4-bit output bus by raising the three state control input (OE) to logic high VDD

FIG 32: Basic steering circuit. The steering circuit works in reverse to validate the inter digit pause between signals. Thus, as well as rejecting signals too short to be considered valid, the receiver will tolerate signal interruptions (dropouts) too short to be considered a valid pause. This capability, together with the ability to select the steering time constants externally, allows the designer to tailor performance to meet a wide variety of system requirements.

4. Design considerations:
The design of a DTMF receiving system can generally be broken down into three functional blocks. The first consideration is the interface to the transmission medium. This may be as simple as a few passive components to adequately configure the MT8870s input stage or as complex as some form of demodulation, multiplexing or analog switching system. The second functional block is the DTMF receiver itself. This is where the receiving systems parameters can be optimized for the specific signal conditions delivered from the "front end" interface. The third, and perhaps most widely varying function, is the output control logic. This may be as simple as a

4 to 16 line decoder or a microcontroller, controlling a specific function for each DTMF code, or as complex as a full blown computer handling system protocols and adaptively varying the tone receivers parameters to adjust for changing signal conditions. Several currently applied and conceptually designed applications are described subsequently but first lets consider the design of a ty8051al input stage

FIG 33: Application diagram The input to the DTMF is given to the pin 2 (IN-) from any telephone line as shown in the application diagram figure 4. The DTMF receiver receives the dual tone coming from the telephone line and decodes the signal. The decoded 4 bit word is given to the outputs Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 as shown in the fig 4. The StD pin goes high indicating that the value on the out put pins is updated. The control logic checks continuously for the high pulse on StD pin or develops an interrupt process when there is logic high on the StD pin. The figure 5 shows output logics for the dual frequencies for the corresponding keys.

FIG 34: M8870 output truth table. The proven reliability of DTMF signaling has created a vast spectrum of possible applications. The mother board is provided to develop all these possible applications with DTMF receiver.

FIG 35: Home DTMF remote control system

. One of these applications is the House hold DTMF remote control system. The block

diagram for this system is as shown in the figure 6. Remote ON/OFF control may be given to electric appliances such as a slow cooker, exterior lighting and garage heater

8870 CMOS Integrated DTMF Receiver

Product Description The CAMD CM8870/70C provides full DTMF receiver capability by integrating both the band split filter and digital decoder functions into a single 18-pin DIP, SOIC, or 20-pin PLCC package. The CM8870/70C is manufactured using state-of-the-art CMOS process technology for low power consumption (35mW, max.) and precise data handling. The filter section uses a switched capacitor technique for both high and low group filters and dial tone rejection. TheCM8870/70C decoder uses digital counting techniques for the detection and decoding of all 16 DTMF tone pairs into a4-bit code. This DTMF receiver minimizes external component count by providing an on-chip differential input amplifier, clock generator, and a latched three-state interface bus. The on-chip clock generator requires only a low cost TV crystal or ceramic resonator as an external component. Features Full DTMF receiver Less than 35mW power consumption Industrial temperature range Uses quartz crystal or ceramic resonators Adjustable acquisition and release times 18-pin DIP, 18-pin DIP EIAJ, 18-pin SOIC, 20-pin PLCC

CM8870C

Power down mode

Inhibit mode Buffered OSC3 output (PLCC package only) CM8870C is fully compatible with CM8870 for 18-pin Devices by grounding pins 5 and 6

Functional Description

The CAMD CM8870/70C DTMF Integrated Receiver provides the design engineer with not only low power consumption, but high performance in a small 18-pin DIP, SOIC, or 20-pin PLCC package configuration. The CM8870/70Cs internal architecture consists of a band split filter section which separates the high and low tones of the received pair, followed by a digital decode (counting) section which verifies both the frequency and duration of the received tones before passing the resultant 4-bit code to the output bus.
Input Configuration

The input arrangement of the CM8870/70C provides a differential input operational amplifier as well as a bias source(VREF) which is used to bias the inputs at mid-rail. Provision is made for connection of a feedback resistor to the op-amp output (GS) for adjustment of gain. In a single-ended configuration, the input pins are connected as shown in Figure, with the op-amp connected for unity gain and VREF biasing the input at VDD. Figure 6 shows the differential configuration, which permits the adjustment of gain with the feedback resistor R5.
Clock Circuit

The internal clock circuit is completed with the addition of a standard television color burst crystal or ceramic resonator-having a resonant frequency of 3.579545 MHz. TheCM8870C in a PLCC package has a buffered oscillator output (OSC3) that can be used to drive clock inputs of other devices such as a microprocessor or other CM887Xs as shown in Figure. Multiple CM8870/70Cs can be connected as shown in figure 8 such that only one crystal or resonator is required.

FIG 36: BLOCK DIAGRAM FIG 37: TIMING DIAGRAM

FIG 38: PIN FUNCTION TABLE

FIG 39:PIN DIAGRAMOF 8870:

Applications
PABX Central office Mobile radio Remote control Remote data entry Call limiting Telephone answering systems

Power supply

The power supply are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c mains fluctuations or load variations is known as Regulated D.C Power Supply

For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

Fig 22: Functional Block Diagram of Power supply

Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one electrical circuit to another without change in frequency. Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the

power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Fig 23: An Electrical Transformer

Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS Power Out= Power In

VS X IS=VP X IP Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current

RECTIFIER:
A circuit, which is used to convert a.c to dc, is known as RECTIFIER. The process of conversion a.c to d.c is called rectification TYPES OF RECTIFIERS: Half wave Rectifier Full wave rectifier 1. Center tap full wave rectifier. 2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier. Comparison of rectifier circuits: Type of Rectifier Parameter Number of diodes Half wave Full wave Bridge

1 PIV of diodes Vm D.C output voltage Vdc, at no-load Ripple factor Ripple frequency Rectification efficiency Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF) RMS voltage Vrms Vm/ 0.318Vm 1.21 f 0.406 0.287 Vm/2

2 2Vm 2Vm/ 0.636Vm 0.482 2f 0.812 0.693 Vm/2

3 Vm 2Vm/ 0.636Vm 0.482 2f 0.812 0.812 Vm/2

Full-wave Rectifier:
From the above comparisons we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave bridge rectifier circuit. Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown in fig(a) to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Fig(24.A):

Operation:
During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward biased while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current flow direction is shown in the fig (b) with dotted arrows.

Fig(24.B) During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The current flow direction is shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.

Fig(24.C)

Filter:
A Filter is a device, which removes the a.c component of rectifier output but allows the d.c component to reach the load.

Capacitor Filter:
We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave rectifier is 121% or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48% such high percentages of ripples is not acceptable for most of the applications. Ripples can be removed by one of the following methods of filtering: (a) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by pass for the ripples voltage though it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the d.c.to appears the load. (b) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current (due to high impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the d.c (due to low resistance to d.c) (c) various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter section

filter, multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties mentioned in (a) and (b) above. Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half wave rectifier and another with full wave rectifier. Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value). To calculate the value of capacitor(C), C = *3*f*r*Rl Where, f = supply frequency, r = ripple factor,

Rl = load resistance Note: In our circuit we are using 1000microfarads.

Regulator:
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.

Fig 25: A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator 78XX:

The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals. The LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor combination replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an effective output impedance improvement of two orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current. The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263packages,

Features:
Output Current of 1.5A Output Voltage Tolerance of 5% Internal thermal overload protection Internal Short-Circuit Limited No External Component Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263 Direct Replacement for LM78XX

Liquid crystal display

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials, which combine the properties of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal. An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle. One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular direction. When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent. When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating/ highlighting the desired characters.

The LCDs are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the LCDs consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long durations. The LCDs dont generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCDs have long life and a wide operating temperature range. Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes the LCDs more customers friendly. The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications. This section describes the operation modes of LCDs then describe how to program and interface an LCD to 8051 using Assembly and C.

LCD operation
In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs(seven-segment LEDs or other multisegment LEDs).This is due to the following reasons: 1. 2. 3. The declining prices of LCDs. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contract to LEDs, which are limited to numbers and a few characters. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, there by relieving the CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD. In the contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the data. 4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

LCD pin description

The LCD discussed in this section has 14 pins. The function of each pins is given in table.

TABLE 1:Pin description for LCD: Pin

1 2 3 4

symbol
Vss Vcc VEE RS

I/O
---I

Description
Ground +5V power supply Power supply to control contrast RS=0 to select command register RS=1 to select data register R/W=0 for write R/W=1 for read Enable The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus The 8-bit data bus

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

R/W E DB0 DB1 DB2 DB3 DB4 DB5 DB6 DB7

I I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O

TABLE 2: LCD Command Codes Code Command to LCD Instruction (hex)

1 2 4 6 5 7 8 A C

Register
Clear display screen Return home Decrement cursor Increment cursor Shift display right Shift display left Display off, cursor off Display off, cursor on Display on, cursor off

E F 10 14 18 1C 80 C0 38

Display on, cursor on Display on, cursor blinking Shift cursor position to left Shift cursor position to right Shift the entire display to the left Shift the entire display to the right Force cursor to beginning of 1st line Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line 2 lines and 5x7 matrix

Uses:
The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications.

LCD INTERFACING

Sending commands and data to LCDs with a time delay:

Fig 21: Interfacing of LCD to a micro controller

To send any command from table 2 to the LCD, make pin RS=0. for data, make RS=1.Then send a high to-low pulse to the E pin to enable the internal latch of the LCD.

IGNITION SWITCH
The term ignition switch is often used interchangeably to refer to two very different parts: the lock cylinder into which the key is inserted, and the electronic switch that sits just behind the lock cylinder. In some cars, these two parts are combined into one unit, but in other cars they remain separate. It is advisable to check your car's shop manual before attempting to purchase an ignition switch, to ensure that you buy the correct part. In order to start a car, the engine must be turning. Therefore, in the days before ignition switches, car engines had to be turned with a crank on the front of the car in order to start them. The starter performs this same operation by turning the engine's flywheel, a large, flat disc with teeth on the outer edge. The starter has a gear that engages these teeth when it is powered, rapidly and briefly turning the flywheel, and thus the engine.

The ignition switch generally has four positions: off, accessories, on, and start. Some cars have two off positions, off and lock; one turns off the car, and the other allows the key to be removed from the ignition. When the key is turned to the accessories position, certain accessories, such as the radio, are powered; however, accessories that use too much battery power, such as window motors, remain off in order to prevent the car's battery from being drained. The accessories position uses the least amount of battery power when the engine is not running, which is why drive-in movie theaters recommend that the car be left in the accessories mode during the movie. The on position turns on all of the car's systems, including systems such as the fuel pump, because this is the position the ignition switch remains in while the car's engine is running. The start position is spring loaded so that the ignition switch will not remain there when the key is released. When the key is inserted into the ignition switch lock cylinder and turned to the start position, the starter engages; when the key is released, it returns to the on position, cutting power to the starter. This is because the engine runs at speeds that the starter cannot match, meaning that the starter gear must be retracted once the engine is running on its own. Either the ignition switch or the lock cylinder may fail in a car, but both circumstances have very different symptoms. When the ignition switch fails, generally the electrical wiring or the plastic housing develops problems. The car may not turn on and/or start when this happens. Also, the spring-loaded start position could malfunction, in which case the starter will not engage unless the key is manually turned back to the on position. When the lock cylinder malfunctions, however, the operation of the key itself will become problematic. If the tumblers become stripped, the lock cylinder may be able to turn with any key, or you may be able to remove the key when the car is on. If the tumblers begin to shift, the lock cylinder may not turn. Sometimes the key can be wiggled until the lock cylinder turns, but it is important to remember that this is only a temporary fix

MAX-232:
The MAX232 from Maxim was the first IC which in one package contains the necessary drivers (two) and receivers (also two), to adapt the RS-232 signal voltage levels to TTL logic. It became popular, because it just needs one voltage (+5V) and generates the necessary RS-232 voltage levels (approx. -10V and +10V) internally. This greatly simplified the design of circuitry. Circuitry designers no longer need to design and build a power supply with three voltages (e.g. -12V, +5V, and +12V), but could just provide one +5V power supply, e.g. with the help of a simple 78x05 voltage converter. The MAX232 has a successor, the MAX232A. The ICs are almost identical, however, the MAX232A is much more often used (and easier to get) than the original MAX232, and the MAX232A only needs external capacitors 1/10th the capacity of what the original MAX232 needs.

It should be noted that the MAX 232(A) is just a driver/receiver. It does not generate the necessary RS-232 sequence of marks and spaces with the right timing, it does not decode the RS-232 signal, it does not provide a serial/parallel conversion. All it does is to convert signal voltage levels. Generating serial data with the right timing and decoding serial data has to be done by additional circuitry, e.g. by a 16550 UART or one of these small micro controllers (e.g. Atmel AVR, Microchip PIC) getting more and more popular. The MAX232 and MAX232A were once rather expensive ICs, but today they are cheap. It has also helped that many companies now produce clones (ie. Sipex). These clones sometimes need different external circuitry, e.g. the capacities of the external capacitors vary. It is recommended to check the data sheet of the particular manufacturer of an IC instead of relying on Maxim's original data sheet. The original manufacturer (and now some clone manufacturers, too) offers a large series of similar ICs, with different numbers of receivers and drivers, voltages, built-in or external capacitors, etc. E.g. The MAX232 and MAX232A need external capacitors for the internal voltage pump, while the MAX233 has these capacitors built-in. The MAX233 is also between three and ten times more expensive in electronic shops than the MAX232A because of its internal capacitors. It is also more difficult to get the MAX233 than the garden variety MAX232A. A Typical Application The MAX 232(A) has two receivers (converts from RS-232 to TTL voltage levels) and two drivers (converts from TTL logic to RS-232 voltage levels). This means only two of the RS-232 signals can be converted in each direction. The old MC1488/1498 combo provided four drivers and receivers. Typically a pair of a driver/receiver of the MAX232 is used for

TX and RX

And the second one for

CTS and RTS.

There are not enough drivers/receivers in the MAX232 to also connect the DTR, DSR, and DCD signals. Usually these signals can be omitted when e.g. communicating with a PC's serial interface. If the DTE really requires these signals either a second MAX232 is needed, or some other IC from the MAX232 family can be used (if it can be found in consumer electronic shops at all). An alternative for DTR/DSR is also given below. Maxim's data sheet explains the MAX232 family in great detail, including the pin configuration and how to connect such an IC to external circuitry. This information can be used as-is in own design to get a working RS-232 interface. Maxim's data just misses one critical piece of information: How exactly to connect the RS-232 signals to the IC. So here is one possible example:

MAX232 to RS232 DB9 Connection as a DCE MAX232 Pin Nbr. MAX232 Pin Name Signal Voltage DB9 Pin 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 T2out R2in R2out T2in T1in R1out R1in T1out GND CTS RTS RTS CTS TX RX TX RX GND RS-232 7 RS-232 8 TTL TTL TTL TTL n/a n/a n/a n/a

RS-232 3 RS-232 2 0 5

In addition one can directly wire DTR (DB9 pin 4) to DSR (DB9 pin 6) without going through any circuitry. This gives automatic (brain dead) DSR acknowledgment of an incoming DTR signal. Sometimes pin 6 of the MAX232 is hard wired to DCD (DB9 pin 1). This is not recommended. Pin 6 is the raw output of the voltage pump and inverter for the -10V voltage. Drawing currents from the pin leads to a rapid breakdown of the voltage, and as a consequence to a breakdown of the output voltage of the two RS-232 drivers. It is better to use software which doesn't care about DCD, but does hardware-handshaking via CTS/RTS only. The circuitry is completed by connecting five capacitors to the IC as it follows. The MAX232 needs 1.0F capacitors, the MAX232A needs 0.1F capacitors. MAX232 clones show similar differences. It is recommended to consult the corresponding data sheet. At least 16V capacitor types should be used. If electrolytic or tantalic capacitors are used, the polarity has to be observed. The first pin as listed in the following table is always where the plus pole of the capacitor should be connected to. MAX232(A) external Capacitors Capacitor + Pin - Pin Remark C1 C2 1 4 3 5

C3 C4 C5

16 This looks non-intuitive, but because pin 6 is on -10V, GND gets the + connector, and not the -

GND 6 16 GND

The 5V power supply is connected to

+5V: Pin 16 GND: Pin 15

Features

Meet or Exceed TIA/EIA-232-F and ITU Recommendation V.28 Operate With Single 5-V Power Supply Operate Up to 120 kbit/s Two Drivers and Two Receivers 30-V Input Levels

Low Supply Current . . . 8 mA Typical Designed to be Interchangeable With Maxim MAX232 ESD Protection Exceeds JESD 22 2000-V Human-Body Model (A114-A)

Applications TIA/EIA-232-F Battery-Powered Systems Terminals Modems Computers

Description/ordering information
The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver that includes a capacitive voltage generator to supply EIA232 voltage levels from a single 5-V supply. Each receiver converts EIA-232 inputs to 5-V TTL/CMOS levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V, and can accept 30-V inputs. Each driver converts TTL/CMOS input levels into EIA-232 levels. The driver, receiver, and voltage-generator functions are available as cells in the Texas Instruments Lin ASIClibrary.

LIGHT EMITING DIODES

It is a semiconductor diode having radioactive recombination. It requires a definite amount of energy to generate an electron-hole pair. The same energy is released when an electron recombines with a hole. This released energy may result in the emission of photon and such a recombination. Hear the amount of energy released when the electro reverts from the conduction band to the valence band appears in the form of radiation. Alternatively the released energy may result in a series of phonons causing lattice vibration. Finally the released energy may be transferred to

another electron. The recombination radiation may be lie in the infra-red and visible light spectrum. In forward is peaked around the band gap energy and the phenomenon is called injection luminescence. I n a junction biased in the avalanche break down region , there results a spectrum of photons carrying much higher energies . Almost White light then gets emitted from micro-plasma breakdown region in silicon junction. Diodes having radioactive recombination are termed as Light Emitting Diode, abbreviated as LEDs. In gallium arsenide diode, recombination is predominantly a radiation recombination and the probability of this radio active recombination far exceeds that in either germanium or silicon . Hence Ga As LED has much higher efficiency in terms of Photons emitted per carrier. The internal efficiency of Ga As LED may be very close to 100% but because of high index of refraction, only a small fraction of the internal radiation can usually come out of the device surface. In spite of this low efficiency of actually radiated light , these LEDs are efficiency used as light emitters in visual display units and in optically coupled circuits, The efficiency of light generation increases with the increase of injected current and with decreases in temperature. The light so generated is concentrated near the junction since most of the charge carriers are obtained within one diffusion length of the diode junction.

The following are the merits of LEDs over conventional incandescent and other types of lamps 1. Low working voltages and currents 2. Less power consumption 3. Very fast action 4. Emission of monochromatic light 5. small size and weight 6. No effect of mechanical vibrations 7. Extremely long life Typical LED uses a forward voltage of about 2V and current of 5 to 10mA.

GaAs LED produces infra-red light while red, green and orange lights are produced by gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAs) and gallium phosphide(Gap) . Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Example:
Function

Circuit symbol:

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not official identification method). an

LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

Colors of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard(type)ortransparent.

Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on. The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give the third colour.

Bi-color LEDs

A bi- colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.

Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The 'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type for general use, but 3mm round LEDs are also popular. Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes. Other crosssection shapes include square, rectangular and triangular. As well as a variety of colors, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle. This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60 but others have a narrow beam of 30 or less. Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good guide to the range available.

Calculating an LED resistor value An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.

The resistor value, R is given by

R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs) I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright. Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where: V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case) I = the current through the resistor So R = (VS - VL) / I

Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED. All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL.

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually.

RESULT:
By implementing this project we can overcome the problem of heavy traffic in the cities when the VIPs are arriving at the signals.