Heat and Temperature

INTRODUCTION
'HEAT' is a form of energy due to the motion of molecules in a substance' Heat can only be measured by specialised equipment. As heat energy is added to, or removed from, a substance, the molecular motion increases or decreases respectively. 'TEMPERATURE' Is the measurement of 'HEAT INTENSITY' (How Hot or How Cold), and can be measured by using a Thermometer.

Temperature is generally measured in units of C (degrees Celsius or Centigrade), or in F (degrees Fahrenheit). For scientific uses, temperature is measured in 'Degrees Absolute'. These are : 'Kelvin' for the Celsius scale and 'Rankine' for the Fahrenheit scale. (See Figure: 4) As stated, when heat energy is removed from a substance, molecular motion decre ases. If sufficient heat is removed to stop all molecular motion, the substance would contain NO HEAT ENERGY. Such a temperature cannot be attained but, temperatures very near to it have been reached. The Temperature at which all molecular motion would cease is 273 C or -460 F. This temperature is known as : 'ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE' On the Fahrenheit / Rankine scales : Absolute Zero = -460F = 0 R. On the Celsius / Kelvin scales, we have :- Absolute Zero = -273C = 0 K.

Figure: 4 As heat energy is added to, or removed from, a substance, different effects will occur. When addition or removal of heat energy causes a CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE, the change can be sensed and measured with a thermometer. This kind of heat is called : 'SENSIBLE HEAT' When addition or removal of heat energy causes a CHANGE IN STATE, the temperature does not change and the heat energy CANNOT be measured with a thermometer but requires special equipment for its measurement. This kind of heat is called : 'LATENT HEAT' (or 'Hidden Heat').

KINDS OF HEAT ENERGY

1. SENSIBLE HEAT
ADDITION OF SENSIBLE HEAT will cause AN INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE This is the process of 'HEATING'.

REMOVAL OF SENSIBLE HEAT will cause A DECREASE IN TEMPERATURE This is the process of 'COOLING' .

2. LATENT HEAT
ADDITION OF LATENT HEAT will cause A CHANGE IN STATE (WITH NO CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE) i.e. Changing from SOLID to LIQUID is 'LATENT HEAT of FUSION or MELTING' Changing from LIQUID to VAPOUR is 'LATENT HEAT of VAPORISATION' REMOVAL OF LATENT HEAT will also cause A CHANGE IN STATE (WITH NO CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE) i.e. Changing from LIQUID to SOLID is 'LATENT HEAT of FREEZING or SOLIDIFICATION' Changing from VAPOUR to LIQUID is 'LATENT HEAT of CONDENSATION or LIQUEFACTION' Heat energy is measured in units of 'Btu's', 'Calories' (or Kilocalories) and Joules (or Kilo -joules). We now know that Temperature is a measurement of 'How Hot' or 'How Cold', and is measured with a thermometer. Heat energy however, can only be measured by using special equipment called a 'Calorimeter'.

DEFINITIONS
1 BRITISH THERMAL UNIT ( 1 Btu )
This is defined as : 'THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY ADDED TO, OR REMOVED FROM, ONE POUND OF PURE WATER, TO CHANGE ITS TEMPERATURE BY ONE DEGREE FAHRENHEIT'. i.e. 1 LB OF WATER, AT 60 F + 1 BTU = 1LBOFWATERAT 61 F = (Heating) 1 LB OF WATER, AT 60 F - 1 BTU = 1LB OF WATER AT 59 F = (Cooling)

1 CALORIE (Cal)
This is defined as : 'THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY ADDED TO, OR REMOVED FROM, ONE GRAM OF PURE WATER, TO CHANGE ITS TEMPERATURE BY ONE DEGREE CELSIUS (or CENTIGRADE)'.

i.e. 1 gm OF WATER, AT 15 C + 1 CAL = 1 gmOF WATER AT 16 C = (Heating) 1 gm OF WATER, AT 15 C - 1 CAL = 1gm OF WATER AT 14 C = (Cooling) ( 1 Cal = 4.18 Joules ). The amount of heat energy contained in a body, depends on its TEMPERATURE and its QUANTITY. e.g. Let us take two containers, one with 1 lb of water and the other with 10 lbs of wate r and both at a temperature of 32 F. We will now add 180 Btu's to each container. 1 lb of water at 32 F + 180 Btu's = 1 lb of water at 212 F. 10 lbs of water at 32 F + 180 Btu's = 10 lbs of water at 50 F ( 18 Btu / lb )

It can bee seen from the above that, each volume of water contains the same amount of heat energy but, the larger amount is very much cooler.

SPECIFIC HEAT ( S.H. )

This is defined as : 'THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY IN BTU's (or Calories), NEEDED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF ONE POUND (or 1 Gram) OF A SUBSTANCE BY ONE DEGREE FAHRENHEIT (or One Degree Centigrade)' Examples: Water has a Specific Heat of 1.0 which comes from the definition of a BTU or CAL: i.e. 1 lb + 1Btu = +1 F (or Calorie: 1 gm + 1 Cal = +1 C). The Specific Heat of Ice is 0.5. This means that, if 0.5 Btu is added to 1 lb of ice (at a temperature BELOW 32 F), the temperature will increase by 1 F. The Specific Heat of Steam is also 0.5. This means that, if 0.5 Btu is added to 1 lb of steam (at a temperature of 212 F or above), the temperature will increase by 1 F. This would be termed as ' SUPERHEATING' the steam) Different substances have different Specific Heats. LATENT HEAT of MELTING ICE : To change 1 lb of ice at 32 F to 1 lb of water at 32 F, requires the addition of 144 Btu's of heat energy. LATENT HEAT of FREEZING WATER : To change 1 lb of water at 32 F to 1 lb of ice at 32 F, requires the removal of 144 Btu's of heat energy. LATENT HEAT of VAPORISATION of WATER : To change 1 lb of water at 212 F to 1 lb of steam

at 212 F, requires the addition of 970 Btu's of heat energy. LATENT HEAT of CONDENSATION of STEAM : To change 1 lb of steam at 212 F to 1 lb of water at 212 F, requires the removal of 970 Btu's of heat energy. Example 1 : 50 lbs of water at 80 F is cooled and frozen to a temperature of 2 F. Calculate the amount of heat energy removed ( in Btu's ). The calculation is performed in three stages : 1. The water is first cooled to 32 F = (80 -32 = 48 F change = 48 Btu's / lb removed : So: From50 lbs = 50 x 48 = 2,400 Btu's. 2. To change the water at 32 F to ice at 32 F, we remove 50 x 144 Btu's. = 7,200 Btu's 3. To cool the ice from 32 F to 2 F (30 F change), we remove 30 x 0.5 (SH ice) x 50 = 750 Btu's Therefore: Total Btu's removed from the water = 2400 + 7200 + 750 = 10,350 Btu's (See Figure: 5).

Figure: 5

HEAT : S.I. UNITS

As heat is a form of energy, then the S.I. units of heat are the same as for energy : i.e. Joules and Kilo-joules. The terms 'Sensible Heat', 'Latent Heat' and 'Specific Heat', also apply in the S.I. system, just the units are different. In S.I. units, we have the same definitions as in Imperial units, and the following Figures for Sensible and Latent heats : SENSIBLE HEAT: To change the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1C needs 4180 Jou les of heat energy. LATENT HEAT: (of melting): To change 1 kg of ice at 0C to water at 0C requires 335,000 Joules (335 kJ) of heat energy. LATENT HEAT (of vaporisation): To change 1kg of water at 100C to steam at 100C requires 2,257,000 Joules (2 257 kJ) of heat energy. (See Figure: 6) The unit for the quantity of 'Specific Heat' is :- Joules per Kilogram per degree Celsius which has the abbreviation :- J/kg/C . And for 'Latent Heat', the units are Joules per Kilogram :- J/kg . Following are some Specific Heat Figures in J/kg/C for various substances: LEAD 130 ZINC 380 COPPER 380 IRON 460 ALUMINIUM 890 STEAM 2000 ICE 2100 WATER 4180

Figure: 6