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CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction Floods are among the most devastating natural disasters in the world, claiming more lives and causing more damage to property than any other natural phenomena. In Nigeria, though not leading in terms of claiming lives, flood affects and displaces more people than any other disaster; it also causes more damage to properties. At least 20 per cent of the population is at risk from one form of flooding or another.In Nigeria, flood disaster has been perilous to people, communities and institutions. Over the past one month, the country has faced an unprecedented flood disaster resulting in loss of lives and property running into billions of naira. Several states were affected, Kwara inclusive, chasing the inhabitants away from their homes. It has shattered both the builtenvironment and undeveloped plan. It has claimed many lives, and millions of properties got lost due to its occurrences.One prominent feature about it is that flooding does not discriminate, but marginalises whosoever refuses to prepare for its occurrence Floods usually occur in low lying areas when there are abnormal rainfall hours and intensity filling river basins with too much water, within a short time. Water runs off steeper ground very rapidly, causing natural drainage systems to overflow with rushing flood waters and a deadly cargo of rocks, mud, smashed trees and other debris. Mudslides are also a danger created by flood conditions. Some floods develop over a period of days, but flash floods can result in raging waters in just a few minutes. Flooding along rivers is a natural and inevitable part of life.This makes it a natural event. At times man also

causes flood by blocking the drainages and when water can not find it path, it overflows the land and thereby it is called flood. At times floods are caused by collapse of dams. In Nigeria, Floods are the most common and widespread of all natural hazards. Even the northern parts of the country that have less rainfall are also prone to annual flood. At times even very small streams, gullies, creeks, culverts, dry streambeds, or low-lying ground that may appear harmless in dry weather can flood. Wherever you live, be aware of potential flooding hazards. Flood alone is a hazard but when it affects man and his property or activities we call it disaster. Flood is a disaster because it results in: Loss of lives, Loss of agricultural products, Loss of soil fertility for agriculture, Demolition of buildings and rendering many homeless, Destroying livestock and other valuable assets. Cholera and other health related problems. 1.2 Conceptual Definition A flood is an overflow of water that submerges or "drowns" landThe European Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries,[3] or may be due to accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is unlikely to be considered significant unless it floods property or drowns domestic animals.

Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry.Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods, can develop in just a few minutes and without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighbourhood or community, or very large, affecting entire river basins. 1.3 Etymology The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float; also compare with Latin fluctus, flumen). Deluge myths are mythical stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution, and they are featured in the mythology of many cultures.

CHAPTER TWO 2.1 Principal types 2.1.1 Areal (rainfall related) Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when the ground is saturated and water either cannot run off, or cannot run off quickly enough to stop accumulating. This may be followed by a river flood as water moves away from the floodplain into local rivers and streams.Floods can also occur if water falls on an impermeable surface, such as concrete or paving, and cannot rapidly dissipate into the ground. Localised heavy rain from a series of storms moving over the same area can cause areal flash flooding when the rate of rainfall exceeds the drainage capacity of the area. When this occurs on tilled fields,it can result in a muddy flood where sediments are picked up by run off and carried as suspended matter or bed load. 2.1.2 Riverine River flows may rise to floods levels at different rates, from a few minutes to several weeks, depending on the type of river and the source of the increased flow.Slow rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in flow may be the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, or tropical cyclones. Localised flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, or debris.

Rapid flooding events, including flash floods, more often occur on smaller rivers, rivers with steep valleys or rivers that flow for much of their length over impermeable terrain. The cause may be localised convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. Dambuilding beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, occasionally causing some damage. 2.1.3 Estuarine and coastal Flooding in estuaries is commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by winds and low barometric pressure, and they may be exacerbated by high upstream river flow.Coastal areas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping defences or in severe cases by tsunami or tropical cyclones. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category. 2.1.4 Catastrophic Claustrophobic flooding is usually associated with major infrastructure failures such as the collapse of a dam, but they may also be caused by damage sustained in an earthquake or volcanic eruption..

2.2 Causes of Flooding In Eastern Nigeria Floods are caused by many factors: Heavy rainfall, highly accelerated snowmelt, severe winds over water, unusual high tide, tsunamis, or failure of dams, levees, retention ponds, or other structures that retained the water. Flooding can be exacerbated by increased amounts of impervious surface or by other natural hazards such as wildfires, which reduce the supply of vegetation that can absorb rainfall (Welch et al., 1977) 2.2.1 Severe winds over water: Even when rainfall is relatively light, the shoreline of lakes and bays can be flooded by severe winds such as during hurricanes that blow water into the shore areas. 2.2.2 Unusual high tides: Coastal areas are sometimes flooded by unusually high tides, such as spring tides, especially when

compounded by high winds and storm surges.. 2.2.3 Climate change: Climate Change is an attributed cause of flooding because when the climate is warmer it results to: Heavy rains Relative sea level will continue to rise around most shoreline Extreme sea levels will be experienced more frequently Climate change is therefore likely to increase flood risk

significantly and progressively over time. A particularly increased risk

will be low-lying coastal areas, as sea levels rise and areas not currently prone to fluvial or tidal flooding as more intense rainfall leads to significantly higher risk of flooding from surface runoff and overwhelmed drainage systems. Flaring and venting of natural gas from oil and gas wells contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year and now accounts for 0.5% of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. Recently, under the Kyoto Protocol, garbage collecting companies in some developing nations have received a carbon bonus for installing combustion devices for the methane gas produced at their landfills, preventing methane from reaching the atmosphere. After the burning, this gas is converted to heat, water and CO2 and according to the IPCC Third The

greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases create a condition in the upper atmosphere causing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxide emissions from combustion of fossil fuels are a source of greenhouse gas emissions. Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydro fluorocarbons, per fluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides and ozone. This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century and technological advancements during

this period have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to the phenomenon. 2.2.4 Influence of urban planning: Adelye and Rustum (2011) analyze the cause of the flooding problems in encountered to recommend sustainable management solutions to them. Data on climate, drainage infrastructures and physical planning regulations were collected and extensively analyzed. These were combined with evidence from field inspection and discussion with stakeholders, including relevant government departments, university researchers and selected resident. The investigation revealed that, contrary to popular wisdom, climate change or unusually high rainfall is not the primary cause of flooding problem in Lagos. Rather, the increased urbanization, lax planning laws in relation to the city are to blame. It is augured that a lasting solution to flooding problems will require the incorporation of sustainable drainage system within the existing flood management strategy for the city and planning for this must start now.

CHAPTER THREE 3.1 Effects of Flooding 3.1.1 Primary effects The primary effects of flooding include loss of life, damage to buildings and other structures, including bridges, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals. Infrastructure damage also frequently damages power transmission and sometimes power generation, which then has knock-on effects caused by the loss of power. This includes loss of drinking water treatment and water supply, which may result in loss of drinking water or severe water contamination. It may also cause the loss of sewage disposal facilities. Lack of clean water combined with human sewage in the flood waters raises the risk of waterborne diseases, which can include typhoid, giardia, cryptosporidium, cholera and many other diseases depending upon the location of the flood.Damage to roads and transport infrastructure may make it difficult to mobilise aid to those affected or to provide emergency health treatment. Flood waters typically inundate farm land, making the land unworkable and preventing crops from being planted or harvested, which can lead to shortages of food both for humans and farm animals. Entire harvests for a country can be lost in extreme flood circumstances. Some tree species may not survive prolonged flooding of their root systems

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3.1.2 Secondary Effects This includes Water supplies that results in contamination of water (water pollution). Clean drinking water becomes scarce.

Unhygienic conditions and Spread of water-borne diseases result. The effects of flooding from the sources outlined above are felt by various 'receptors'. These include, people, buildings, infrastructure, agriculture, open recreational space and the natural world. In extreme cases flooding may cause a loss of life. At least 102 people are now thought to have been killed by floods in and around the south-eastern Nigeriam, Floods took a deadly toll in northeastern Nigeria in August 2012. Torrential rains pushed rivers over their banks, collapsed mud houses and washed away livestock. Floodwater, resulting from heavy rains, damaged three bridges and caused a dam to overflow, submerging buildings across the city. Most of the victims were children. The social and emotional costs from flooding can also be significant and are often widespread and indiscriminate in flooded areas. These costs include: displacement from homes, the loss of personal valuables and the ongoing fear and insecurity caused by the experience. Potable water supplies may be lost or contaminated in a flood and this can have immediate health effects upon people and animals. The economy can also be severely affected by flooding. Businesses may lose stock, patronage, data and productivity and disruption to

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utilities and transport infrastructure can have knock-on effects to a wider area. Tourism, farming and livestock can equally be affected. The built environment may be damaged or destroyed as a result of flooding with high repair costs and long periods required for reinstatement. The public realm is often badly affected through damage and the deposit of potentially large quantities of debris. Land contamination may also be transported and spread during flooding. Vital infrastructure may also be damaged or disrupted. Electricity and gas supplies can be interrupted to individual properties but also to wider communities if sub stations and transformers themselves are flooded. Road links, railways, canals etc., may be blocked causing disruption to the wider transport network and accessibility severely disrupted for local inhabitants, especially amongst those considered most vulnerable. A knock-on effect of the loss of electricity as a result of floods was the loss of communications networks. Telephones, radios, televisions and the internet are all increasingly reliant upon mains power and without a robust means of conveying information to householders, rescue and clean up operations may be hampered. 3.2 Solutions to the Problems of Flooding in Eastern Nigeria Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of food waters. Some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These methods include: Planting vegetation to retain extra water Terracing hillsides to slow flow down hills Construction of flood ways (man-made channels to divert floodwater)

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Other techniques include the construction of levees, dikes, dams, reservoirs or retention ponds to hold extra water during times of flooding 3.3 Methods of Control 3.3.1 Dams: Many dams and their associated reservoirs aredesigned completely or partially o aid in flood protection and control. 3.3.2 River defenses: In many countries, rivers prone to flood are often carefully managed. Defenses as levees, bunds, reservoirs and weirs are used to prevent rivers from overflowing their banks. When these defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. A weir, also known as low head dam, is most often used o creates millponds, but on the Humber River in Toronto, a weir was built near Raymore Drive to prevent a reoccurrence of flood damage caused by Huricane Hazel (1954). 3.3.3 Coastal defenses: Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defense, such as sea walls, beach nourishment and barrier islands. Tide gates are used in conjunction with dykes and culvers. They can be placed at the mouth of streams or small rivers, where an estuary begins or where tributary streams, or drainage ditches connect to sloughs. Tide gates close during incoming tides to prevent tidal waters from moving upland and open during outgoing tides to allow waters to drain or via the culvert and into the estuary side of the dike. The opening and closing of the gates is driven by a difference in water level on either side of the gate. 3.3.4 Flood Forecasting and Warning: Flood warning is the provision of advance warning of conditions that are likely to cause flooding to property and a potential risk to

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life. The main purpose of flood warning is to save life by allowing people, support and emergency services time to prepare for flooding. The secondary purpose is to reduce the effects and damage of flooding. The benefits associated with flood forecasting and warning are inextricably linked with the effectiveness of the warning dissemination programmes and the activities of the public and supporting agencies (both voluntary and official) in their response. The total benefits can be defined as the reduction in losses (tangible and intangible) resulting from the provision of a warning when compared to the situation prior to the operation of the warning system. Flood warning systems can provide a reduction in direct losses through: The timely operation of flood control structures (e.g., gates) Temporary flood defenses) preventing inundation of property and land Pre-event maintenance operations to ensure free channel conveyance The installation of flood resilience measures (e.g., sandbags, property flood barriers) The removal of property to somewhere above the flood level or out of the flood plain Intangible losses include loss of life and injury and the damage caused to human health and long-term wellbeing.

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CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 Recommendation In order to effecting combat the problems of flooding in eastern Nigeria the following recommendations are made; Proper channelization of rivers (Asa and Aluko) as well as adequate numbers of flood detention basins, between the two dams and the flood liable areas, should be constructed to divert flow of rivers from the flood liable areas. All others things being equal, a well planned drainage system should be constructed and proper means of solid wastes disposal be provided in these study areas. Embankment should be constructed to raise the bank of Asa and Aluko River to disallow them from overtopping their natural bank. Using water resistant cement like hydrophobic cement for plastering buildings up to the design flood level of Ilorin metropolis, which is 0.2m above sea level. This method is suitable for already existing buildings.

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Building on columns: Elevating structures above the design flood level of Ilorin metropolis on reinforced concrete supporting columns to protect the buildings from under flow water 4.2 Conclusion climate change as well as lack of planning is responsible for the recent flooding in parts of the country.There have been incidents of ravaging flood, collapsed buildings and security challenges in many quarters.Our towns and cities are not performing efficiently like their counterparts in many other countries due to attendant infrastructure and service deficiencies, poor urban mobility, increasing unemployment, chaotic housing shortages, among others. The problem is compounded by the problem of rapid urbanisation currently estimated at between three and five per cent per annum, a rate that is higher than the natural annual population growth rate of 2.7 per cent. It is estimated that no less than 46 per cent of the current national population of 167 million reside in towns and cities.

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REFERENCES Abowei, J.F.N. and F.D. Sikoki, 2005. Water Pollution Management and Control, Double Trust Publications Co., Port Harcourt, pp: 236. Adelye, A. and R. Rustum, 2011. Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and influence of urban planning. J. Urban Design and Planning (ICE), 164(3): 175-187. ISSN: 17550793, E-ISSN: 1755-0807. Bradshaw, C.J., N.S. Sodhi, S.H. Peh and B.W. Brook, 2007. Global evidence that deforestation amplifies flood risk and severity in the developing. Also a flood has recently hit Pakistan which is said to be more devastating than the Tsunami of 2005 world.Global Change Biol., 13: 2379-2395. Dance, K.W. and H.R.N. Hynes, 1980. Some effects of agricultural land use on stream insect communities. Environ. Pollut. (Series A), 22: 14-28. David, R.L., L.P. David and W.E. Kenneth, 1981. Variable effects of sediment addition on stream benthos. Hydrobiologia, 79: 187-194. Esu, I.E., 1999: Fundamentals oF Redology Sterling- Hordon Publishers (Nig.) Ltd., University of Ibadan, Nigeria, pp: 54. George, A.D.I., J.F.N. Abowei and M.E. Allison, 2010. The Sediment characteristics of okpoka creek, Niger delta, Nigeria. Asian J. Agric. Sci., 2(1): 9-14. Henry, P., 2006. Levees and other raised ground. Am. Sci., 94(1): 7-11. Hill, A.R., 1976. The environmental impacts of agricultural land drainage. J. Environ. Mgmt., 4: 251-274. Ikomi, R.B., F.O. Arimoro and O.K. Odihirin, 2005. Composition, distribution and abundance of macroinvertebrates of the upper reaches of river ethiope, Delta State, Nigeria. Zoologist, 3: 68-81.

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Mclusky, D.S. and M. Eliot, 1981. The Feeding and Survival Strategies on Estuarina Mollusks. In: Jones, N.V. and W.F. Wolff, (Eds.), Feeding and Survial Strategies of Estuarine Organisms Marine Science. Plenum Press, New York and London, 15:109-121.
Thompson, M.T., 1964. Historical Floods in New England. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 1779-M, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.United States Environmental Protection Agency

Welch, H.E., P.E.K. Symons and D.W. Narver, 1977. Some Effects of Potato Farming and Forest Clear Cutting on New Brunswick Streams,Fisheries and Marine Service. Environ. Can. Technical ReportNo. 745, St. Andrews New Brunswick