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Strength of
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INDEX

- Concept 1: Introduction, Elastic constants, Thermal stresses
o Solved examples on the above concepts
o Previous Gate questions on the above concepts
o List of formulae
o Summary and tips

- Concept 2: Principal Stresses, Mohrs circle, SFD and BMD
o Solved examples on the above concepts
o Previous Gate questions on the above concepts
o List of formulae
o Summary and tips

- Concept 3:Slopes and deflections, columns, Thin vessels
o Solved examples on the above concepts
o Previous Gate questions on the above concepts
o List of formulae
o Summary and tips













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INTRODUCTION
Engineering science is usually subdivided into number of topics such as
1. Solid Mechanics
2. Fluid Mechanics
3. Heat Transfer
4. Properties of materials
Solid mechanics as a subject may be defined as a branch of applied mechanics that deals with
behaviors of solid bodies subjected to various types of loadings. This is usually subdivided into
further two streams i.e. Mechanics of rigid bodies or simply Mechanics and Mechanics of
deformable solids. The mechanics of deformable solids which is branch of applied mechanics is
known by several names i.e. strength of materials, mechanics of materials etc.
MECHANICS OF RIGID BODIES
The mechanics of rigid bodies is primarily concerned with the static and dynamic behavior under
external forces of engineering components and systems which are treated as infinitely strong and
undeformable. Primarily, we deal here with the forces and motions associated with particles and
rigid bodies.
MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE SOLIDS
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
The mechanics of deformable solids is more concerned with the internal forces and associated
changes in the geometry of the components involved. Of particular importance are the properties
of the materials used, the strength of which will determine whether the components fail by
breaking in service, and the stiffness of which will determine whether the amount of deformation
they suffer is acceptable. Therefore, the subject of mechanics of materials or strength of
materials is central to the whole activity of engineering design. Usually the objectives in analysis
here will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and deflections produced by loads.
Theoretical analyses and experimental results have an equal role in this field.
In short, Mechanics of Solids deals with the relation between the loads applied to a solid (non-
rigid) body and the resulting internal forces and deformations induced in the body.

Principle Objective = determine the stresses, strains, and displacements in structures and their
components due to loads acting on them.
Alternate Names = Strength of Materials or Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
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These notes will provide a basis to determine:
- The materials to be used in constructing a machine or structure to perform a given function.
- The optimal sizes and proportions of various elements of a machine or structure.
- If a given design is adequate and economical.
- The actual load carrying capacity of a structure or machine. (structure may have been design
for a purpose other than one being considered)
Lets start.
ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
Concept of stress: Let us introduce the concept of stress as we know that the main problem of
engineering mechanics of material is the investigation of the internal resistance of the body, i.e.
the nature of forces set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally applied forces.
The externally applied forces are termed as loads. These externally applied forces may be due to
any one of the reason:
- Due to service conditions
- Due to environment in which the component works
- Through contact with other members
- Due to fluid pressures
- Due to gravity or inertia forces.
As we know that in mechanics of deformable solids, externally applied forces acts on a body and
body suffers a deformation. From equilibrium point of view, this action should be opposed or
reacted by internal forces which are set up within the particles of material due to cohesion. These
internal forces give rise to a concept of stress.
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STRESS

Let us consider a rectangular bar of some cross sectional area and subjected to some load or
force (in Newtons) Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar is assumed to be cut into two
halves at section XX. The each portion of this rectangular bar is in equilibrium under the action
of load P and the internal forces acting at the section XX has been shown

Now stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit area. Here we use a symbol o to
represent the stress.

UNITS
The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N / m
2
(or Pa)
MPa = 10
6
Pa
GPa = 10
9
Pa
KPa = 10
3
Pa
Sometimes N / mm
2
units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa. While US
customary unit, is pound per square inch psi.
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TYPES OF STRESSES
Only two basic stresses exist: (1) normal stress and (2) shear shear stress. Other stresses either
are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of this e.g. bending stress is a combination
tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft is a
shearing stress.
Let us define the normal stresses and shear stresses in the following sections.
Normal stresses: We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the
areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are generally
denoted by a Greek letter ( o )

This is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses acts only in one direction
however, such a state rarely exists, therefore we have biaxial and triaxial state of stresses where
either the two mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts or three mutually perpendicular
normal stresses acts as shown in the figures below :

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TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE STRESSES
The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive whether the stresses acts out of the area
or into the area

Bearing Stress: When one object presses against another, it is referred to a bearing stress (They
are in fact the compressive stresses).


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SHEAR STRESSES
Let us consider now the situation, where the cross sectional area of a block of material is subject
to a distribution of forces which are parallel, rather than normal, to the area concerned. Such
forces are associated with a shearing of the material, and are referred to as shear forces.

The resulting force intensities are known as shear stresses, the mean shear stress being equal to

Where P is the total force and A the area over which it acts.
As we know that the particular stress generally holds good only at a point therefore we can
define shear stress at a point as

The Greek symbol
t (tau) (suggesting tangential) is used to denote shear stress.
However, it must be borne in mind that the stress (resultant stress) at any point in a body is
basically resolved into two components o and t one acts perpendicular and other parallel to the
area concerned, as it is clearly defined in the following figure.
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The single shear takes place on the single plane and the shear area is the cross - sectional of the
rivet, whereas the double shear takes place in the case of Butt joints of rivets and the shear area is
the twice of the X - sectional area of the rivet.
CONCEPT OF STRAIN
If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress the bar will change in length. If the bar
has an original length L and changes by an amount oL, the strain produce is defined as follows:

Strain is thus, a measure of the deformation of the material and is a nondimensional Quantity i.e.
it has no units. It is simply a ratio of two quantities with the same unit.
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Since in practice, the extensions of materials under load are very very small, it is often
convenient to measure the strain in the form of strain x 10
-6
i.e. micro strain, when the symbol
used becomes e.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR STRAIN
Tensile strains are positive whereas compressive strains are negative. The strain defined earlier
was known as linear strain or normal strain or the longitudinal strain; now let us define the shear
strain.
Definition: An element which is subjected to a shear stress experiences a deformation as shown
in the figure below. The tangent of the angle through which two adjacent sides rotate relative to
their initial position is termed shear strain. In many cases the angle is very small and the angle
itself is used, (in radians), instead of tangent, so that = Z AOB - Z A'OB' = |
Shear strain: As we know that the shear stresses acts along the surface. The action of the
stresses is to produce or being about the deformation in the body consider the distortion
produced b shear sheer stress on an element or rectangular block
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This shear strain or slide is | and can be defined as the change in right angle or the angle of
deformation is then termed as the shear strain. Shear strain is measured in radians and hence is
non-dimensional, i.e. it has no unit. So we have two types of strain, i.e. normal stress and shear
stresses.
NORMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS

Consider a Prismatic Bar

PRISMATIC = straight member with constant cross section




P = AXIAL FORCE, bar is in tension

SIDE VIEW










P P
L
Before Loading
After Loading

d
P P
m
n
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Cut the bar at mn and draw a FBD of the left part of the bar





If continuously distributed, the resultant is:

R = A _____________________________(a)

A = cross-sectional area
The bar is in equilibrium,

R = P _______________________________(b)

From (a) and (b):
P = A ______________________________(c)

Solve for the stress,

A
P
= o ____________________________(1-1)

UNITS:
AREA
FORCE


US SI
1 psi = 1 lbs / sq. in. 1 N / m
2
= 1 Pa (PASCAL)
1,000 lbs = 1 kip 1 N/ mm
2
= 1 MPa (m = 10
-3
; M = 10
6
)
1,000 psi = 1 ksi
1 psi 7,000 Pa

Normal Stress = stress to the cut surface.

Can be TENSILE or COMPRESSIVE

Tensile Stress = stretching or pulling member; member is in tension

Compressive Stress = compressing or compacting member; member is in compression

Sign Convention: Tensile = + stress
Compressive = - stress


m
n
P

These forces are continuously
distributed over the cross sectional.
The intensity of the force is called
STRESS , = (SIGMA)

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NOTE: Eqn (1-1) is only valid if:
- is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the member.
- The axial force P acts thru the centroid (center of massgravity) of the cross-section.
When stress is not uniformly distributed over cross section, the Eqn (1-1) gives the AVERAGE
NORMAL STRESS.
When P does not act at centroid, bending will occur and analysis is more complex. This is
covered in Chapter 5 in detail.
RECALL the Prismatic Bar, the definition of Strain is:


__________________________(1-2)

UNITS:
LENGTH
LENGTH
(dimensionless but units in which strain was measure are used)

US SI
in / in mm / m
m / m
OR as a percent.

Normal Strain is associated with Normal Stresses ( to the cut surface).
Tensile Strain = member is stretched (+ strain).
Compressive Strain = member is compressed (- strain).
UNIAXIAL STRESS AND STRAIN
The use of Eqns (1-1) and (1-2) are that:
- Deformation of the member is uniform.
- Member is prismatic (straight with constant cross section ).
- Loads act through the centroid of the cross section.
- Material is homogeneous (same throughout all parts of the member).
The stress and strain result for these conditions is called Uniaxial Stress and Strain.
In conclusion:
- Stress provides a measure of the intensity of an internal force.
- Strain provides a measure of the intensity of a deformation.
L
o
c =
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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAMS
Mechanical Properties of materials are determined by testing specimens of the material.
Data obtained = P (load) vs (displacement, elongation)
The AVERAGE axial stress is:
A
P
= o
NOMINAL STRESS (
n)
= stress value when initial area of specimen is used.
TRUE STRESS (
t
) = stress value when actual area of specimen at the time of fracture is used.

n
<
t

The AVERAGE axial strain is:
L
o
c = where,
i f
L L = o
NOMINAL STRAIN (
n
) = stain value when the initial length (L
i
, gauge length ) of the specimen
is used.
TRUE STRAIN (
t
) = strain value when the actual length of the specimen at fracture is used (L
f
).
Also called natural strain.

n
>
t

After testing, the stress vs strain is plotted and the result is a stress strain diagram for the
material tested.
Each material has its own characteristic stress strain diagram. This diagram provided important
information about the mechanical properties behavior for the material.
Structural steel is one of the most used metals and is found in buildings, bridges, cranes, ships,
vehicles.

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Typical Stress Strain Diagram for structural steel.

























DO DIAGRAM IN PARTS

O to A
1. Straight line; stress and strain are proportional
2. The slope of the straight line:
Modulus of Elasticity:
c
o
= E UNITS: same as stress
Beyond A (proportional limit)
3. Stress and strain are no longer proportional

A to B
4. The strain increases more rapidly than the stress. Slope decreases to 0 (zero) at B

B to C
5. Yielding = considerable elongation occurs with no noticeable increase in tensile force.
Thus, B is the Yield Point. Corresponding stress is the Yield Stress.
6. Material is perfectly plastic ( = deforms without increasing applied load)


A
B
D
C
E


O
Proportional
limit
Yield stress
Ultimate
stress
Fracture
Linear
region
Perfect
plasticity
or yielding
Strain
hardening
Necking

E
FIGURE 1-10

(NOT TO SCALE)
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C to D
7. Due to the large strains occurring from B up to C, the crystalline structure of the material
undergoes changes that allow the material to withstand higher loads. This is call Strain
Hardening
8. Eventually a maximum stress value is obtained called, the Ultimate Stress

D to E
9. The specimen continues to be stretched (elongated) even though the load is reduced.
Fracture occurs at E
10. Lateral contractions occur. This results in a decrease in the cross sectional area and is
called Necking. Becomes apparent in the vicinity of the Ultimate Stress

C to E
11. If the actual necked cross sectional area is used to compute the stress, the curve will
follow CE

NOTE: The total load the specimen can carry decreases after the Ultimate Stress is
encountered. However, this is due to the decrease in AREA not to a loss of strength in the
material.
For most cases, the curve OABCDE is used which is based on the initial cross sectional area of
the specimen.
Ductile = ability to undergo large strains before failure.
Ductile Materials:
1. mild steel (low carbon, structural steel)
2. aluminum
3. copper
We have considered what happens when a material (structural steel) is loaded.
What happens during unloading?












A
E
O


F
Elastic Plastic
loading
unloading
unloading
loading
Residual
Strain
Elastic
Recovery
O
A
E
B
F
D
C


ELASTIC BEHAVIOR PARTIALLY ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
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Consider the loading and unloading of a tensile specimen in the following:

O to A
When loading is removed, the material follows exactly the same curve back to O. This property
of the material to return to its original dimensions is called elasticity. Stress-strain curve need not
be linear in the elastic region.

E = Elastic Limit = the max. stress value for which the behavior of the material remains
completely elastic.
Generally, the elastic limit is slight more or the same as the proportional limit.
For mild steel, yield stress, elastic limit, and proportional limit are considered equal.

O to B
When unloaded from B (above the elastic limit), the material will follow BC which is parallel to
a tangent at O on the stress-strain curve.
At C, the load has been completely removed, but a permanent set (residual strain) is now in the
material represented by OC. The tensile specimen is now, longer than it was originally
(permanent set).
OD represents the total strain developed during loading from O to B. Of this, the strain CD has
been recovered elastically. Therefore, the material is partially elastic.
Plasticity = when a material has inelastic strains beyond the strain at the elastic limit.
Plastic Flow = large deformations that occur in ductile materials loaded in the plastic region.












RELOADING
1. new loading begins at C and goes to B (unloading point from previous cycle).
2. from B, original stress-strain curve is followed.
unloading
loading
Residual
Strain
O
A
E
B
F
C


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3. Material is linearly elastic from C to B
4. B is the new Proportional Limit (higher than original Prop. Limit)

Properties of the material are changed by stretching it into the plastic region.
- Linear elastic region is increased
- Proportional Limit is raised
- Elastic limit is raised
- BUT: ductility is reduced because YIELDING from B to F is less than from E to F

NOTE:
- F is not necessarily failure (could be, but not necessarily)
- If B is exceed (new elastic limit), then a new unloading line is created, parallel to CB
which is also, parallel tangent at O.

CREEP

Creep = plastic deformation that continues to increase under a constant stress.
Strains resulting from a constant load over a long period of time.
LINEAR ELASTICITY, HOOKES LAW AND POISSONS RATIO

Linearly Elastic = region where the material is both linear and elastic as illustrated in previous
stress-strain diagrams (from O to A, FIG 1-10). Designs which stay within this region avoid
yielding and permanent deformations.
We defined Modulus of Elasticity as:
c
o
= E (slope of line OA, FIG 1-10)
Also called, Youngs Modulus
Hookes Law: c o E = where = axial stress

= axial strain
only valid when: <
y
Stretching a bar results in the bar getting:
- longer
- thinner
Thinning is due to a lateral strain (strain normal to the direction of applied load).
The lateral strain at a given point in the bar is proportional to the axial strain at that point IF the
material is linearly elastic.

For the lateral strains to be proportional throughout:
1. material must be homogenous (same composition throughout)
2. material must be isotropic (have the same properties in all directions)