MATH 100

Spring 2006-07

Introduction to Multivariable Calculus Lecture Notes

Dr. Tony Yee Department of Mathematics The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology

January 27, 2007

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Contents
Table of Contents 1 Vectors and Geometry of Space 1.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 1.2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Equations of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Equations of Planes . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Quadric Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii 1 1 5 10 13 18 22 29

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Chapter 1

Vectors and Geometry of Space

To apply calculus in many real-world situations and in higher mathematics, we need a mathematical description of three-dimensional space. In this beginning chapter we introduce three-dimensional coordinate systems and vectors. Building on what we already know about coordinates in the xy -plane, we establish coordinates in space by adding a third axis that measures distance above and below the xy -plane. Vectors are used to study the analytic geometry of space, where they give simple ways to describe lines, planes, surfaces, and curves in space. We use these geometric ideas later to study motion in space and the calculus of several variables, with their many important applications in science, engineering, and higher mathematics.

1.1

Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

In this section we will have a fairly short discussion introducing the three-dimensional coordinate system and conventions that we will be using. We will also take a brief look at how the dierent coordinate systems can change the graph of an equation. Remark that the 3-dimensional coordinate system is often denoted by R3 . Likewise the 2-dimensional coordinate system is often denoted by R2 and the 1-dimensional by R. To locate a point in R3 , we use three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes, arranged as in the following gure. The axes shown there make a right-handed coordinate frame. When you hold your right hand so that the ngers curl from the positive x-axis toward the positive y -axis, your thumb points along the positive z -axis. z R = (0, y, z ) S = (x, 0, z ) P = (x, y, z )

y x Q = (x, y, 0)

Let us look at the basic coordinate system. It is assumed that only the positive directions are shown by the axes. If we need the negative axis for any reason we will put them in as needed.

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Also note the various points in the gure. The point P of the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z ) is the general point sitting out in 3-dimensional space R3 . If we start at P and drop straight down until we reach a z coordinate of zero we arrive that the point Q. We say that Q sits in the xy -plane. The xy -plane corresponds to all the points which have a zero z -coordinate. We can also start at P and move in the other two directions as shown to get points in the xz -plane (that is the point S with a y -coordinate of zero) and the yz -plane (that is the point R with a x-coordinate of zero). Collectively, the xy , yz , and xz -planes are often called the coordinate planes. Also, the point Q is often referred to as the projection of P in the xy -plane. Likewise, R is the projection of P in the yz -plane and S is the projection of P in the xz -plane. Many of the formulas that you are used to working with in R2 have natural extensions in R3 . For instance the distance between two points in R2 is given by p dist(P1 , P2 ) = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 , while the distance between two points in R3 is given by dist(P1 , P2 ) = p (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 .

We might use the distance formula to write equations for spheres in space. A point P (x, y, z ) lies on the sphere of radius a centered at P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) precisely when dist(P0 , P ) = a, or (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z z0 )2 = a2 . With that said we do need to be careful about just translating everything we know about R2 into R3 and assuming that it will work the same way. A good example of this is in graphing to some extent. Consider the following example.

Example 1.1.1 (Graphing in dierent coordinate systems) Graph and interpret the equation x = 3 geometrically in the coordinate systems R, R2 , and R3 . Solution system. In R we have a single coordinate system and so x = 3 is a point in a one-dimensional coordinate

In R2 the equation x = 3 tells us to graph all the points that are in the form (3, y ). This is a vertical line in a two-dimensional coordinate system. In R3 the equation x = 3 tells us to graph all the points that are in the form (3, y, z ). If you go back and look at the coordinate planes in 3-space this is very similar to yz -plane except this time we have x = 3 instead of x = 0. So, in a three-dimensional coordinate system this is a plane parallel to the yz -plane. Here are the graphs of each of these. y z

x x y

1.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems Note that at this moment we can now write down the equations for each of the coordinate planes as well using this idea. x=0 y=0 z=0 the yz -plane, the xz -plane, the xy -plane.

Let us take a look at a slightly more general example.

Example 1.1.2 (Graphing in dierent coordinate systems) Graph and interpret the equation y = 2x 1 geometrically in the coordinate systems R2 and R3 . Solution Of course we have to throw out R for this example since there are two variables which means that we cannot be in a one-dimensional space. In R2 the equation y = 2x 1 is a line with slope 2 and a y -intercept of 1. However, in R3 this is not necessarily a line. Because we have not specied a value of z we are forced to let z take any value. This means that at any particular value of z we will get a copy of this line. So, the graph of the given equation in 3-space is then a vertical plane that lies over the line given by y = 2x 1 in the xy -plane.

x x y

y = 2x 1 on xy -plane

Notice that if we look to where the plane intersect the xy -plane we will get the graph of the line in R2 as shown in the above graph. Let us take a look at one more example of the dierence between graphs in the dierent coordinate systems.

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Example 1.1.3 (Graphing in dierent coordinate systems) Graph and interpret the equation x2 + y 2 = 4 geometrically in the coordinate systems R2 and R3 . Solution As with the previous example this wont have a one-dimensional graph since there are two independent variables in the equation. In R2 this is a circle centered at the origin with radius 2. In R3 , as with the previous example, this may or may not be a circle. Since we have not specied z in any way we must assume that z can take on any value. In other words, at any value of z this equation must be satised and so at any value z we have a circle of radius 2 centered on the z -axis. This means that we have a cylinder of radius 2 centered on the z -axis. The following is the graphs for this example. y z

x x y

Notice that again, if we look to where the cylinder intersects the xy -plane (i.e., z = 0) we will again get the circle from R3 . 2

We need to be careful with the last two examples. It would be interesting to take the results of these and say that we cant graph lines or circles in R3 and yet that does not really make sense. There is no reason for not allowing to graph a line or a circle in R3 . To graph a circle in R3 we would need to do something like x2 + y 2 = 4 at z = 5. This would be a circle of radius 2 centered on the z -axis at the level of z = 5. So, as long as we specify a z -value we will get a circle and not a cylinder. We will see an easier way to specify circles in a later section. We could do the same thing with the line from Example 1.1.2. However, we will be looking at line in more generality in Section 1.5 (page 18) and so we will see a better way to deal with lines in R3 there. The point of the examples in this section is to make sure that we are being careful with graphing equations and making sure that we always remember which coordinate system that we are in. Another quick point to make here is that, as we have seen in the above examples, many graphs of equations in R3 are surfaces. That does not mean that we cannot graph curves in R3 . We can and will graph curves in R3 as well as we will see later in this chapter. As we mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, there is a mathematical tool which can be used to describe lines, curves, planes, and surfaces in space. This is the building block in geometry: vectors. In the next section we will give a short review on vectors and their basic properties.

1.2 Vectors Exercise 1.1.1 2 Interpret the following equations and inequalities geometrically.
1. z 0. 4. x 5. 1 0, y 0. 0, y y 0, z 1. 0.

2. x = 2. 3. z = 0, x

6. y = 1, z = 2.

2 Find the distance between the points P1 and P2 . 7. P1 (1, 1, 0), 8. P1 (1, 1, 5), P2 (3, 3, 1). P2 (5, 2, 0). 9. P1 (0, 0, 0), 10. P1 (2, 4, 6), P2 (3, 3, 3). P2 (3, 5, 7).

2 Give a geometric interpretation of the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the given

equations.
11. x2 + y 2 = 4, 12. x + y = 1, 13. x + y = 4,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

z = 0. z = 2. y = 0. x = 0.

15. x2 + y 2 + (z + 3)2 = 16, 16. x + y + z = 4,

2 2 2 2 2 2

z = 0.

0.

17. x + y + z + 3x 4z + 1 = 0. 18. y 2 + z 2 = 1, x = 0.

14. x + y + z = 1,

1.2

Vectors

In this section we show how to represent things that have both magnitude and direction in the plane or in space. A quantity in physics such as force, displacement, or velocity is called a vector and is represented by a directed line segment. The arrow points in the direction of the action and its length gives the magnitude of the action in terms of a suitably chosen unit. For example, a force vector points in the direction in which the force acts; its length is a measure of the forces strength; a velocity vector points in the direction of motion and its length is the speed of the moving object. Q Terminal
point

PQ

Initial point

1.2.1 Denition A vector is a directed line segment. The directed line segment P Q has initial point P and terminal point Q; its length (or norm) is denoted by P Q . Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction.

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space The arrows we use when we draw vectors are understood to represent the same vector if they have the same length, are parallel, and point in the same direction regardless of the initial point. We need a way to represent vectors algebraically so that we can be more precise about the direction of a vector. Let v = P Q. There is one directed line segment equal to P Q whose initial point is the origin. It is the representative of v in standard position and is the vector we normally use to represent v. We can specify v by writing the coordinates of its terminal point (v1 , v2 , v3 ) when v is in standard position.

1.2.2 Denition If v is a two-dimensional vector in the plane equal to the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point (v1 , v2 ), then the component form of v is v = v1 , v2 . If v is a three-dimensional vector equal to the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point (v1 , v2 , v3 ), then the component form of v is v = v1 , v2 , v3 .

So a two-dimensional vector is an ordered pair v = v1 , v2 of real numbers, and a three-dimensional vector is an ordered triple v = v1 , v2 , v3 of real numbers. The numbers v1 , v2 , v3 are the coordinates of v. In general, an n-component multivariable x = x1 , x2 , , xn is called an n-dimensional vector. The components x1 , x2 , , xn are called the coordinates of the vector x. The collection Rn of all ndimensional vectors is called the n-dimensional Euclidean space. We indicate x is an n-dimensional vector by writing x Rn . We may visualize low dimensional Euclidean spaces as follows. R0 : a single point; R1 : a straight line with origin; R2 : a plane with origin; R3 : our living world with a choice of reference point as origin. The origin corresponds to the zero vector 0 = 0, 0, , 0 . We may also imagine higher dimensional Euclidean spaces by analogy. In summary, a position vector is represented either as a point in the Euclidean space or as an arrow from the origin to the point.

(2, 2) 2, 1

2, 2

(2, 1) 0

0 (1, 1) 1, 1 vectors as arrows

vectors as points

1.2 Vectors In the real world, one often has to deal with arrows not starting from the reference point (i.e., the origin). In practical, we get around the problem by parallely moving the arrows so that the starting points become the origin. Throughout this course any two arrows will be considered as the same vector if one can be parallely moved to the other. v v

Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar multiplication. A scalar is simply a real number, and is called such when we want to draw attention to its dierences from vectors. Scalars can be positive, negative or zero and are used to scale a vector by multiplication.

Addition and scalar multiplication

Vectors of the same dimension may be added and scalar multiplied in the natural way: x1 , x2 , , xn + y1 , y2 , , yn c x1 , x2 , , xn = = x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , , xn + yn , cx1 , cx2 , , cxn .

The scalar multiplication is easily visualized as the stretching and shrinking of vectors. The addition is visualized with the help of parallelograms.
v u+v

1 2

2u

The above gure indicates that the operations on vectors have physical meaning in the real world. For example, suppose vectors x and y represent two forces applied to the same point of an object. Then the combined eect of the two forces on the object is a force represented by the vector x + y. By repeatedly making use of the two operations, we have linear combinations of vectors.

Example 1.2.1 (Linear combination of vectors) Let x = 1, 2, 3, 5 , Then x + 2y 3z = 2, 9, 4, 10 , 2x + y 2z = 4, 11, 6, 8 .

2

y = 0, 1, 2, 4 ,

z = 1, 3, 1, 1 .

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space The following gure indicates all the linear combinations of two vectors.

2v

u + 2v

u + v

1 u 2

1 +2 v

u+v

2u + v

0 u

u
1 v 2

2u

u v

uv

2u v

Unit vectors
A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit vectors are i = 1, 0, 0 , Any vector v = v1 , v2 , v3 j = 0, 1, 0 , k = 0, 0, 1 .

can be written as a linear combination of the standard unit vectors as follows: v = = = = v1 , v2 , v3 v1 , 0, 0 + 0, v2 , 0 + 0, 0, v3 v 1 1, 0, 0 + v 2 0, 1, 0 + v 3 0, 0, 1 v1 i + v2 j + v3 k.

Whenever v = 0, its length

is not zero and 1 = 1 v v v

v = 1.

That is, v/ v is a unit vector in the direction of v, called the direction of the nonzero vector v. The process of rescaling a nonzero vector into a unit vector is often named the normalization of the vector.

Example 1.2.2 (Unit vectors) Find a unit vector u in the direction of the vector from P1 (1, 0, 1) to P2 (3, 2, 0). Solution We divide P1 P2 by its length. P1 P2 = (3 1) i + (2 0) j + (0 1) k = 2i + 2j k, p P1 P2 = (2)2 + (2)2 + (1)2 = 9 = 3, P 1 P2 2i + 2j k 2 2 1 u = = = i + j k. 3 3 3 3 P 1 P2 The unit vector u is in the direction of P1 P2 .

1.2 Vectors Example 1.2.3 (Unit vectors) If v = 3i 4j is a velocity vector, express v as a product of its speed times a unit vector in the direction of motion. Solution Speed is the magnitude (length) of v: p v = (3)2 + (4)2 = 25 = 5. has the same direction as v: 3i 4j 3 4 v = = i j. v 5 5 5 So, 3 4 v = 3i 4j = 5 i j . 5 5 | {z }
a unit vector
2

The unit vector v/ v

In summary, we can express any nonzero vector v in terms of its two important features, length and v direction, by writing v = v . v

Theorem 1.2.1 (Normalizing a Vector) If v = 0, then v is a unit vector in the direction of v. (1) v (2) The equation v = v v v expresses v in terms of its length and direction.

Exercise 1.2.1 2 Express each vector as a a product of its length and direction.
1. 2i 3j + 3k. 2. 4 3 i + j. 5 5 3. 9i + 2j + 6k. 1 1 1 4. i + j + k. 3 3 3

5. Find the component form of the vector P Q, where P = (1, 3) and Q = (2, 5). 6. Find the component form of the unit vector that makes an angle = 2/3 with the positive x-axis. 7. Find a vector of magnitude 7 in the direction of v = 12i + 5j. 8. Find a vector of magnitude 3 in the direction opposite to the direction of v = (1/2) i(1/2) j+(1/2) k. 9. Let u = 2i + j, v = i + j, and w = i j. Find scalars a and b such that u = av + bw.

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space

1.3

The Dot Product

In this section, we show how to calculate easily the angle between two vectors directly from their components. A key part of the calculation is an expression called the dot product. Dot products are also called inner or scalar products because the product results in a scalar, not a vector. After investigating the dot product, we will examine its physical meaning of nding the work done by a constant force acting through a displacement.

When two nonzero vectors u and v are placed so their initial points coincide, they form an angle of measure 0 . If the vectors do not lie along the same line, the angle is measured in the plane containing both of them. If they do lie along the same line, the angle between them is 0 if they point in the same direction, and if they point in opposite directions. The angle is the angle between u and v. The following gives a formula to determine this angle.

Theorem 1.3.1 (Angle Between Two Vectors) u = u1 , u2 , u3 and v = v1 , v2 , v3 is given by uv = u or explicitly = cos1

The angle v cos ,

between the two nonzero vectors

u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 u v

In Theorem 1.3.1, we pay our attention to the expression u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 in the calculation of .

1.3.1 Denition v = v1 , v2 , v3 is

The dot product u v (read u dot v) of vectors u = u1 , u2 , u3 u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 .

and

Example 1.3.1 (The dot product) (a) 1, 2, 3 2, 3, 6 = (1)(2) + (2)(3) + (3)(6) = 2 + 6 + 18 = 22. 1 1 (b) i 2j + 3k (4i 3j + 2k) = ( )(4) + (2)(3) + (3)(2) = 14. 2 2
2

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1.3 The Dot Product Example 1.3.2 (The dot product) Find the angle between u = i 2j 2k and v = 6i + 3j + 2k. Solution We use the formula in Theorem 1.3.1: uv u v = = = = = (1)(6) + (2)(3) + (2)(2) = 4, p (1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2 = 9 = 3, p 2 2 2 (6) + (3) + (2) = 49 = 7, u v cos1 u v 4 cos1 1.76 (radians). (3)(7)
2

Work
Let us say a few words about the physical interpretation of dot product. If a force F is applied to a particle moving along a path, we often need to know the magnitude of the force in the direction of motion. If d is parallel to the tangent line to the path at the point where F is applied, then we want the magnitude of F in the direction of d. The following gure shows that the scalar quantity we seek is the length F cos , where is the angle between the two vectors F and d.

Length = F cos

Remark that the magnitude of the force F in the direction of vector d is the length projection of F onto d.

F cos of the

Recall that the work done by a constant force of magnitude F in moving an object through a distance d is W = F d. That formula holds only if the force is directed along the line of motion. Now, if a force F moving an object through a displacement d has some other direction, the work is performed by the component of F in the direction of d. If is the angle between F and d, then Work = = (scalar component of F in the direction of d) (length of d) ( F cos ) d = F d.

In other words, we apply the dot product to nding the work done by a constant force acting through a displacement. The work done is W =Fd= F d cos .

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1. Vectors and Geometry of Space

Perpendicular (orthogonal) vectors

Two nonzero vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is /2. For such vectors, we have u v = 0 because cos(/2) = 0. The converse is also true. If u and v are nonzero vectors with u v = u v cos = 0, then cos = 0 and hence = cos1 0 = /2.

Theorem 1.3.2

Vectors u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only if u v = 0.

Dot product properties

The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for ordinary products of real numbers (scalars).

Theorem 1.3.3 (Properties of the Dot Product) scalar, then (1) u v = v u. (2) (cu) v = u (cv) = c(u v). (3) u (v + w) = u v + u w. (4) u u = u 2 . (5) 0 u = 0.

If u, v, and w are any vectors and c is a

The properties are easy to prove using the denition. We skip the detail of any proofs here but students are suggested to try the proofs of (1) and (3), for instance.

Exercise 1.3.1 2 Find the angles between the vectors in the following to the nearest hundredth of a radian.
1. u = 2i + j, 2. u = v = i + 2j k. v= 3i + j 2k. 3. u = 2i 2j + k, 4. u = i + 2j v = 3i + 4k. 2k, v = i + j + k.

3i 7j,

5. Cauchy-Schwarz inequality

uv uv

Use the fact that u v = u v cos to show that the inequality u v holds for any vectors u and v. Besides, under what circumstances, if any, does equal u v ?

6. Work along a line

Find the work done by a force F = 5i (magnitude 5 N) in moving an object along the line from the origin to the point (1, 1) (distance in meters). If u1 and u2 are orthogonal unit vectors and v = au1 + bu2 , nd

7. Orthogonal unit vectors

the dot product v u1 .

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1.4 The Cross Product

1.4

The Cross Product

In studying lines in the 2-dimensional plane, when we needed to describe how a line was tilting, we used the notions of slope. In space, we want a way to describe how a plane is tilting. We accomplish this by multiplying two vectors in the plane together to get a third vector perpendicular to the plane. The direction of this third vector tells us the inclination of the plane. The product we use to multiply the vectors together is the vector or cross product, the second of the two vector multiplication methods. We study the cross product in this section. uv

n
1

We start with two nonzero vectors u and v in space. If u and v are not parallel, they uniquely determine a plane. We select a unit vector n perpendicular to the plane by the right-hand rule. This means that we choose n to be the unit (normal) vector that points the way your right thumb points when your ngers curl through the angle from u to v. Then the cross product u v (read u cross v) is the vector dened as follows:

1.4.1 Denition uv =( u v sin ) n.

Unlike the dot product, the cross product is a vector. For this reason it is also called the vector product of u and v, and applies only to vectors in space. The vector u v is orthogonal to both u and v because it is a scalar multiple of n. There is a straightforward way to calculate the cross product of two vectors from their components. The method does not require that we know the angle between them (as suggested by the denition), but we postpone that calculation at this moment so we can focus rst on the properties of the cross product. Since the sines of 0 and are both zero, it makes sense to dene the cross product of two parallel nonzero vectors to be 0. If one or both of u and v are zero, we also dene u v to be zero. This way, the cross product of two vectors u and v is zero if and only if u and v are parallel or one or both of them are zero.

Theorem 1.4.1

Nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u v = 0.

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1. Vectors and Geometry of Space The cross product obeys the following basic laws.

Theorem 1.4.2 (Properties of the Cross Product) are scalars, then (1) (ru) (sv) = (rs) (u v). (2) u (v + w) = u v + u w. (3) (v + w) u = v u + w u. (4) v u = u v. (5) 0 u = 0.

If u, v, and w are any vectors and r, s

To visualize (4), for example, notice that when the ngers of a right hand curl through the angle from v to u, the thumb points the opposite way and the unit vector we choose in forming v u is the negative of the one we choose in forming u v. Also remind that cross product is not associative so (u v) w does not generally equal u (v w). When we apply the denition to calculate the pairwise cross products of i, j, and k, we nd

i j = (j i) = k, j k = (k j) = i,

k i = (i k) = j, i i = j j = k k = 0.

Cross product as an area of a parallelogram

v h = v sin u Because n is a unit vector, the magnitude of u v is
Area = base height = ( u ) ( v sin )

Theorem 1.4.3 uv = u v | sin | n = u v sin .

This is the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v, u being the base of the parallelogram and ( v sin ) the height. Remark that sin is positive (and hence | sin | = sin ) for 0 < < .

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1.4 The Cross Product

Determinant formula for cross product

Our next objective is to calculate u v from the components of u and v relative to a Cartesian coordinate system. For ease in calculating the cross product using determinants, we usually write vectors in the form v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k rather than as ordered triples v = v1 , v2 , v3 . We have the following rule.

Theorem 1.4.4 (Calculating Cross Products Using Determinants) and v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k, then i j k uv = u 1 u 2 u 3 . v1 v2 v3

If u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k

Example 1.4.1 (Cross product by determinant) Find u v and v u if u = 2i + j + k and v = 4i + 3j + k. Solution By the formula, uv = i 2 4 1 3 j k 1 1 3 1 1 i 2 4 1

= = vu =

1 j+ 2 4 1

1 k 3

2i 6j + 10k, (u v) = 2i + 6j 10k.
2

Example 1.4.2 (Cross product by determinant) Find the area of the triangle with vertices P (1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and R(1, 1, 2). Solution The vector P Q P R is perpendicular to the plane because it is perpendicular to both vectors. In terms of components, P Q = (2 1) i + (1 + 1) j + (1 0) k = i + 2j k, PR Then PQ PR = = (1 1) i + (1 + 1) j + (2 0) k = 2i + 2j + 2k. i j k 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 i 1 2 2 2

1 j+ 1 2 2

2 k = 6i + 6k. 2

The area of the parallelogram determined by P , Q, and R is p P Q P R = 6i + 6k = (6)2 + (6)2 = 2 36 = 6 2. The triangles area is half of this, or 3 2.

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1. Vectors and Geometry of Space

Triple scalar or box product

The product (u v) w is called the triple scalar product of u, v, and w (in that order). As you can see in the formula, |(u v) w| = u v w | cos |,

the absolute value of the product is the volume of the parallelepiped (parallelogram-sided box) determined by u, v, and w (see the following gure). The number u v is the area of the base parallelogram. The number w | cos | is the parallelepipeds height. Because of this geometry, (u v) w is also called the box product of u, v, and w. uv

w Height = w | cos | v

Volume = area of base height = ( u v ) ( w | cos |)

Area = u v u By treating the planes of v and w and of w and u as the base planes of the parallelepiped determined by u, v, and w, we see that ( u v ) w = (v w ) u = (w u ) v . Since the dot product is commutative, we also have (u v) w = u (v w).

The triple scalar product can be evaluated as a determinant:

Theorem 1.4.5 (Calculating the Triple Scalar Products by Determinants) If u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k, v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k and w = w1 i + w2 j + w3 k, then u1 u 2 u3 (u v) w = v1 v2 v3 . w1 w 2 w3

Three vectors in 3-space are said to be coplaner if the parallelepiped they span has zero volume; if their tails coincide, three such vectors must lie in the same plane.

Theorem 1.4.6 (Three Coplanar Vectors) u1 u, v, and w are coplanar (u v) w = 0 v1 w1 u2 v2 w2 u3 v3 = 0. w3

16

1.4 The Cross Product Example 1.4.3 (Triple scalar product) Find the volume of the box (parallelepiped) determined by u = i + 2j k, v = 2i + 3k, and w = 7j 4k. Solution Using the rule for calculating determinants, we nd 1 2 1 0 3 + 2 2 1 = 21 + 2(8 + 7) = 23. = 2 0 3 (u v ) w = 7 4 7 4 0 7 4
2

The volume is |(u v) w| = 23 units cubed.

Exercise 1.4.1 2 Find the length and direction of u v.

1. u = 2i 3j, v = i + 4j. v = 2i + 4j 5k. 3. u = 2i 2j + 4k, 4. u = i j, v = i 3k.

2. u = i + 2j 3k,

v = j k.

2 Find the area of the triangle determined by the points P ,

Q, and R.
Q(2, 2, 0),

Also nd a unit vector

R(0, 1, 1).

perpendicular to plane P QR.

5. P (1, 1, 1), Q(3, 1, 1), R(2, 1, 3). 6. P (1, 2, 2),

7. Let u = 5i j + k, v = j 5k, w = 15i + 3j 3k. Which vectors, if any, are

(a) perpendicular?

(b) parallel?

Give reasons for your answers.

8. If u v = u w and u = 0, then does v = w? Give reasons for your answer. 2 Given nonzero vectors u, v, and w, use dot product and cross product notation, as appropriate,

to describe the following.

9. The vector projection of u onto v. 10. A vector orthogonal to u and v. 11. A vector orthogonal to u v and w. 12. A vector orthogonal to u v and u w. 13. A vector orthogonal to u + v and u v. 14. A vector of length u in the direction of v.

2 Let u, v, and w be vectors. Which of the following make sense, and which do not? 15. (u v) w. 16. u (v w). 17. u (v w). 18. u (v w).

2 Find the areas of the triangles 19. A(1, 1), B (2, 1), C (3, 3). 20. A(1, 2), B (5, 3), C (6, 2).

ABC whose vertices are given in the following.

21. A(1, 2), B (4, 3), C (7, 1). 22. A(1, 4), B (4, 5), C (6, 0).

17

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space

1.5

Equations of Lines

In this section we need to take a look at the equation of a line in R3 . As we saw in Example 1.1.2 (page 3) the equation y = mx + b does not describe a line in R3 , instead it describes a surface, particularly a plane. This does not mean however that we cannot write down an equation for a line in three-dimensional space. To see how to do this let us think about what we need to write down the equation of a line in R2 . In two-dimensional space we need the slope (i.e., m) and a point that was on the line in order to write down the equation. In R3 that is still all that we need except in this case the slope will not be a simple number as it was in the two dimensions. In this case we will need to acknowledge that a line can have a three-dimensional slope. So, we need something that will allow us to describe a direction that is potentially in three dimensions. We already have a quantity that will do this for us. Vectors give directions and can be three-dimensional objects. So, let us start with the following information. Suppose that we know a point that is on the line, P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), and that v = a, b, c is some vector that is parallel to the line. Note that v will not be on the line itself. We only need v to be parallel to the line. Finally, let P (x, y, z ) be any point on the line. Now, since our slope is a vector let us also turn the the two points (i.e., P0 and P ) into vectors as well. Of course, we dont actually turn them into vectors, we instead use position vectors to represent them. So, let r0 and r be the position vectors for P0 and P , respectively. Also, for no apparent reason, let us dene a to be the vector with representation P0 P . We now have the following sketch with all these vectors. z

a
P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )

P (x, y, z )

The Line

r0

y x Now we can write r as a sum of two vectors by the parallelogram rule. r = r0 + a. Also notice that a and v are parallel. Therefore, there is a number t such that a = tv . We then have r = r0 + tv = x0 , y0 , z0 + t a, b, c .

18

1.5 Equations of Lines This is called the vector form of the equation of a line. The only part of this equation that is not known is the t. Notice that tv will be a vector that lies along the line and it tells us how far from the original point that we should move. If t is positive we move to the right of the original point and if t is negative we move to the left of the original point. As t varies over all possible values we will completely span the line. There are several other forms of the equation of the line. To get the rst alternative form let us start with the vector form and do a slight rewrite. r x, y, z = = x0 , y0 , z0 + t a, b, c , x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct .

The only way for two vectors to be equal is for the components to be equal. In other words, x y z = = = x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct.

This set of equations is called the parametric form of the equation of a line. To get a point on the line all we need to do is pick a t-value and plug into either form of the line. In the vector form of the line we get a position vector for the point and in the parametric form we get the actual coordinates of the point. There is one more form of the line that we want to look at. If we assume that a, b, and c are all nonzero numbers we can solve each of the equations in the parametric form of the line for t. We can then set all of them equal to each other since t will be the same number in each. Doing this gives the following. x x0 y y0 z z0 = = a b c (= t).

This is called the symmetric equations of the line. If one of a, b, c does happen to be zero we can still write down the symmetric equations. To see this let us suppose that b = 0. In this case t will not exist in the parametric equation for y and so we will only solve the parametric equations for x and z for t. We can set those equal and acknowledge the parametric equation for y as follows. x x0 z z0 = , a c y = y0 .

Example 1.5.1 (Equations of lines) Write down the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, 1, 3) and (1, 4, 3). Write down all three forms of the equation of the line. Solution To do this we need the vector v that will be parallel to the line. This can be any vector as long as it is parallel to the line. In general, v will not lie on the line itself. However, in this case it will. All we need to do is let v be the vector that starts at the second point and ends at the rst point. Hence, v = 2, 1, 3 1, 4, 3 = 1, 5, 6 . Note that the order of the points was chosen to reduce the number of minus signs in the vector. Once we have v there really is not anything else to do. To use the vector form we will need a point on the line. By given we have two points so we can use either one. We will use the rst point. The following is the vector form of the equation of the line. r = 2, 1, 3 + t 1, 5, 6 = 2 + t, 1 5t, 3 + 6t .

19

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Once we have this equation the other two forms follow. Here is the parametric equations of the line. x = 2 + t, Here is the symmetric form. x2 y+1 z3 = = . 1 5 6
2

y = 1 5t,

z = 3 + 6t.

Example 1.5.2 (Equations of lines) Determine if the line that passes through the point (0, 3, 8) and is parallel to the line given by x = 10 + 3t, y = 12t, and z = 3 t

passes through the xz -plane. If it does give the coordinates of the point.

Solution To answer this we will rst need to write down the equation of the line. We know a point on the line and just need a parallel vector. We know that the new line must be parallel to the line given by the parametric equations in the problem statement. That means that any vector that is parallel to the given line must also be parallel to the new line. Now recall that in the parametric form of the line the numbers multiplied by t are the components of the vector that is parallel to the line. Therefore, the vector v = 3, 12, 1 is parallel to the given line and so must also be parallel to the new line. The equation of the new line is then r = 0, 3, 8 + t 3, 12, 1 = 3t, 3 + 12t, 8 t . If this line passes through the xz -plane then we know that the y -coordinate of that point must be zero. So, let us set the y -component of the equation equal to zero and see if we can solve for t. If we can, this will get the value of t for which the point will pass through the xz -plane. 3 + 12t = 0 = t= 1 . 4

So, the line does pass through the xz -plane. To get the complete coordinates of the point all we need to do is plug t = 1/4 into any of the equations. We will use the vector form. 1 1 3 31 1 . r = 3( ), 3 + 12( ), 8 ( ) = , 0, 4 4 4 4 4 Recall that this vector is the position vector for the point on the line and so the coordinates of the point here the line will pass through the xz -plane are given by 3 31 ( , 0, ). 4 4
2

20

1.5 Equations of Lines

The distance from a point to a line in space

To nd the distance from a point S to a line that passes through a point P parallel to a vector v, we nd the absolute value of the scalar component of P S in the direction of a vector normal to the line (see the following gure). In the notation of the gure, the absolute value of the scalar component is P S sin , which is P S v / v . S

P S sin = d (the distance we want)

The Line dened by P and v

Theorem 1.5.1

The distance from a point S to a line through P parallel to v is given by d= PS v . v

Just recall the denition of cross product in Section 1.4 (page 13) that P S v = ( P S v sin ) n = PS v = PS

v | sin |.

Example 1.5.3 (Distance from a point to a line) Find the distance from the point S (1, 1, 5) to the line x = 1 + t, Solution With y = 3 t, z = 2t.

We see from the equations that the line passes through P (1, 3, 0) parallel to v = i j + 2k. P S = (1 1) i + (1 3) j + (5 0) k = 2j + 5k

and

i PS v = 0 1

j 2 1

k 5 = i + 5 j + 2 k. 2

Thus, d= PS v 1 + 25 + 4 30 = = 5. = v 1+1+4 6
2

21

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Exercise 1.5.1 2 Find the parametric equations for the lines in the following.
1. The line through the point P (3, 4, 1) parallel to the vector i + j + k. 2. The line through the point P (1, 2, 3) parallel to the vector 2i 3j 4k. 3. The line through the points P (1, 2, 1) and Q(1, 0, 1). 4. The line through the points P (1, 2, 0) and Q(1, 1, 1). 5. The line through the origin parallel to the vector 2j + k. 6. The line through (1, 1, 1) parallel to the z -axis. 7. The line through (2, 4, 5) perpendicular to the plane 3x + 7y 5z = 21. 8. The line through (2, 3, 0) perpendicular to the vectors u = i + 2j + 3k and v = 3i + 4j + 5k.

2 Find the distance from the point to the line. 9. (0, 0, 12), 10. (0, 0, 0), 11. (2, 1, 3), x = 4t, y = 2t, z = 2t. z = t. z = 2t. 12. (2, 1, 1), 13. (1, 4, 2), 14. (3, 1, 4), x = 2t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 2t. z = 5 + 2t .

x = 5 + 3t, x = 2 + 2t,

y = 3 + 2t, y = 1 + 6t,

x = 4 t, x = 10 t,

y = 3 + 2t, y = 3,

z = 5t.

15. If P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), show that the equations

x = x1 + t(x2 x1 ), represent a line through P1 and P2 .

16. Find the distance between the lines

y = y1 + t(y2 y1 ),

z = z1 + t(z2 z1 )

x + 2y y + 2z

= =

3, 3,

x+y+z x 2z

= =

6, 5.

1.6

Equations of Planes

In the rst section of this chapter we saw some equations of planes. However, none of those equations had three variables in them and were really extensions of graphs that we could look at in two dimensions. We would like a more general equation for planes. So, let us start by assuming that we know a point that is on the plane, P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ). Also suppose that we have a vector that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to the plane, n = a, b, c . This vector is called the normal vector. Now, assume that P = (x, y, z ) is any point in the plane. Finally, since we are going to be working with vectors initially we will let r0 and r be the position vectors for P0 and P , respectively. Here is the sketch of all these vectors.

22

1.6 Equations of Planes z

n
P (x, y, z )

r r0

The Plane r r0

P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )

y x Notice that we added in the vector r r0 which will lie completely in the plane. Also notice that we put the normal vector n on the plane, but there is actually no reason to expect this to be the case. We put it here to illustrate the point. It is completely possible that the normal vector does not touch the plane in any way. Now, because n is orthogonal to the plane, it is also orthogonal to any vector that lies in the plane. In particular it is orthogonal to r r0 . Recall that two orthogonal vectors will have a dot product of zero. In other words, n ( r r0 ) = 0 This is called the vector equation of the plane. The vector equation of the plane is not a very useful equation in some ways. Let us get a much more useful form of the equations. Let us start with the rst form of the vector equation. a, b, c ( x, y, z x0 , y0 , z0 ) a, b, c x x0 , y y0 , z z0 Now, actually compute the dot product, a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + c(z z0 ) = 0. This is called the scalar equation of plane. Often this will be written as ax + by + cz = d, where d = ax0 + by0 + cz0 . This second form is often how we are given equations of planes. Notice that if we are given the equation of a plane in this form we can quickly get a normal vector for the plane. A normal vector is n = a, b, c . = = 0, 0. = n r = n r0 .

Let us work a couple of examples.

23

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Example 1.6.1 (Equations of planes) Determine the equation of the plane that contains the points P = (1, 2, 0), Q = (3, 1, 4), and R = (0, 1, 2). Solution In order to write down the equation of plane we need a point (yes, we have three here) and a normal vector. We need to nd a normal vector. Recall that we saw how to do this in Section 1.4. We can form the following two vectors from the given points. P Q = 2, 3, 4 , P R = 1, 1, 2 .

These two vectors will lie completely in the plane since we formed them from points that were in the plane. Notice as well that there are many possible vectors to use here, we just chose two of the possibilities. Now we know that the cross product of two vectors will be orthogonal to both of these vectors. Since both of these are in the plane any vector that is orthogonal to both of these will also be orthogonal to the plane. Therefore, we can use the cross product as the normal vector. i j k 3 4 n = PQ PR = 2 = 2i 8j + 5k. 1 1 2 The equation of the plane is then 2(x 1) 8(y + 2) + 5(z 0) = 0, or 2x 8y + 5z = 18. We used P for the point, but could have used any of the three points.
2

Example 1.6.2 (Equations of planes) Determine if the plane given by x + 2z = 10 and the line given by r = 5, 2 t, 10 + 4t parallel or neither. are orthogonal,

Solution This is not as dicult a problem as it may at rst appear to be. We can pick o a vector that is normal to the plane. This is n = 1, 0, 2 . We can also get a vector that is parallel to the line. This is v = 0, 1, 4 . Now, if these two vectors are parallel then the line and the plane will be orthogonal. If you think about it this makes some sense. If n and v are parallel, then v is orthogonal to the plane, but v is also parallel to the line. So, if the two vectors are parallel the line and plane will be orthogonal. Let us consider the following. i j k 0 2 nv = 1 = 2i + 4j + k = 0. 0 1 4 So, the vectors are not parallel and so the plane and the line are not orthogonal. Now, let us check to see if the plane and line are parallel. If the line is parallel to the plane then any vector parallel to the line will be orthogonal to the normal vector of the plane. In other words, if n and v are orthogonal then the line and the plane will be parallel. Let us check this. n v = 0 + 0 + 8 = 8 = 0. The two vectors are not orthogonal and so the line and plane are not parallel. So, the line and the plane are neither orthogonal nor parallel.
2

24

1.6 Equations of Planes

Line of intersection
Just as lines are parallel if and only if they have the same direction, two planes are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, or n1 = kn2 for some scalar k. Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.

The Line of Intersection Plane 2

n2 n1

n1 n2
Plane 1

Example 1.6.3 (Line of intersection) Find a vector parallel to the line of intersection of the planes 3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5. Solution The line of intersection of two planes is n2 and therefore parallel to n1 n2 . Turning this of intersection. In our case, i j 3 6 n1 n2 = 2 1 perpendicular to both planes normal vectors n1 and around, n1 n2 is a vector parallel to the planes line k 2 = 14i + 2j + 15k. 2
2

Any nonzero scalar multiple of n1 n2 will do as well.

Example 1.6.4 (Line of intersection) Find parametric equations for the line in which the planes 3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5 intersect. Solution We nd a vector parallel to the line and a point on the line. Example 1.6.3 identies v = 14i + 2j + 15k as a vector parallel to the line. To nd a point on the line, we can take any point common to the two planes. Substituting z = 0 in the plane equations and solving for x and y simultaneously identies one of these points as (3, 1, 0). The line is x = 3 + 14t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 15t.

The choice z = 0 is arbitrary and we could have chosen z = 1 or z = 1 just as well. Or we could have let x = 0 and solved for y and z . The dierent choices would simply give dierent parametrizations of the same line. 2

25

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Example 1.6.5 (Line of intersection) Find the point where the line x= 8 + 2t, 3 y = 2t, z =1+t

intersects the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6. Solution The point ( 8 + 2t, 2t, 1 + t) 3

lies in the plane if its coordinates satisfy the equation of the plane, that is, if 3( 8 + 2t) + 2(2t) + 6(1 + t) 3 8 + 6 t 4t + 6 + 6 t 8t t The point of intersection is ( 8 2 + 2(1), 2(1), 1 + (1)) = ( , 2, 0). 3 3
2

= = = =

6, 6, 8, 1.

The distance from a point to a plane

If P is a point on a plane with normal n, then the distance from any point S to the plane is the length of the vector projection of P S onto n. That is, the distance from S to the plane is n , d = P S n where n = Ai + B j + C k is normal to the plane.

Example 1.6.6 (Line of intersection) Find the distance from S (1, 1, 3) to the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6. Solution We nd a point P in the plane and calculate the length of the vector projection of P S onto a vector n normal to the plane (see the following gure). The coecients in the equation 3x + 2y + 6z = 6 give n = 3 i + 2 j + 6 k.

26

1.6 Equations of Planes z S (1, 1, 3) n = 3i + 2j + 6k

3x + 2 y + 6 z = 6

(0, 0, 1)
Distance from S to the plane

(2, 0, 0) x

P (0, 3, 0) y
The Plane

The points on the plane easiest to nd from the planes equation are the intercepts. If we take P to be the y -intercept (0, 3, 0), then PS = = n = (1 0) i + (1 3) j + (3 0) k i 2j + 3 k, p (3)2 + (2)2 + (6)2 = 49 = 7.

The distance from S to the plane is the length of projn P S , or n d = P S n 3 2 6 = ( i 2 j + 3 k ) ( i + j + k ) 7 7 7 3 4 18 = 17 . = + 7 7 7 7

2

Angles between planes

The angles between two intersecting planes is dened to be the (acute) angle between their normal vectors.

Example 1.6.7 (Angle between planes) Find the angle between the planes 3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5. Solution The vectors n1 = 3i 6j 2k, n2 = 2i + j 2k

are normals to the planes. The angle between them is 4 n1 n2 = cos1 13.8 radians. = cos1 n1 n2 21
2

27

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space Exercise 1.6.1 2 Find equations for the planes in the following.
1. The plane through P0 (0, 2, 1) normal to n = 3i 2j k. 2. The plane through (1, 1, 3) parallel to the plane 3x + y + z = 7. 3. The plane through the points (1, 1, 1), (2, 0, 2), and (0, 2, 1). 4. The plane through the points (2, 4, 5), (1, 5, 7), and (1, 6, 8). 5. The plane through the point P0 (2, 4, 5) perpendicular to the line x = 5 + t, y = 1 + 3t, z = 4t. 6. The plane through the point A(1, 2, 1) perpendicular to the vector from the origin to A.

2 Find the distance from the point to the plane. 7. (2, 3, 4), 8. (0, 0, 0), 9. (0, 1, 1), x + 2y + 2z = 13. 3x + 2y + 6z = 6. 4y + 3z = 12. 10. (2, 2, 3), 11. (0, 1, 0), 12. (1, 0, 1), 2x + y + 2z = 4. 2x + y + 2z = 4. 4x + y + z = 4.

13. Find the point of intersection of the lines x = 2t + 1, y = 3t + 2, z = 4t + 3, and x = s + 2,

y = 2s + 4, z = 4s 1, and then nd the plane determined by these lines.

14. Find the point of intersection of the lines x = t, y = t + 2, z = t + 1, and x = 2s + 2, y = s + 3,

z = 5s + 6, and then nd the plane determined by these lines.

15. Find the distance from the plane x + 2y + 6z = 1 to the plane x + 2y + 6z = 10.

16. Find the distance from the plane x = 2+t, y = 1+t, z = (1/2)(1/2)t to the plane x+2y +6z = 10.

2 Find the angles between the planes in the following. 17. x + y = 1, 2x + y 2z = 2. 18. 5x + y z = 10, x 2y + 3z = 1.

2 Find the point in which the line meets the plane. 19. x = 1 t, 20. x = 2, y = 3t, z = 1 + t; 2x y + 3z = 6. 6x + 3y 4z = 12. x + y + z = 2. 2x 3z = 7.

y = 3 + 2t,

z = 2 2t; z = 3t; z = 5t;

21. x = 1 + 2t, 22. x = 1 + 3t,

y = 1 + 5t, y = 2,

23. Find two dierent planes whose intersection is the line x = 1 + t, y = 2 t, z = 3 + 2t.

Write

equations for each plane in the form Ax + By + Cz = D.

28

1.7 Quadric Surfaces

1.7

Quadric Surfaces

In the previous two sections we have looked at lines and planes in three dimensions (or R3 ) and while these are used quite heavily at times in calculus class there are many other surfaces that are also used fairly regularly and so we need to take a look at those. In this section we are going to be looking at quadric surfaces. Quadric surfaces are the graphs of any equation that can be put into the general form Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + F yz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0, where A, B , , J are all constants. There is no way that we can possibly list all of them, but there are some standard equations so here is a list of some of the more common quadric surfaces.

Ellipsoid
Here is the general equation of an ellipsoid, x2 y2 z2 + 2 + 2 = 1. 2 a b c The following is the sketch of a typical ellipsoid. z

x If a = b = c then we will have a sphere. Notice that we only gave the equation for the ellipsoid that has been centered on the origin. Clearly ellipsoids dont have to be centered on the origin. However, in order to make the discussion in this section a little easier we have chosen to concentrate on surfaces that are centered on the origin in one way or another.

Cone
Here is the general equation of a cone, x2 y2 z2 + 2 = 2. 2 a b c The following is the sketch of a typical cone.

29

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space z

y x

Note that this is the equation of a cone that will open along the z -axis. To get the equation of a cone that opens along one of the other axes all we need to do is make a slight modication of the equation. This will be the case for the rest of the surfaces that we will be looking at in this section as well. In the case of a cone the variable that sits by itself on one side of the equal sign will determine the axis that the cone opens up along. For instance, a cone that opens up along the x-axis will have the equation y2 z2 x2 + 2 = 2. 2 b c a For most of the following surfaces we will not give the other possible formulas. We will however acknowledge how each formula needs to be changed to get a change of orientation for the surface.

Cylinder
Here is the general equation of a cylinder, x2 + y 2 = r 2 . The following is the sketch of a typical cylinder. z

x The cylinder will be centered on the axis corresponding to the variable that does not appear in the equation. Be careful to not confuse this with a circle. In two dimensions it is a circle, but in three dimensions it is a cylinder.

30

1.7 Quadric Surfaces

Hyperboloid of one sheet

Here is the general equation of a hyperboloid of one sheet, x2 y2 z2 + = 1. a2 b2 c2 The following is the sketch of a typical hyperboloid of one sheet. z

The variable with the negative in front of it will give the axis along which the graph is centered.

Hyperboloid of two sheets

Here is the general equation of a hyperboloid of two sheets, y2 z2 x2 + = 1. a2 b2 c2

The following is the sketch of a typical hyperboloid of two sheets. z

The variable with the positive in front of it will give the axis along which the graph is centered. Notice that the only dierence between the hyperboloid of one sheet and the hyperboloid of two sheets is the signs in front of the variables. They are exactly the opposite signs.

31

1. Vectors and Geometry of Space

Elliptic paraboloid
Here is the general equation of an elliptic paraboloid, x2 y2 z + 2 = . 2 a b c The following is the sketch of a typical elliptic paraboloid. z

y x In this case the variable that is not squared determines the axis upon which the paraboloid opens up. Also, the sign of c will determine the direction that the paraboloid opens. If c is positive then it opens up and if c is negative then it opens down.

Hyperbolic paraboloid
Here is the general equation of an hyperbolic paraboloid, x2 y2 z 2 = . 2 a b c The following is the sketch of a typical hyperbolic paraboloid. z

y x As with the elliptic paraboloid the sign of c will determine the direction in which the surface opens up. The graph above is shown for c positive.

With the both of the paraboloids the surface can be easily moved up (resp. down) by adding (resp. subtracting) a constant from the left side. For instance, z = x2 y 2 + 6 is an elliptic paraboloid that opens downward and starts at z = 6 instead of z = 0. Can you make a sketch of it?

32