DISPOSAL OF SLUDGE

Water Treatment Plant Sludge

Sludge generated from water treatment processes includes suspended solids removed from source water and chemical precipitates created by the treatment process. The various types of sludge resulting from water treatment processes generally fall into the following categories: Solids in filter backwash water Aluminium or iron coagulant sludge Iron and manganese precipitates Softening plant sludge In deciding what treatment or disposal methods are appropriate for each type of sludge, consideration must be given to the Type of solids Quantities of sludge being generated Sludge characteristics that may influence sludge dewaterability

1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SLUDGE TREATMENT a. Filter Backwash Water Sludge

PRODUCE

DURING

WATER

Filter backwash water can be troublesome to handle. It has low solids content even after thickening, it usually dewaters poorly, and most of the solids are difficult to separate by gravity without using coagulant aids. Filter backwash water deserves careful consideration not only with regard to solids disposal, but also because of potential recovery of a significant volume of water. Filter backwash water typically represents 2% to 5% of total water processed. The quantity of solids depends on filter efficiency and the amount of solids applied to the filter, but the concentration generally varies from 50 to 400 mg/L. The amount of solids applied to the filter depends on the pre-treatment provided. Where sedimentation precedes filtration, typical suspended solids of water entering the filters range from 4 to 10 mg/L, and the backwash contains a solids loading of about 35 to 85 lb/mil gal (4 to 10 kg/ML). Attainable sedimentation basin effluent turbidity can be less than 1 nephelometric turbidity unit (ntu); however, typical sedimentation effluent turbidities are 2 to 6 ntu. In the direct filtration process, flocculated water is applied directly to the filter. As a result, solids loading is a function of coagulant dosage and source water turbidity. Filter backwash solids are typically difficult to separate from liquid. Washwater recovery ponds sized to hold backwash water for 24 h or more may recover up to 80% of solids with the use of polymers or other coagulant aids. Reclaimed water is then usually reprocessed through the treatment plant. Flow through washwater clarifiers equipped with V-notch weirs and undercurrent baffle can recover 90% or more of solids.
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b. Coagulant Sludges Aluminum and iron coagulants result in inorganic sludges containing compounds such as aluminum hydroxide and ferric hydroxide along with clay, silts, and organic and inorganic matter precipitated by the coagulant. The nature of sludge produced is highly variable, depending on source water quality. Seasonal variations in source water also affect such characteristics of the sludge as its thickening density and dewaterability. The characteristics of coagulant sludges also vary with the proportion of material removed from the water. High-turbidity waters usually result in sludges that are more concentrated and less difficult to dewater; low-turbidity waters present a more difficult sludge processing problem. In general, settled iron sludges have a higher solids concentration than alum sludges, and the addition of polymer or lime increases the solids concentration of both. Coagulant sludges are essentially biologically inert, having low biodegradable organic content and a near-neutral pH. Iron and alum coagulant sludges may be characterized as follows: Solids content 0% to 5% 8% to 12% 18% to 25% 40% to 50% Sludge character Liquid Spongy, semisolid Soft clay Stiff clay

Alum Sludge: Alum sludge is gelatinous with poor compactability. It generally concentrates to 0.5% to 2.0% (5,000 to 20,000 mg/L) in sedimentation basins. When filter alum [A12(SO4) 14H2O] is added to water, it forms aluminum hydroxide [AI(OH)3]. For every 1 mg/L of alum (as 17.1% A1203) added, 0.44 mg/L solids is formed. The quantity of aluminum escaping the filters and appearing in the finished water depends on the pH of the water. Iron Salts Coagulation Sludge: Iron coagulants used in water treatment include ferric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3] , ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 7H20), ferrous chloride (FeC12), and ferric chloride (FeC13). The precipitate formed is ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3. Like alum sludges, ferric hydroxide is hydrophilic and thickens poorly. The amount of sludge formed can be estimated as 2.9 mg/L of solids formed for every 1 mg/L of iron added. Iron and Manganese Precipitates: Water treatment to remove iron and manganese consists of first oxidizing soluble iron and manganese by means of aeration or by adding a chemical such as permanganate, chlorine, or ozone. Precipitates formed are principally ferric hydroxide, ferric carbonate, or manganese dioxide. Then these precipitates are removed in sedimentation or filtration processes. The sludge produced is inert and typically red or black. For each milligram per litre of iron or manganese in solution, 1.5 to 2 mg/L of sludge production may be anticipated. However, because concentrations of iron and manganese found in most natural waters are typically low, overall iron and manganese sludge volume is generally much lower than the volume of coagulation or softening sludge. c. Softening Plant Sludge Water softening with lime or soda ash produces sludge containing precipitates such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, magnesium hydroxide, silica, iron oxides, aluminium oxides, and unreacted lime. Coagulated organic and inorganic substances typically constitute a small fraction of the sludge mass. When highly turbid waters are to be softened, turbidity is
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normally removed by coagulation before softening. Softening sludge is relatively inert and stable, and biologically inert as a result of the high pH caused by unspent lime and high alkalinity. Softening sludge is normally easier to concentrate than coagulant sludges. The solids content of lime sludges typically ranges between 2% and 15%. Lime softening sludges are primarily calcium carbonate with varying amounts of other constituents. The dewaterability of the sludge varies with the concentration of magnesium hydroxide that has been captured, ranging from a few percent to as much as 30%. Sludges low in magnesium hydroxide may be dewatered to cakes having 60% solids, whereas cake solids may be as low as 20% to 25% with higher magnesium hydroxide concentrations. Magnesium hydroxide solids are gelatinous and similar in nature to aluminum and iron coagulant solids. The calcium carbonate solid is more discrete and crystalline and more readily dewatered. The character of time sludges at varying moisture contents is generalized as follows: Solids content 0% to 10% 25% to 35% 40% to 50% 60% to 70% Sludge character Liquid Viscous liquid Semisolid, toothpaste consistency Crumbly cake

Lime sludge cakes in the 50% to 65% moisture content range are generally sticky and difficult to discharge cleanly from dump trucks. d. Ion Exchange Process Waste Brines are produced as a waste from ion exchange processes. Ion exchange has primarily been used as a softening process, but other applications include removal of specific ions such as nitrate and barium. Waste flow from the ion exchange process is produced during backwashing, regeneration, and rinsing. The quantity of brine waste is generally between 1.5% and 10% of the water treated by the process unit. Ion exchange waste brine typically has high TDS and low suspended solids. The concentration depends on source water hardness, target ion concentration, regeneration rate, rinsing procedure, and resin capacity. Typical ranges of values are shown in Table 1. Cationic ion exchange resins are usually regenerated with an acid solution. The low pH backwash water may require neutralization before disposal depending on the disposal method. Similarly, anionic ion exchange wastes may require neutralization because they are regenerated with a basic solution of salt.

Table 1. Typical Chemical Constituents of Ion Exchange Wastes

2. PROCESS RESIDUAL DISPOSAL METHODS Disposal of treatment plant wastes includes removal of the wastes from the treatment plant or reuse of some of the residuals: a. Sludge Disposal Alternatives Five methods of disposal are typically considered for process wastes: Discharge to a natural waterway Discharge to a sanitary sewer system Discharge to permanent lagoons Burial in a landfill Reuse of all or a portion of the wastes Each of these disposal methods involves different regulatory requirements and may require varying levels of pre-treatment before disposal. Discharge to a Natural Waterway: Although discharge to natural waterways has traditionally been the predominant form of both handling and discharging process wastes. The primary concern has been the introduction of pollutants into the aquatic environment. The impact of aluminium toxicity from alum coagulant wastes on aquatic biota has been a chief concern. There is also concern about the impact on wildlife and on the environment of wastes containing high levels of solids, total dissolved solids, pH, various trace metals, nitrates, and chlorine, as well as the potential for creating excessive flow rates. Discharge to a Sanitary Sewer: The practice of disposing of water treatment plant solids to sanitary sewers has become increasingly common. The economies of scale provided by treating water and wastewater treatment solids together are attractive, and dilution of the inorganic sludges with organic sludges makes the resulting sludge more acceptable for land disposal. Discharge of sludge to sanitary sewers must be coordinated with the sewer authority operation and maintenance department and wastewater treatment plant authorities. The impact of both the chemical nature and the volume of the sludge on the wastewater facility needs particular consideration. Additional solids loading needs to be assessed, because it affects the waste treatment plant solids handling capacity. The additional liquid and solids load also increases operational and maintenance costs to some extent. Discharges to a sewer should be monitored and controlled to minimize the possibility of large quantities of relatively inert sludge filling the digesters and upsetting the wastewater treatment process.
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Managers of some wastewater utilities are often concerned that water treatment plant solids will adversely affect their treatment processes. However, experience has shown that controlled addition of water treatment plant sludge does not cause disruption, and there may even be benefits to the waste treatment operation as a result of enhanced sedimentation. Discharge of lime sludge to sanitary sewers should be considered carefully because sludge may produce encrustations on weirs, channels, and piping. Because the volume of softening sludge disposed of is also typically large, it may be more than the waste treatment plant facilities can handle. Discharge to a Lagoon: If adequate land is available, dilute sludge may be diverted directly to lagoons where coagulant solids concentrate to 6% to 10% over time. If a water treatment plant operating at an average rate of 3.8 ML per day produces 240 kg/ML of solids 3,080 to 6,160 m3 of storage capacity is required for every decade of operation. Softening sludge, on the other hand, can be expected to concentrate to 20% to 30% and may attain a 50% concentration over a period of years. For a plant with a 3.8 ML per day treatment rate that produces 240 kg/ML solids, about 1,230 m3 of storage capacity is required every decade. This option may be attractive for small treatment plants, but it is impractical for larger treatment plants. Lagoon storage of water treatment plant solids may be an attractive alternative for the short term. However, the lagoon will eventually be filled. Reuse of the land may require varying degrees of reclamation of the lagoon. Burial in a Landfill: Water treatment plant wastes disposed of in a sanitary landfill must first have solids concentrated to a semisolid or cake form. When properly dewatered, sludge may be disposed of using sludge-only trenches or area fill techniques. Alternatively, sludge may be co-disposed with refuse. Because of new environmental laws, the number of acceptable landfills has been greatly reduced and the cost of opening and closing landfills is much higher than it was just a few years ago. Beneficial Reuse: The beneficial reuse of water treatment residuals has not been developed to the same degree as the reuse of biosolids in municipal wastewater treatment. However, a number of utilities have developed programs for the preparation and marketing of water treatment plants for reuse. Some of the examples of beneficial reuse includethe following: Land application. Land application is the most prevalent form of beneficial reuse of water treatment residuals. Applications have included cropland, sod farming, forest lands, citrus groves, and arid climatized plant nurseries. The typical value of the residuals is as an additional source of moisture. Certain types of residual can also provide mineral requirements such as iron. Recent studies have shown that land application of alum or iron water treatment plant residuals can be a successful method of protecting surface water quality by reducing the amount of dissolved phosphorus from agricultural runoff water. The water treatment residuals act as a sorbent. Composting. Water treatment residuals have been mixed with biosolids and other organic wastes in compost piles. The water treatment residuals offer moisture, pH modification, and bulking. Mixing with biosolids. It may be possible to combine dewatered residuals with dewatered biosolids cake to produce a product with potential agricultural benefits. Based on information obtained through researching previous case studies and consulting professionals in the biosolid residual disposal field, a minimum ratio of 3 parts biosolids to 1 part residual may be required to produce a product that could
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potentially be marketed for land application. Additional evaluation and testing, with consideration for the specific projected biosolids and residuals cake properties, would be required to determine the appropriate ratios. Cement manufacturing. Both lime and coagulant residuals can serve to a limited degree as substitute materials in the cement manufacturing process. Brick making. Coagulant solids provide silts and clays that are used in the manufacture of bricks. Experimentation with this process has been occurring for over 30 years. This process has not proved economically effective; however, research has shown that the water treatment residuals can be used in the process without affecting the quality of the brick. Coagulant recovery. Recovery of the coagulant in the treatment process has been proposed as one method of reducing wastes at treatment facilities. This approach is addressed in further detail elsewhere in this chapter. Nutrient control. Nutrient control is a relatively new form of land application wherein water treatment residuals are mixed with polluted soils to bind soil phosphorus and nitrogen. This can reduce nutrient concentrations in the runoff from affected areas. Road subgrade. Lime softening wastes have been effectively used for road subgrade after mixing with rock. Landfill cover. Residuals can be used in combination with other fill materials to serve as cover material for landfill cells.

b. Sludge Treatment Techniques Economics, regulatory requirements, and various other factors may result in the need for utilities to provide treatment of residuals before transport and disposal. The purpose of these processes is usually to reduce the quantity of liquids being transported with the solids. Fig. 1 shows treatment categories that generally handle coagulant sludges, softening sludges, and filter backwash waste. The three primary categories of residuals treatment processes are thickening, dewatering, and drying. These categories are typically delineated according to the ranges of solids concentration of the cakes produced as the end product of each process. The minimum acceptable cake dryness for residuals will depend on the ultimate disposal site requirements. Municipal landfills generally require that cake pass the paint filter test. At cake solids less than 15% to 20%, the cake may not pass the paint filter test.

FIG. 1 Percent dry solids for treatment of coagulant and lime sludges i. Thickening Processes

Thickening is typically the first step toward reducing the quantity of water treatment residuals. The products of the process are a low solids return flow and a thickened solids byproduct flow. Return flow is generally returned to the water treatment processes, termed used water recovery. The thickened solids flow is either further thickened or transported off-site for disposal. Thickening has traditionally been used at water treatment plants in tandem with a dewatering or drying step. The function of thickening is to reduce land area requirements or mechanical needs of dewatering. There are three types of thickening: Gravity Flotation Mechanical Gravity Thickening: Gravity thickening is the most predominantly used technique at water treatment plants. It reduces sludge bulk, provides a more consistent feed material, and reduces the size of subsequent dewatering units. Polymer is often added to increase particle size and reduce solids carryover in reclaimed water. A section of a typical gravity thickener is shown in Figure 2. Sedimentation basin sludge is usually less than 1% solids when drawn off and can often be thickened to 2% solids. Aluminum and iron hydroxides may be conditioned with the aid of polymers to provide improved thickening. Typical design parameters reported for alum sludge thickening are 240 to 490 m/h when conditioned with polymers. Alum sludges mixed with clay or lime have exhibited thickened concentrations ranging from 3% to 9% at higher overflow rates than sludges without clay or lime. Lime sludge thickening provides more concentrated solids and a more consistent feed material for dewatering units. Solids loading levels from 290 to 980 kg/m 2 of solids of thickener surface area per day are common. High magnesium hydroxide concentrations reduce sludge dewaterability and thus reduce the density of thickened sludge.

FIG. 2 Gravity thickener section

Flotation Thickening: Flotation thickening has been used with a significant amount of success in the wastewater industry. Dissolved air flotation and recycle flotation are the two forms of flotation thickening. In the dissolved air flotation thickening process, air is added at pressures in excess of atmospheric pressure either to the incoming residual stream or to a separate liquid stream. When pressure is reduced and turbulence is created, air in excess of that required for saturation at atmospheric pressure leaves the solution as very small bubbles of 50- to 100-m diameter. Bubbles adhere to the suspended particles or become enmeshed in the solids matrix. Because the average density of the solids-air aggregate is less than that of water, the agglomerate floats to the surface. Water drains from the material that floats to the surface, called float; the float is continuously removed by skimmers.

FIG. 3 Floatation Thickener Mechanical Thickening: In situations where it is not possible to obtain adequate thickening of sludge by using gravity or flotation thickening, mechanical thickening equipment may be used. The most commonly used type is gravity belt thickeners, but other mechanical thickening processes may also be considered. Gravity Belt Thickeners: A gravity belt thickener concentrates solids by letting gravity pull the free water through a moving porous belt. Free water passing through the belt is called filtrate. Figure 4 illustrates a typical gravity belt thickener. A polymer solution is normally injected and mixed into the solids in a chamber that feeds the gravity thickening zone. Fixed or adjustable flows guide the solids as water drains through the moving belt. Thickened solids are then discharged from the end of the thickener as the belt reaches the end roller. A scraper or an adjustable ramp is used to assist removal of the solids to a sludge hopper. A belt wash station then cleans the belt before it rotates back to the front roller.

FIG. 4 Gravity Belt Thickeners

FIG. 5 Gravity belt thickener schematic Gravity belt thickeners have maximum hydraulic and solids loading rates that vary according to the manufacturer's design and the character of the sludge to be thickened. Actual loading rate is usually determined by pilot or bench testing. Concentration of 2.5% to 4.5% solids of metal hydroxide sludges can usually be achieved.

ii.

Dewatering Processes.

Dewatering processes are typically separated into two groups: natural and mechanical. The difference between thickening, dewatering, and drying processes at times can blur. Natural dewatering processes, in particular, can receive concentrated waste flows directly from the

main treatment stream and process these flows to a solids concentration that corresponds to the drying process. A. Natural Dewatering Processes Natural dewater refers to those methods of sludge dewatering that remove moisture by natural evaporation, gravity, or induced drainage. These processes are less complex, are easier to operate, and require less energy to operate than mechanical systems. However, they require a large land area, the operation depends on climatic conditions, and they are laborintensive. Natural dewatering typically uses the following mechanisms for the concentration of the solids stream: Sedimentation Drainage, or percolation Evaporation Decanting Natural dewatering processes are typically broken down into two categories: drying beds and lagoons. The two processes are typically differentiated by the depth of loading in the basin. Drying beds are typically loaded between 0.3 and 0.9 m in depth; lagoons are typically loaded between 1.5 and 6.1 m in depth. a. Drying Beds The lower loading depth can generally translate to both a more rapid cycle period and a greater surface area or land requirement depending on how the dewatering mechanisms are utilized. There are four basic categories of drying beds: Sand drying beds. These rectangular beds with sand or gravel bottoms contain a piped underdrain system to remove percolated water. Solar drying beds. These rectangular beds have the bottoms sealed with asphalt pavement or concrete to prevent percolation (to comply with local groundwater regulations). Wedgewire beds. These use a wedgewire septum with the goal of utilizing a filtration mechanism through sludge packed along the septum. Vacuum-assisted drying beds. These beds utilize a mechanical system to generate a vacuum over the bottom of the drying beds to enhance natural percolation.

Sand Drying Beds: Sand drying beds were initially developed for dewatering municipal wastewater biosolids but have since also been used to dewater residuals from water treatment plants. Drainage (percolation), decanting, and evaporation are the primary mechanisms for dewatering residuals in sand drying beds and are utilized in a two-step process until the desired cake concentration is achieved. Following residuals application, free water is allowed to drain from the residuals into a sand bottom from which it is transported via an underdrain system consisting of a series of lateral collection pipes. This process continues until the sand is clogged with fine particles or until all the free water has been drained, which may require several days. Secondary free water removal by decanting can take place once a supernatant layer has formed. Decanting can also be utilized to remove rainwater that would otherwise hinder the overall drying process. Water remaining after initial drainage and decanting is removed by evaporation over a period of time necessary to achieve the desired final solids
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concentration. Manufacturers have developed variations of this standard design, such as replacing the sand with a porous, rigid material or adding vacuum to the underdrain area to speed the water release process.

FIG. 6 Sand Drying Beds Solar Drying Beds: Solar drying bed construction shares many common characteristics with drying beds. However, the sealing of the bed bottom and loss of the percolation mechanism impact the overall design. The bed bottom is designed with either concrete or asphalt pavement. The divider walls are typically concrete. These walls are usually placed monolithically or installed with waterstop to prevent leakage into either the subsurface or adjacent basins. The loss of the percolation mechanism places a greater emphasis on evaporation and decanting. Some facilities utilize a mechanism to turn over the sludge. Facilities can use a tractor-mounted horizontal auger or other device to regularly mix and aerate the sludge. Mixing and aeration break up the surface crust that inhibits evaporation. Bed sizing must take into consideration the ability of a mixing vehicle or loader to navigate within the bed. Vacuum-Assisted Drying Beds: In vacuum-assisted drying, a vacuum is applied to the underside of rigid, porous media plates on which chemically conditioned sludge has been placed. The vacuum draws free water through the plates, and essentially all sludge solids are retained on top, forming a cake of fairly uniform thickness. Solids can be concentrated to between 11% and 17%, depending on the type of solids and the kind and amount of conditioning agents used. One problem encountered with this system involves improper conditioning of the sludge. The wrong type of polymer, ineffective mixing of polymer and solids slurry, and incorrect dosage result in poor performance of the bed. In addition, overdosing polymer may lead to progressive plate clogging and the need for special cleaning procedures to regain plate permeability. Plate cleaning is critically important. If it is not performed regularly and properly, media plates will clog and the beds will not perform as expected. The special cleaning measures then required are costly and time-consuming. Wedgewire Beds: The wedgewire, or wedgewater, process is physically similar to the vacuum-assisted drying beds. The medium in this case consists of a septum with wedgeshaped slots about 0.01 in. (0.25 mm) wide. This septum supports the sludge cake and allows
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drainage through the slots. Through a controlled drainage process, a small hydrostatic suction is exerted on the bed, removing water from the sludge.

FIG. 7 Wedgewire Beds b. Dewatering Lagoons Lagoons are one of the oldest processes used to handle water treatment residuals. Lagoons can be used for storage, thickening, dewatering, or drying. In some instances, lagoons have been used for final disposal of residuals. The traditional lagoon consists of either an earthen berm built on the ground surface or a large basin excavated in the ground. Lagoon depth typically varies from 1.2 to 6.1 m. The surface area of lagoons ranges from 0.5 to 15 acres. Lagoon bottoms often have been installed unlined to allow dewatering by percolation. This type of approach can have operational problems due to the blinding of the soil pores with sludge with the subsequent reduction in the infiltration rate. Lagoons can also be designed with underdraln systems similar to the approach used for sand drying beds. State and local regulations have become more stringent with regard to preventing pollution of groundwater and may affect the design of water treatment residual lagoons. Liners using materials such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), leachate collection systems, and monitoring wells are becoming common features of lagoon designs. A typical section for a lined lagoon is shown in Figure 8

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FIG. 8 Dewatering Lagoons

B. Mechanical Dewatering Several mechanical devices are available to dewater water treatment plant residuals. However, only five general types are in common usecentrifuges, plate and frame filter presses, diaphragm filter presses, belt filter presses, and vacuum filters. Vacuum filters have only found use on lime sludges whereas the other four are used on coagulant as well as lime sludges. Centrifuges, belt presses, and vacuum filters are all considered low-pressure systems, whereas the other two types of filter presses can both operate at higher pressures and thus produce a higher-solids-concentration cake. Vacuum Filters: Many types of vacuum filters exist. Each is subject to the same limitation; that is, the maximum theoretical pressure differential that can be applied is atmospheric, 103 kPa (14.7 psi). In practice, a differential pressure of about 70 kPa (10 psi) is achieved. The equipment itself consists of a horizontal cylindrical drum that rotates partially submerged in a vat of sludge that, in order to assist dewatering is usually conditioned by either a coagulant or a body feed such as fly ash. The drum surface is covered by a filtering medium that is fine enough to retain a thin cake of sludge solids as it is formed. The filtering medium usually consists of a fabric mesh. The
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drum surface is divided into sections around its circumference. Each section is sealed from its adjacent section and the ends of the drum. A vacuum is applied to the appropriate zone and subsequently to each section of the drum. From 10 to 40 % of the drum surface is submerged in a vat containing the sludge slurry. The submerged area is the cake-forming zone. When the vacuum is applied to this zone, it causes filtrate to pass through, leaving a cake formed on the cloth. The next zone, the cake-drying zone, represents from 40 to 60 percent of the drum surface. In this zone, moisture is removed from the cake under vacuum. The zone terminates at the point where the vacuum is shut off. Finally, the sludge cake enters the cake discharge zone where it is removed from the medium.

FIG. 9 Vacuum Filter

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Belt Filter Presses: Belt filter presses use a combination of gravity draining and mechanical pressure to dewater sludges. A typical belt filter press consists of a chemical conditioning stage, a gravity drainage\ stage, and a compression dewatering stage. The dewatering process starts after the feed sludge has been properly conditioned, usually with polymer. The slurry enters the gravity drainage stage, where it is evenly distributed onto a moving porous belt. Readily drainable water passes through the belt as the slurry travels over the full length of the dewatering stage. Typically, 1 or 2 min are necessary to allow for the filtrate separation in the drainage stage.

FIG. 10 Belt Filter Presses Following gravity drainage, the partially dewatered sludge enters the compression dewatering stage. Here, the sludge is sandwiched between two porous cloth media belts which travel in an S-shape path over numerous rollers. Both belts operate under a specific tension which induces dewatering pressure onto the sludge. The S-shape path the sludge follows creates shear forces which assist in the dewatering process. The compressive and shear forces working on the sludge increase over the length of this dewatering stage. The final sludge cake is removed from the belts by blades. Proper sludge conditioning is considered critical for obtaining acceptable dewatering results. A typical sludge-conditioning unit consists of chemical conditioner storage, metering pumps, mixing equipment (chemical and chemical/sludge), controls, and process piping.

Centrifuges: A centrifuge performs solids separation by applying a centrifugal force to the contents of a spinning bowl. The centrifugal force applied in municipal sludge dewatering is typically over 1,500 times that of gravity. Several types of centrifuges have been used for solids separation in industry. The solid bowl centrifuge has developed into the principal unit used for large-scale municipal water treatment residuals dewatering. It has also been referred to as the scroll or decanter centrifuge. A schematic view of a solid bowl centrifuge is shown in Figure 11. The centrifuge uses two rotating elements: the bowl and the scroll. The bowl provides the solids separating force; the scroll moves the solids toward discharge from the
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unit. The bowl and the scroll operate at different speeds. Solid bowl centrifuges operate continuously rather than in a batch mode. Liquid separated from the solids is termed centrate. Inside the spinning bowl the liquid level is a constant distance from the rotating axis. Liquid level is controlled by weirs or dams at the end of the machine.

FIG.11 Centrifuge The centrifuge shown in the figure is called a countercurrent centrifuge. In this design the solids and the centrate are discharged from opposite ends of the machine. An alternative design approach, called a cocurrent centrifuge, diverts centrate into a series of conduits that travel parallel to the direction of the solids discharge. Manufacturers publish the relative advantages and disadvantages of each machine type. A centrifuge facility design must either predetermine a centrifuge type or be flexible enough to handle alternate solids and centrate discharge points. Centrifuges are rarely operated without a conditioning chemical.

Filter Presses: The filter press is another process option available for dewatering sludge, and it generally produces the highest final cake concentration of any of the mechanical dewatering devices. Early filter presses were used frequently in Europe for dewatering thin slurries, such as china clays and wastewater sludges. Their practical use for water treatment residuals began around 1965. Experiments commenced in England in 1956, but were disappointing until the advent of the use of polymers as conditioners. The first known uses in the United States were at the Atlanta Waterworks and at the Little Falls Treatment Plant of the Passaic Valley Water Commission. At the beginning of a filter cycle, sludge is forced into contact with the cloth, which retains the solid matter while passing the liquid filtrate. Very quickly the cloth becomes coated with a cake of sludge solids, and all future filtering occurs through this cake, which increases in depth as succeeding layers build up. The type of cloth does not affect the rate of filtration after the first few minutes, and it can be ignored from a theoretical point of view.
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Filter presses are heavy, cumbersome pieces of equipment demanding costly foundations and relatively large buildings. Apart from minor refinements, for several decades filter press design changed little until the advent of the diaphragm filter. The original design of the plate and frame filter (Fig. 12) consisted of a series of frames into which sludge is passed under high pressure, up to 1570 kPa (225 psi), in order to dewater the sludge against the outer clothcovered plate. The depth of the cake was consequently fixed, being governed by the distance between filter plates. Different sizes of plates were manufactured to give cakes of; for example, 19, 25, or 38 mm (34, 1, or 112 in) depth. Such filters have been used to dewater sludge in an acceptable manner for many years.

FIG.12 Filter Press A considerable change in design resulted with the introduction of diaphragm filters. The advantage of this system is that the thickness of the cake is infinitely variable within the limits of the machine dimensions. Sludge is filtered through a cloth for a fixed period of time, perhaps 20 min, at which stage the sludge supply is cut off and water or compressed air is applied behind an expandable diaphragm that further squeezes water out of the sludge. The cake is dislodged by shaking or by rotating the cloth, depending on the manufacturers design, and falls into a hopper for disposal. Hanging cakes, where the cake refuses to leave the cloth, an unhappy feature of the older plate and frame press, are consequently eliminated.
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Lime Sludge Pelletization: Kneale and Doe have reported on a technique to provide a means of lime sludge disposal for plants in which recalcining or dewatering is not feasible nor attractive. In this approach, the water and the chemicals are introduced into a cone-shaped, bottom apex vertical tank tangentially at the apex (Figure 13). Sand (about 100 mesh in size) which serves as a nucleus for formation of calcium carbonate pellets is introduced at the top of the tank. The resulting sand-sludge mixture is maintained in suspension by the upward spiralling flow of water. Calcium carbonate plate out on the sand, forming hard pellets which grow in size until the vertical flow water can no longer maintain the suspension. The pellets drop to apex of the tank and are periodically discharged to a sump of dewatering. The pelletized sludge contains only 5-10 percent water. The limitations on this approach are: magnesium content should be less than 10; in cold climates, the reactors must be enclosed in head structures. Excessive magnesium hydroxide which does not plate out on the nuclei and will quickly clog downstream filters. Also, upflow rates (about 10 gpm/ft2) are too high to permit removal of suspended solids which will also pass on to down-stream filters. However, the resulting economics in sludge handling may be great enough to consider adding reactor ahead of a conventional clarifier. The resulting pellets may be disposed of in landfill. Also, they have been used as abrasives for sandblasting, used as a soil conditioner, and used as a decorative gravel around shrubbery.

FIG. 13 Lime Sludge Pelletization Reactor

iii.

Drying

Drying of water treatment plant residuals has historically revolved on the issue of economics--how to reduce disposal transportation costs through reducing solids volume. Drying to solids concentrations greater than 35% is becoming a regulatory issue in many areas. For instance, the state of California requires that solids concentration of a water treatment plant waste be at least 50% before disposal in a landfill. Similar to the dewatering process, the drying process may be carried out either through open-air means or through mechanical devices.
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Open-Air Drying: Any of the solar drying or lagoon processes presented in the discussion of dewatering may be used for sludge drying. Drying depends only on evaporation, so it may require years to achieve the desired solids concentrations. One method of accelerating the drying is to use a tractor to periodically furrow and mix the solids to increase exposure to sun and air. Mechanical Drying: Mechanical, or thermal, drying provides an alternative to open air drying in locations where space is limited or environmental concerns are prohibitive. Thermal drying uses heat to evaporate water from sludge. There are no currently known applications of thermal drying at municipal water treatment plants within the United States. However, the technology has been used to a limited degree in municipal wastewater treatment in this country. There are two basic categories of thermal drying processes: Direct. Direct thermal drying processes work on the principle of convection with direct contact between the heating medium and the sludge being processed. Indirect. Indirect drying processes work on the principle of conduction with the heating medium (water, steam, air, oil) physically separated from the sludge being processed.

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Waste Water Treatment Plant Sludge

During the treatment of sewage in municipal waste water treatment plant process residual generate are: Screenings Grit Grease and Scum Sludge generated in PST, SST and Biological Unit OF SLUDGE PRODUCE DURING WATER

3. DIFFERENT TYPES TREATMENT

Screenings: Screenings contain debris removed from the coarse bar racks typically consists of wood, tree limbs, rocks, and other large items. Debris removed from the bar screens typically includes rags, small plastic objects, leaves, paper, and other small objects. Grit: Wastewater grit material generally consists of fine, discrete, non-biodegradable particles that have a settling velocity greater than that of organic solids. Such materials include sand, cinders, rocks, coffee grounds, cigarette filter tips, and other relatively nonputrescible organic and inorganic substances. Grease and Scum: In general, grease and scum collected at the surface of grit removers, grease separators and primary settling tanks, cannot be reused. Sludge: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has defined sewage sludge as any solid, semisolid, or liquid residue removed during the treatment of municipal wastewater or domestic sewage, including solids removed during primary, secondary, or advanced wastewater treatment, scum, septage, and sewage sludge products. Instead of using the term sludge, some specialists have used the terms residual, sediments, solids, slime-solid, or biosolids, depending on its condition or its usefulness and whether it meets the applicable criteria for that particular term. Sludge is a suspension including solid and semisolid materials separated and generated from the liquid wastewater stream of a treatment plant during purification of municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater, or natural water in mechanical, biological, or physicochemical facilities. Three principal categories of sewage sludge can be identified: primary, derived from mechanical and preliminary treatments; secondary or waste activated, from biological treatments; and tertiary, from final physicochemical treatments. The main and more useful process of municipal wastewater purification is the biological activated sludge process. The by-products of this process are two types of sludge, such as primary and waste activated sludge, containing up to 99% of contaminants removed from wastewater.

4. PROCESS RESIDUAL DISPOSAL METHODS The management of sewage sludge is a major problem in wastewater treatment. Sludge amounts to about 2% by volume of processed sewage, but handling it accounts for up to 50% of total operating costs. Furthermore, during the last few years, there has been a worldwide movement toward a common strategy for any kind of waste; the priorities are reusing waste materials and taking advantage of their energy content.
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Treatment of process residual can be done by many units like thickener, digester, drying beds, dewatering units, incinerators, landfill etc. depending on the characteristics of residue. a. Disposal of screenings Disposal methods of screenings include burial, incineration, digestion and grinding. Open area disposal is prohibited. Most smaller plants dispose their screenings by burial. Each day they add a cover of approximately 6 in. over buried screenings to prevent fly and odour problems. Large plants often use incineration to dispose screenings alone or mixed with dewatered sludge. Dewatering the screenings with press is usually recommended. The heating value of screening is between 5000 to 8000 Btu per pound of dry solids. Screenings Presses. Screenings presses not only allow for debris to be accepted by landfills by removing excess water, but also reduce the volume of debris for more efficient disposal. Screenings presses (Figure 14) consist of a ram, a hopper section, and a wedge section. Presses operate at a range of 4500 to 6000 kPa (1500 to 2000 psig). Similarly, double-walled containers with vacuum hoses attached have demonstrated adequate screening dewatering. These containers comprise a porous inner liner with an outer impermeable shell. Enough water must be removed from the screenings so that they pass the paint-filter liquids test at the landfillThe compacted product may have a water content of 55 to 65%, and a bulk density of 0.6 to 0.65.

FIG. 14 Screening press

b. Disposal of grit Grit extracted by a shovel from small grit channels cannot be reused, and must be buried or landfilled together with screenings. For medium-size facilities, grit hydraulically extracted from grit removers can be separated from its water by:
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Settling in a shallow tank: water is removed through filtering slabs or over a weir, mechanical recovery (Archimedean screw, or reciprocating rake classifier) and storage in a fixed hopper or skip, Hydrocycloning and storage in a hopper with an overflow weir, Hydrocycloning and recovery by Archimedean screw before storage in a fixed hopper or movable skip.

Washing by make-up water on the Archimedean screw can also be considered. In large facilities, grit is sometimes washed before hopper storage, in a basin equipped with an efficient air mixing system which receives the water/grit mix pumped from the grit chambers. A washed grit that is quite clean can be reused on-site (setting up drying beds). Hydrocyclones: Hydrocyclones (Figure 15) use centrifugal force in a cone-shaped unit to separate grit and organics from the wastewater. A pump discharges a slurry of grit and organics into the cyclone at a controlled rate. The slurry enters the cyclone tangentially near its upper perimeter. This feed velocity creates a vortex that produces a grit slurry at the lower, narrower opening and a larger volume of slurry containing mostly volatile material at the upper port. The grit stream falls into a grit washer, and the degritted flow leaves the cyclone through the opening near the top of the unit and is returned to the treatment process. In some systems, a mechanical mixer induces the centrifugal effect.

FIG. 15 Hydro-Cyclone Classifiers. Grit classifiers (Figure 16) effectively remove organics from the grit. Screw and rake grit classifiers have proved to be reliable and usually produce a product low in organics. To ensure a low volatile content, however, ample dilution water is required. Pumps normally provide sufficient dilution water, but bucket elevators may not, especially during periods of peak grit capture. Consequently, they may require supplementary liquid. Grit washing occurs at the low end of the classifier in a well that has an adjustable weir to govern the depth of liquid above the settled grit. Most washers are equipped with spray nozzles to remove stray putrescibles. For optimum washing, some cyclones use an adjustable lower orifice to change the volume of liquid discharged with the grit.

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FIG. 16 Grit classifier

c. Disposal of grease and scum One possibility is to send this kind of waste to anaerobic digestion (after having been fine screened during its hydraulic transfer); this arrangement usually increases gas production, but at the risk of producing a scum layer. It can also be incinerated with sludge or screened matter, if the furnace and handling conditions allow it. d. Disposal of sludge Treatment options are numerous, but (1) thickening and dewatering to reduce sludge volume and subsequent handling costs and (2) stabilization to reduce putrescibility due to organic matter are of prevailing interest. Disinfection also plays an important role. Thickening: Thickening, normally carried out before stabilization reduces sludge volume by two to three times. Generally, solids concentration remains below 10%, the sludge behaves as a liquid, and is still pumpable by conventional equipment. Gravity thickening in tanks is often the most cost effective method. A thickener may be provided with vertical pickets to facilitate the release of water and gases. Loading rates range from 1.6 to 3.3 kg/m2/h for mixed sludges, and hydraulic retention times are lower than 24 h to avoid odour problems. As an alternative, sludges can also be thickened by various mechanical systems, such as drainage belts, rotary-drum thickeners, and centrifuges, which sometimes require adding a polyelectrolyte for sludge conditioning. Sludges can be also thickened by dissolved air flotation units. Dewatering: By dewatering, volume reduction greater than by thickening is obtained, and the sludge becomes paste-like. To improve performance, dewatering is generally preceded by
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conditioning (chemical or physical). In chemical conditioning, the particle charge is neutralized, and flocculation is promoted by organic reagents (polymeric macromolecular compounds characterized by monomer type, molecular weight, ionic charge, and degree of hydrolysis) or inorganic reagents (such as iron and aluminum salts, lime, or a combination). The conditioner type and dosage can be assessed by general laboratory tests, for example, a jar test, specific resistance to filtration and CST, and specific tests for each type of dewatering technology. Physical methods include thermal conditioning, freezing, and the use of inorganic admixtures. Thermal conditioning involves heating sludge at 180220o C for 30 90 minutes; sludge sterilization also occurs. Conditioning by freezing seems to be justified only if accomplished by natural means. The use of inorganic substances (e.g., ash, diatomaceous earth) can produce a mixture that has improved filtering characteristics and is usually less compressible than the sludge alone. Dewatering can be accomplished naturally (by drying beds) or mechanically (by filtration or centrifugation). i. Drying Beds

When land is available, dewatering by nature can be attractive. On the beds, sludge is placed 1530 cm deep, and the time required to reach a liftable state ranges from a few days to several months, depending on climate and sludge characteristics. The area required ranges from 0.05 to 1.40 m2/cap. Lagoons are similar, but sludge is placed at depths 3 to 4 times greater than in a bed. Lagoons are generally used for long-term storage and, eventually, for cold digestion.

FIG. 17 Sludge Drying Bed ii. Mechanical Equipment

Mechanical dewatering can take place by filtration, with a filter press or belt press, or by centrifugation. Schemes of these machines are shown in Fig. 1. Filtration under pressure is carried out for 1.56.0 h at 0.51.4 MPa and is the only operation that allows a cake concentration >30%. Conventional plate filter press operation requires a great deal of labor to open and clean equipment, and yield is low. The automation of plate movement and cloth washing make labor reduction possible, and yield can be increased by using membrane type machines. In belt pressing, dewatering takes place through an initial drainage step followed by compression under rollers, where sludge also undergoes shearing action due to the relative movement of the two belts. Specific flow rates of 23 m3/h/m belt width are common for municipal sewage sludge, and cake concentrations of 2530% can be expected. Special care must be taken in belt washing which requires a rinsing water flow rate of 50200% of that of input sludge.

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The type of centrifuge used mostly consists of a cylindricalconical shell (bowl), which has an internal Archimedean screw (scroll/conveyor) that revolves at a speed slightly lower than that of the bowl. The solidliquid separation takes place like sedimentation but at g values up to 3000. Pool depth, beach length, and bowl/conveyor differential speed are the most important variables that affect performance. The main advantages consist of indoor solid liquid separation and limited equipment size, but cake concentrations higher than 25% are normally difficult to obtain. The main general features of filter presses, belt presses, and centrifuges are summarized in Table 2. Innovations include the development of screw presses, continuous filter presses, high-pressure belt presses, and new generation centrifuges, such as the centripress. Table 2. Dewatering Equipment Features

FIG. 18 Schemes of dewatering machines

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Stabilization: Stabilization is employed mainly for odor control, although pathogen reduction is also achieved. Available options are biological stabilization (anaerobic digestion, aerobic stabilization, and composting), normally permanent in effect, and chemical stabilization (by lime addition), normally temporary. The addition of various oxidizing chemicals (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, etc.) is another possibility, but less used. i. Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion consists of biological degradation of organic substances in the absence of free oxygen. The organic matter is first liquified and converted by acid forming bacteria to short-chain acids, then converted by strictly anaerobic methanogenic bacteria to methane, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. Factors that affect the process are feeding modalities, mixing (external pumping, internal mechanical mixing, and internal gas mixing), temperature, pH, bicarbonate alkalinity, volatile acids, and toxics. Typical systems are (1) the low-rate (unheated, unmixed, and intermittently fed); (2) the one-stage high-rate (heated, mixed, and continuously fed); and (3) the two-stage high-rate, a combination of above systems (Fig. 19).

FIG. 19 Anaerobic digestion systems ii. Aerobic Stabilization

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Sludge can be stabilized by simply aerating it in open basins. Alternatives are cold stabilization at ambient temperature and autoheated stabilization in thermophilic conditions at high temperature. Cold stabilization involves relatively large energy use for aeration and mixing. Retention times of 1020 days are normally necessary, but 50 days or more are not uncommon in cold climates. This process is justified at small plants, where the realistic maximum reduction of volatile solids is 40%. In an autoheated process, the heat produced by oxidation of organic matter is conserved to produce a temperature rise to 55 C or more, thus involving stabilization in only 35 days and also sanitizing. The essential prerequisite of this process is effective heat insulation. As an alternative, oxygenation can be provided by pure oxygen. The gas throughput and consequent heat losses can be minimized and the process operated in more favorable conditions. Another system is the dualdigestion process in which sludge is treated at 5070 C by thermophilic aerobic digestion followed by anaerobic digestion without the need for further heating. Composting: Composting is an aerobic process in the solid phase that converts biodegradable organic substances to a stable, hygienic, and humus-like material under the combined activity of a mixed population of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and protozoa. Composting is considered a treatment option to sludge agricultural refuse. The main operating variables that affect performance are (1) moisture content (optimal 50 60%) to support microbial activity; (2) carbon to nitrogen ratio (optimal 2530) to avoid slow processing at high ratios or ammonia volatilization at low ratios; (3) aeration to permit metabolism and respiration of microorganisms and oxidation of organic molecules and avoid development of malodours; (4) temperature (optimal 5560 C) to obtain pathogen reduction without inhibiting microorganism growth; and (5) pH, even if quite a wide range is acceptable (5.58.0). Utilization/Disposal of sludge: i. Land application

Sludge can be used in agriculture by spreading it on land directly or after composting. Direct use leads to several advantages through recycling of nutrients (i.e., inorganic and organic nitrogen and phosphorus) and organic matter which positively affect soil structure by increasing porosity, stability of aggregates, water retention, and also pH and cation exchange capacity. However, this practice raises several problems, mainly from the presence of toxic and phytotoxic pollutants, both inorganic and organic, and pathogens. Although numerous processes that can ensure disinfection have been developed, no such reliable methods exist to neutralize or eliminate heavy metals, so regulations set limits for the maximum concentrations of these metals in sludges and the soil, as well as for the maximum disposable quantities for a certain number of years. ii. Thermal processing

Thermal processing includes incineration, pyrolysis, and drying. 1. Incineration. Incineration involves complete oxidation of volatile matter and the production of an inert residue (ash). If enough water has been removed, the organic material, will sustain combustion; therefore, sludge incineration must be preceded by effective dewatering or drying. The types of sludge incinerators most commonly used are the multiple-hearth furnace
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(MHF) and the fluidized bed furnace (FBF). The rotary kiln furnace (RKF) is typically used for hazardous waste incineration, but it is also suitable for sewage sludge because of its great adaptability (Fig. 20). The advantages are flexibility with respect to feed quality and loading rates and low fuel consumption due to effective heat recovery inside the equipment. The disadvantages include possible odour problems and emissions of volatile substances (due to the low temperature of the exhaust gas), high need for excess air (due to low turbulence), and high maintenance costs because of many moving parts. Moreover, high fuel consumption is needed, if afterburning of exhaust gases is required to destroy volatile compounds and products of incomplete combustion.

FIG. 20 Typical cross sections of furnaces 2. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis is a process in which organic material is decomposed at high temperature in an oxygen-deficient environment. This action causes irreversible chemical changes and produces
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gas, oil, and char (solid residue). The residence time, temperature, and pressure in the reactor are controlled to produce various combinations and compositions of these products. True pyrolysis involves a total absence of air and applying all required heat externally to the reactor. Partial combustion, also known as starved-air combustion, involves adding a small amount of oxygen to the reactor: the oxygen sustains combustion of a portion of the reactor contents which, in turn, produces the heat required to pyrolyze the remainder of the contents. Pyrolysis has the potential advantage of reducing air pollution and producing useful byproducts. 3. Drying Drying is the simplest thermal process for producing a solid product. If metals and organic contaminants are low, dried sludge is an acceptable fertilizer. The main drawback is the cost to evaporate the water from the sludge cake; moreover, the end product must be sold to make the operation economical. Landfilling: Landfilling is a convenient solution where enough space is locally available at reasonable fees. In any case, it is a necessary support to all other systems to dispose of materials that cannot be reused and for maintenance and/or emergency during shutdown periods. Only well-dewatered sludges are suitable for landfilling. Solids concentrations of at least 2025% are generally required, but values up to 3035% are often necessary because the corresponding physical consistency could be too low to support the cover material. A good level of stability is also necessary to avoid possible emissions of bad odors. Co-disposal, with solid wastes or soil, is often practiced.

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References
1. DOMESTIC, MUNICIPAL, AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY AND WASTE DISPOSAL, Jay Lehr & Jack Keeley 2. WATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN, Edward E, Baruth

3. WATER QUALITY & TREATMENT, James K. Edzwald 4. WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK-II, Ondeo Degremont 5. OPERATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS. 6. NEW CONCEPTS IN WATER PURIFICATION, Gordon L. Culp & Russell L. Culp.

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