Professional Documents
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h =1
I
2
h
I
1
=
1.0
2
+0.7
2
+0.60
2
+0.59
2
+0.41
2
+0.20
2
1.30
= 1.19.
This THD
I
= 119%is considered very high. Amildly distorted current wave
has THD
I
< 10%; a waveform with THD
I
= 40% would be considered very
distorted. In practice, current distortions as high as 140% can be encountered
(9).
The voltage wave distortion is quantied in the same way:
THD
V
=
_
h =1
V
2
h
V
1
.
Normally, the voltage distortion is maintained at under 5% (8); however, there
have been reports (9, 10) of exceptional situations with THD
V
at the end user
as high as 10%.
Electrical equipment that causes current distortion has a nonlinear volt-
age/current characteristic, i.e. a sinusoidal voltage produces a nonsinusoidal
current. For this reason, such electrical loads are called nonlinear loads. These
nonlinear loads fall into three basic groups:
1. Rectiers. This category includes battery chargers, electroplating systems,
ASDs, electronic ballasts, PCs, televisions, and some traction equipment.
2. Ferromagnetic equipment. This category includes transformers and induc-
tors with magnetic cores. The relation between current and the resulting
magnetic ux is characterized by a hysteresis loop, as shown in Figure 4a.
For a sinusoidal voltage that produces a sinusoidal ux, the magnetizing cur-
rent is nonsinusoidal, as shown in Figure 4b. In certain adverse situations,
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 271
t
0 T/2 T
i
(b)
v
CURRENT, i
FLUX,
(a)
t
0 T/2 T
i
(d)
CURRENT, i
FLUX,
(c)
DC
BIAS
Figure 4 Flux-current curve and time variations. (a) Symmetrical hysteresis curve. (b) Current
and ux waveforms for a typical ferromagnetic core device. (c) Hysteresis curve for a dc biased
core. (d ) Flux and current waveforms with dc bias.
the windings of a transformer may carry direct current. This dc component
biases the magnetic core, i.e. produces a dc ux on which the main ac ux
overlaps. This means that during one half-cycle the peak ux is larger than
in the opposite half-cycle. This situation causes an asymmetric hysteresis
loop, as shown in Figure 4c. The resulting magnetizing current has a dif-
ferent waveform during the positive and negative half-cycles, as shown in
Figure 4d. In this type of situation, even (as well as odd) harmonics will be
present in the current harmonic spectrum. Direct current bias can be caused
by many sources, ranging from solar activity to stray ground current from
street cars or any grounded rectier systems. The stray dc may enter via the
grounded neutral of a transformer and exit through the grounded neutral of
another transformer or load.
3. Electric Arc Devices. Arc furnaces and arc welders are powerful injectors of
current harmonics. The arc voltage/current characteristic is very nonlinear,
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272 EMANUEL & McNEILL
i
va
(a)
STARTER t
v
BALLAST
i
(c)
0 T/2 T
v
i
(d)
ARC
v
i
(b)
ARC
TRANSFORMER
Figure 5 Electric arc. (a) Voltage/current characteristic. (b) Arc furnace. (c) Fluorescent lamp.
(d ) Current and voltage waveforms.
as shown in Figure 5a. The arcing device per se (the electrodes) is always
connected in series with an inductance that acts as a lter and attenuates the
harmonics. This ltering inductance may not be explicit. In the case shown
in Figure 5b, for example, the transformer has a leakage inductance that
acts to lter harmonics. Fluorescent lamps with magnetic ballasts, shown in
Figure 5c, also belong to this category. In both cases, the resulting current
waveform is nonsinusoidal, as shown in Figure 5d.
Many nonlinear loads are a combination of two or more nonlinear elements that
belong to different groups. A typical example is a dc arc furnace, which has a
rectier that supplies the electric arc with dc current.
All nonlinear loads inject current harmonics in the network, which can ad-
versely affect other loads. The simplied model of Figure 6 shows a sinusoidal
source v
s
, representing a power plant generator, that supplies two loads. One
load is linear; it may consist of incandescent lights and regular induction mo-
tors. The second load, labeled NL, is nonlinear. Due to load NL, the line
current i is nonsinusoidal, causing a nonsinusoidal voltage drop across the line
resistance R and inductance L. The voltage at the load terminals is determined
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 273
LINEAR
LOAD (LL)
L
i
R
NONLINEAR
LOAD (NL)
A
B
i
+
v
-
B
v
B
v
S
v
S
i
NL
Figure 6 Nonlinear load causes voltage distortion: The nonsinusoidal current i
NL
causes the
voltage v
B
to become nonsinusoidal.
by the equation
v
B
= v
s
Ri L
di
dt
.
This voltage is nonsinusoidal, and the linear load, in spite of its nondisturbing
nature, will see a nonsinusoidal voltage.
Amore realistic model of an electric distribution network, shown in Figure 7,
is quite complex. The network contains a wide variety of linear and nonlinear
loads. Each nonlinear load injects harmonic currents that will ow following
paths of minimum impedance. Usually most of the harmonic current ows
toward the 60-Hz source, i.e. the substation, but part of it will enter other linear
loads and even nonlinear loads of lesser power. In addition, different harmonics
may follow different paths: As the harmonic order increases, capacitances may
provide a lower impedance than inductances. The equivalent impedance of a
substation is mostly inductive, and above a certain harmonic, shunt capacitances
or even resistances may provide paths of lower impedance for the injected
harmonics. This is often the case for harmonics injected at the far end of the
feeder.
This ow of harmonic current in the power network is a major source of
difculties. Following is a brief description of the most common problems
(11, 12).
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274 EMANUEL & McNEILL
(a)
(b)
Figure 7 Harmonic ow. (a) Feeder supplying an array of linear and nonlinear loads (only one
phase represented). (b) Flow of harmonic current.
RESONANCES When a capacitance is connected in parallel with an inductance,
as shown in Figure 8a, the equivalent impedance of the circuit (when the resis-
tance R = 0) has the expression
Z =
(2 f )L
1 (2 f )
2
LC
.
The current i, with a root-mean square (rms) value I, injected into the
impedance Z will cause an rms voltage V = Z I . The value of Z depends on
the frequency f. For a critical frequency value of f
0
= 1/(2
LC), Z .
Figure 8b shows the voltage V versus f while the injected current I is kept con-
stant. Plots are shown for various values of normalized resistance R, because
in a real inductor the inductance coil has a resistance R that reduces the peak
voltage at the resonance f = f
0
. At resonance, the currents owing through C
and L are much larger than the injected current I. If the resistance Ris negligible,
then the currents through L and C are given by the expressions
I
L
=
I
1 (2 f )
2
LC
and
I
C
=
(2 f )
2
LCI
1 (2 f )
2
LC
.
At resonance, both I
L
and I
C
. The dependences of the ratios I
L
/I and
I
C
/I are given in Figure 8c, which shows the greatly increased magnitude of
current near the resonance f = f
0
.
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 275
F
i
g
u
r
e
8
P
a
r
a
l
l
e
l
r
e
s
o
n
a
n
c
e
.
(
a
)
B
a
s
i
c
c
i
r
c
u
i
t
.
(
b
)
I
n
p
u
t
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
.
(
c
)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e
a
n
d
i
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
s
.
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276 EMANUEL & McNEILL
C
(b)
in
C
T
(NL) (LL)
B
TRANSFORMER T
AND FEEDER
INDUCTANCE
(NL)
(LL)
L
(a)
B
Figure 9 Industrial plant with nonlinear and linear loads and capacitor bank. (a) Single-line
diagram. (b) Parallel resonance loop.
Power networks are prone to resonate at frequencies in the range of 140
800 Hz. Resonances near the fth or seventh harmonic are very common.
A typical situation is shown in Figure 9. An industrial plant supplied by a
transformer T has linear and nonlinear loads and a capacitor bank meant to
improve the power factor. The nonlinear load injects harmonic currents, and if
the capacitance C and the transformer inductance L have a parallel resonance
near one of the harmonic frequencies produced by NL, then the voltage at bus
B (supplying all the loads in the plant) becomes very distorted. Moreover,
the capacitor current and the harmonic current owing via the transformer and
entering the feeder may become excessively large. This situation can produce
disturbances that affect the operation of both the equipment owned by the
customer and the devices owned by the electric utility.
Another type of resonance known to occur in the presence of harmonics
is series resonance, shown in Figure 10a. The current owing through the
series connected components R, L, and C is a function of the voltage source
frequency, as shown in Figure 10b. Again, one sees that at the critical frequency,
f
0
= 1/2
R
=
0
.
1
R
=
1
.
0
R
=
1
0
.
0
f
o
(
c
)
C
I
h
(
N
L
)
H
A
R
M
O
N
I
C
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
S
O
U
R
C
E
(
L
L
)
T
1
T
2
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
0
S
e
r
i
e
s
r
e
s
o
n
a
n
c
e
.
(
a
)
B
a
s
i
c
c
i
r
c
u
i
t
.
(
b
)
C
i
r
c
u
i
t
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
v
e
r
s
u
s
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
.
(
c
)
T
y
p
i
c
a
l
s
e
r
i
e
s
r
e
s
o
n
a
n
c
e
s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
.
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278 EMANUEL & McNEILL
NUISANCE FUSE BLOWING AT CAPACITOR BANKS Since the resonating capa-
citor current is excessive, the fuses that protect the capacitor may be blown
after a few hours or days of seemingly normal operation.
INTERFERENCE WITH TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION Telephone lines that
share the same right-of-way with the feeder may be disturbed by electromag-
netic interference (EMI) caused by the magnetic eld created by the harmonic
currents.
OVERHEATING OF TRANSFORMERS The distribution of the current density in
a conductor is a function of the current frequency. As the frequency increases,
the current density increases at the surface of the conductor and decreases at
the center. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect. This effect is more
pronounced for large conductors. Due to the incomplete utilization of the inner
part of the conductor at higher frequencies, the effective electrical resistance at
harmonic frequencies becomes larger. This means that, in the conductors of the
transformer winding, the harmonic currents encounter larger resistances than
the fundamental 60-Hz currents. This may cause signicant additional (I
2
R)
losses, leading to overheating.
INCREASED POWER LOSS IN MOTOR LOADS The distorted voltage at the main
bus has a negative effect on the motor performance caused by additional power
losses and overheating of the motors. The harmonic voltages that now will
supply the motor are producing harmonic currents and magnetic elds in the
motor. These elds interact with the rotor currents and produce additional
torques that may oppose the main, 60-Hz, torque. Due to the skin effect, the
harmonic currents that ow in the motors winding, especially in the rotor bars,
cause signicant losses of power and increased heating of the motor. This
situation may reduce the motor life span. Mechanical vibrations and acoustical
noise may also accompany the operation of motors exposed to harmonics.
MISOPERATION OF DIGITAL TIMERS Many digital circuits use the 60-Hz volt-
age signal to generate clock pulses, as shown in Figure 11a. These pulses are
used for time measurement in general or for resetting certain logic gates. If
the distorted voltage has more than two zero-crossings per cycle, as shown in
Figure 11b, then the timer operation is severely degraded.
EXCESSIVE NEUTRAL CURRENT The neutral current for a perfectly balanced
60-Hz systemis zero when the currents are sinusoidal. If the load is unbalanced,
as shown in Figure 12b, a current will owin the neutral. This current is usually
smaller than the line (phase) current. When the loads are nonlinear, however,
even when they are balanced the neutral current may reach values larger than
the line currents. In the 1980s, when PCs started to proliferate, a number of
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 279
(a) (b)
Figure 11 Digital pulses derived from the supply voltage. (a) Normal operation. (b) Abnormal
operation in the presence of harmonics.
electric res in ofce buildings were traced to overloaded neutral conductors.
Unlike sinusoidal line current waveforms, nonsinusoidal waveforms (as shown
in Figure 3b) do not cancel each other but add up as shown in Figure 12c. Thus,
the effective value of the neutral current can approach or even exceed the line
current value.
Since the neutral conductors are connected to ground, there are conditions
when a part of the neutral current strays through metallic structures and water
pipes, causing the potential rise of objects that are expected to have a zero
potential. The voltage drop across a simple R/L impedance caused by a current
at a harmonic frequency is greater than the drop caused by the same current at
the fundamental frequency of 60 Hz. Consequently, stray harmonic currents
can produce a signicant rise in the neutral voltage, well above the threshold of
perception for humans. Such situations are a major concern for farmers. Dairy
activity is often disrupted by the generation of electric potential between the
metallic parts of milking equipment and a wet oor.
MEASUREMENT ERRORS Energy meters are known to speed up and slowdown
in the presence of nonsinusoidal voltages and currents (13). Disk-type induc-
tion meters are designed to operate with sinusoidal waveforms. The rotation of
the disk in an induction kWh meter is affected in the same way as an induction
motor that develops parasitic torques in the presence of harmonics. The conse-
quence in this case is a registration error of 0.55%. For other types of meters,
operation may be based on denitions that apply to sinusoidal situations only,
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280 EMANUEL & McNEILL
i
a
i
b
i
c
i
n
i
c
i
n
i
b
i
a
(
b
)
(
a
)
i
a
i
b
i
c
i
n
(
c
)
=
i
a
+
i
b
+
i
c
=
i
a
+
i
b
+
i
c
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
2
N
e
u
t
r
a
l
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
.
(
a
)
T
h
r
e
e
-
p
h
a
s
e
c
o
n
n
e
c
t
i
o
n
.
(
b
)
S
m
a
l
l
n
e
u
t
r
a
l
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
c
a
u
s
e
d
b
y
l
i
n
e
a
r
l
o
a
d
s
.
(
c
)
L
a
r
g
e
n
e
u
t
r
a
l
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
c
a
u
s
e
d
b
y
n
o
n
l
i
n
e
a
r
l
o
a
d
s
.
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 281
and systematical errors may be produced when the voltage and/or the current
is distorted. Kilovolt-ampere-reactive (kvar) and kilovolt-ampere (kVA) me-
ters are well known to produce signicant errors in the presence of harmonics
(14).
MISOPERATION OF ELECTRONIC CONTROLS Many control circuits use solid-
state switches that operate (are triggered to close or open) every half-cycle, at
a precise predetermined time. One prevalent method is counting time from the
instant at which the voltage waveform crosses through zero. This approach,
however, assumes equal half-cycles. When an even harmonic is present in the
voltage spectrum, as shown in Figure 13, the half-cycles may measure different
times. This may degrade performance of the control system due to jitter in
the triggering of the solid-state switches.
POWER FACTOR REDUCTION The owof electrical energy can be characterized
by a gure of merit called the power factor (PF), which has the mathematical
0 T/2 T
T1/2 T2/2
v
1
v
2
v=v +v
2 1
Figure 13 Effect of the second harmonic on positive and negative half-cycles.
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282 EMANUEL & McNEILL
denition
PF =
P
S
where Pis the actual power and S is the apparent power. In a three-phase system
with undistorted sinusoidal waveforms, we have
P =
3V I cos (kW)
S =
3V I (kVA),
where is the phase angle between the voltage and current phasors. From the
denition of power factor, it can be seen in this case that the power factor is
given by
PF = cos .
The signicance of this result becomes clear when we consider the loss of
power P in the equivalent resistance r of the line and transformer windings
supplying a load:
P = 3r I
2
= r
_
S
V
_
2
= r
_
P
V
_
2
_
1
PF
_
2
.
For a given amount of effective power P absorbed by a customer, the mini-
mum power loss in the transmission and distribution system is obtained when
PF = 1. Utilities prefer that end users operate with near-unity power factors in
order to minimize power lost in distribution and maximize usage of generation
capacity. The gure of merit PFis valuable because it tells at a glance howwell
a distribution cable or feeder is being utilized. Some utilities have instituted
special tariffs to encourage consumers to maintain PF 0.9.
When the voltage and current waveforms are nonsinusoidal, the denition
and the effect of the power factor remain unchanged. The apparent power and
actual power are now given by
S =
3V I =
3V
1
I
1
_
1 +(THD
V
)
2
_
1 +(THD
I
)
2
and
P =
3V
1
I
1
cos
1
+ P
H
,
where V
1
, I
1
, and
1
are the fundamental (60-Hz) voltage, current, and phase
angle. The actual harmonic power is represented by the term P
H
, which is
given by
P
H
=
h=1
3V
h
I
h
cos
h
.
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 283
Measurements in the eld have shown that P
H
P. Even for networks that
are severely polluted by harmonics, such as dedicated feeders for ASDs, it has
been observed that P
H
< 0.01P. Therefore, even in the presence of harmonics
we can make the approximation
P P
1
=
3V
1
I
1
cos
1
.
In practice, it is also the case that THD
V
0.05, and for typical nonlinear loads
THD
I
> 0.1. With these assumptions, we can approximate the power factor in
nonsinusoidal cases to be
PF =
P
S
cos
1
_
1 +(THD
I
)
2
.
This result shows that the current waveform distortion has a signicant effect
on power factor PF, owing to the additional power loss caused by harmonics.
2.2 Noninteger Harmonics
A special category of harmonics is the noninteger harmonics, which have a
frequency that is a noninteger multiple of the 60-Hz fundamental. These can
be further classied as interharmonics or subharmonics. An example of an
interharmonic is 186 Hz, which is a harmonic of order 3.1 found between
the third and the fourth harmonics. A harmonic with a 20-Hz frequency is a
subharmonic of order 0.333. Noninteger harmonics are produced by recurrent
operations that take place at frequencies different than 60 Hz. Spot welders,
integral-cycle controlled equipment (ICC), and cycloconverters are well-known
generators of noninteger harmonics. Figure 14a shows a typical ICC current
waveform. The current is modulated by a signal with a frequency lower than
60 Hz. To explain the basic process of modulation, let us assume a 60-Hz
voltage
v = V sin(t ); = 2 f ; f = 60 Hz
v
i
(a)
(b)
Figure 14 Integral-cycle control. (a) Current waveform. (b) Modulated voltage waveform.
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284 EMANUEL & McNEILL
modulated by a low-frequency sinusoidal signal
s = m sin(t ); = 2 f
s
; f
s
< 60 Hz.
The resulting voltage is
v
s
= vs = mV sin(t ) sin(t ) =
mV
2
{cos[( )t ] cos[( +)t ]},
which contains two noninteger harmonics with the frequencies (60 f
s
) Hz.
In the case of integral-cycle control, the resulting modulated voltage is shown
in Figure 14b. A motor supplied with such a voltage will develop a pulsating
torque. If the frequency of the pulsating torque is near the natural mechanical
frequency of the shaft-couplings-load system, torsional mechanical resonance
can be excited and damage may occur.
2.3 Recommended Limits for Harmonics
Harmonic pollution must be kept belowcertain values. Every industrial country
has some recommendations or standards. The American recommendations in
IEEEStandard 519-1992 address two criteria, voltage distortion and current dis-
tortion (15). The values recommended are intended to provide an environment
in which the electrical equipment and the customer loads will operate correctly.
In low- and medium-voltage systems, the total limit is THD
V
0.05, while the
limit on an individual harmonic is V
h
0.03. Table 1 shows the recommended
limits on harmonic currents. These limits address the amount of harmonic pol-
lution that can be produced by the customer. The equipment manufacturer and
the consumer bear the responsibility of using electric energy while remaining
within the limits shown in Table 1. The prescribed harmonic current limits are
inuenced by both the demand of the customer and the size of the supply. The
customer demand is characterized by the maximum current, I
load
, at the cus-
tomer location. The size of the supply is reected in the short-circuit current,
I
sc
. The ratio I
sc
/I
load
, as well as the harmonic order, determines the limit for
Table 1 Current distortion limits
a
Individual harmonic order
Total demand distortion
I
sc
/I
load
<11 1116 1722 2324 35 (TDD)
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
2050 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
1001000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
a
Values show maximum harmonic current distortion in percent of I
load
.
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 285
a certain harmonic current. The power system is less susceptible to the lower
harmonics than to the higher ones, and as the I
load
decreases with respect to
the I
sc
, the customer is allowed to inject a more distorted current. The limit for
total current distortion, TDD, is expressed in terms of the maximum demand
current, I
dem
, for 15- or 30-minute intervals. The mathematical expression for
TDD is similar to that for THD:
TDD =
_
h=1
I
2
h
I
dem
.
The European recommendation considers the probabilistic nature of the har-
monics, i.e. the fact that the injection of current harmonics does vary randomly
in time (16). The European Standard EN 50160 states that under normal oper-
ating conditions, during a period of one week, 95% of the 10-minute mean rms
values of each individual harmonic shall be less than or equal to the value given
in Table 2. The total harmonic distortion of the voltage must be no more than
8%, i.e. THD
V
0.08. The European standard is more detailed, addressing the
odd and even harmonics separately. The European standard is also much more
lenient than the American standard. Although surveys taken in the late 1980s
indicate that the voltage distortion in the United States (8) was well below the
limits required by the IEEE Standard 519, harmonic pollution is nevertheless
gradually increasing (17). At this time, it is difcult to say which standard is
more practical. It will take at least another decade of observations and mea-
surements to determine more precisely the economic impact of harmonics on
the consumer, the electric utility, and the equipment manufacturer.
Table 2 Values of individual harmonic voltages (European Stand.
EN 50160)
Odd harmonics
Not multiples of 3 Multiples of 3 Even harmonics
Order Relative Order Relative Order Relative
h voltage (%) h voltage (%) h voltage (%)
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.5 624 0.5
13 3 21 0.5
17 2
19 1.5
23 1.5
25 1.5
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286 EMANUEL & McNEILL
2.4 Harmonic Mitigation
When unacceptable levels of harmonic current are injected into a power net-
work by a large nonlinear load or cluster of nonlinear loads, it is necessary
to conne or to clean up the harmonic pollution. Two basic tools are used
to prevent harmonic currents from entering the feeders or neighboring cus-
tomers networks: (a) harmonic blockage by means of series inductances or
more complex impedances (series lters); (b) providing a low impedance shunt
path (shunt lters).
The use of shunt passive lters (18, 19) is the most widely accepted mitigation
method against harmonic pollution. Shunt lters use capacitances connected
in series with inductances. Their values are chosen to series resonate at a
frequency near the dominant harmonic that must be attenuated. As mentioned
above, a series resonating impedance has a very low value, but only for the
currents with a frequency near the resonance. Figure 15 shows how the current
harmonic I
h
injected by the nonlinear load NL is shunted by the lter tuned to
the harmonic frequency. The shunt lters also have the capability to provide
the reactive power needed for power factor improvement. Larger loads require
multiple lters, usually one for each major odd harmonic (i.e fth, seventh,
eleventh, and eventually the thirteenth). The third harmonic is less common in
large three-phase loads, but it is dominant in small single-phase loads. Large
numbers of relatively small single-phase loads may produce excessive total
amounts of the third harmonic. Third harmonic tuned lters tend to be bulky;
as an alternative, some engineering groups recommend the use of wye-delta or
zig-zag connected transformers to trap the third harmonic currents (17, 20).
Cf
Lf
Ih
Figure 15 Tuned LC lter that helps conne the harmonic current I
h
.
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ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 287
Passive lters, in spite of their simplicity and robustness, have three major
drawbacks:
1. Apassive lter cannot be adjustedtoproduce the optimumamount of reactive
power for unity power factor.
2. Harmonics generated by neighboring loads will sink into the lter, which
is sized to serve only a certain load. The unpredictable amount of harmonic
current that ows through the lter may cause its overloading.
3. The Thevenin impedance of the network together with the lter impedance
may produce unwanted parallel resonances or may produce an equivalent
impedance that has resonances at unwanted frequencies.
The future of ltering technology belongs to active and hybrid lters. Active
lters use solid-state switching devices (power transistors) that help modulate
the current absorbed or delivered (usually by a dc battery or a large capacitance)
to follow a desired waveform template. The template is calculated to contain
useful harmonics, i.e. harmonics that cancel the unwanted harmonics by
being of equal amplitude and 180
3V I )
2
= 3
_
(V
1
I
1
)
2
+(V
1
I
H
)
2
+(V
H
I
1
)
2
+(V
H
I
H
)
2
S
2
= S
2
60
+ S
2
N
,
where
S
60
=
3V
1
I
1
S
N
=
3V
1
I
1
_
I
H
I
1
_
2
+
_
V
H
V
1
_
2
+
_
V
H
I
H
V
1
I
1
_
2
.
The S
60
term represents the 60-Hz apparent power or the fundamental apparent
power. This is the dominant term and contains the 60-Hz active and reactive
powers, P
60
and Q
60
. The non-60-Hz apparent power is determined from the
expression
S
N
= S
60
_
THD
2
I
+THD
2
V
+(THD
I
)
2
(THD
V
)
2
(THD
I
)S
60
.
It is a crude indicator of the harmonic pollution generated or absorbed by a load
or a group of loads. Note that power plants do not generate S
N
; rather, it is
generated by the nonlinear loads that convert 60-Hz kVA into non-60-Hz kVA.
The measurement of the ratio S
N
/S
60
helps determine how much nonlinearity
(that is, how much harmonic pollution) is contributed by a given customer. It
has been estimated that in 1990 dollars, the cumulative present worth of the
cost of harmonics is $2.00 per kVA non-60 Hz for feeders that do not need
mitigation (30). When lters must be installed by the utilities, the cost will
jump one or two orders of magnitude. For 13.8-kV, 15-mile-long feeders that
require multiple ltering centers, the cost was estimated to be $74.00$340.00
per kVA non-60 Hz (30).
The harmonics of NLs in excess of 100 kVA can be effectively ltered (con-
ned) at the terminals of each NL. Smaller NLs (less than 10 kVA) cannot be
economically ltered by individual units. Harmonics generated by heat pumps,
electric vehicle battery chargers, compact uorescent lamps, and other single-
phase NLs must be ltered with the help of ltering centers. The cost of the
lters depends on the size of the load(s) served, the systems voltage, and the
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September 29, 1997 11:25 Annual Reviews EMANUEL AR039-09
ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 299
APPARENT POWER (kVA)
N
U
M
B
E
R
O
F
F
I
L
T
E
R
S
2
200
(b)
1
4
6
8
10
12
14
400 600 800 1000 0
I
THD = 33%
I
THD = 105%
Figure 23 Break-even plot showing how many 480-V or 600-V lters cost the same as one
13.8-kV lter.
ACTIVE FILTER (kVAr)
PASSIVE FILTER (kVA)
C
O
S
T
(
$
1
,
0
0
0
s
)
10
200
20
30
40
50
400 600 800 0
ACTIVE
FILTERS
PASSIVE
FILTERS
Figure 24 Cost of active and passive lters for nonlinear load with THD
I
= 0.7.
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September 29, 1997 11:25 Annual Reviews EMANUEL AR039-09
300 EMANUEL & McNEILL
OUTAGE DURATION (h)
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
O
U
T
A
G
E
C
O
S
T
(
$
/
M
W
h
C
O
N
S
U
M
E
D
)
0.1
2
1
10
4 6 8 0
0.01
2.0
4.0
6.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
O
U
T
A
G
E
C
O
S
T
s
(
$
/
k
W
D
E
M
A
N
D
E
D
)
(a)
OUTAGE DURATION (min)
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
O
U
T
A
G
E
C
O
S
T
(
$
/
M
W
h
C
O
N
S
U
M
E
D
)
0.01
0.1
0.001
(b)
0.1
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000
INDUSTRIAL
COMMERCIAL
RESIDENTIAL
LARGE USER
Figure 25 Customer damage functions, outage cost versus duration (31). (a) Residential. (b)
Industrial and commercial versus residential.
THD
I
. Figure 23 presents results obtained in (31) comparing lter costs. For
example, if the total ltered load is 400 kVA, it is less expensive to use one
low-voltage (480-Vor 600-V) lter than a 13.8-kVlter. If the systemrequires
three lters and the THD
I
105%, it is more economical to install a 13.8-
kV lter. For THD
I
33%, the break-even point is around ve lters. The
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September 29, 1997 11:25 Annual Reviews EMANUEL AR039-09
ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY 301
denitive separation between 13.8-kV lters and low-voltage lters is around
1000 kVA.
Some manufacturers of electric equipment have begun production of the rst
generations of active lters. As shown in Figure 24, however, their cost is
still excessive. At present they have been installed only in pilot stations or
in very special conditions in which passive lters would be compromised by
the environment harmonics (background). It is predicted that hybrid lters (a
combination of passive and active lters) will, in the near future, become a
common addition to ASDs.
Consumer outage costs (32, 33) are a key indicator of the value of service
quality. The cost of interruptions is usually normalized using either the peak
load demand (kW) or the annual energy consumed (MWh). Figure 25 shows
costs of damage for residential and commercial customers. As expected, pro-
longed interruptions are more expensive, and the cost of damage caused by
interruptions in the industrial sector is signicantly higher than in the residen-
tial or commercial sectors.
8. CONCLUSIONS
The electric environment must be protected against the corruption of the sup-
plied voltage waveform caused by such factors as harmonic pollution, unbal-
anced loads, and switching transients. This protection must be given thought
and consideration, as is given to air and water pollution. Controlling the quality
of service requires strategies that will help utilities and customers nd equi-
table and effective tools to correct the situations that lead to voltage and current
distortion. The community must address the following problems:
1. Consumers, utilities, equipment manufacturers, and equipment installers
must agree on standards that set permissible limits for disturbances.
2. Manufacturers should produce equipment with a predetermined degree of
immunity to disturbances that are compatible with the permissible limits
imposed by the standards.
3. The consumers that produce disturbances must pay their fair share for the
installation and maintenance of mitigation equipment.
4. An education campaign should be developed for the users of electrical en-
ergy to provide them with a solid understanding of the mechanisms causing
generation and propagation of disturbances, as well as the capability to an-
ticipate the events that affect the quality of service.
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September 29, 1997 11:25 Annual Reviews EMANUEL AR039-09
302 EMANUEL & McNEILL
In the future, new methods of power conditioning, more efcient energy
converters, more precise control systems, faster computers, high-speed electric
traction, the electric car, and improved wind and photovoltaic generators will
continue to challenge engineers responsible for the quality of service. At the
same time, the technology that causes the deterioration of the service and pro-
motes equipment more sensitive to disturbances will also provide the answers
that will help eliminate the undesirable effects.
Visit the Annual Reviews home page at
http://www.annurev.org.
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