Title:

The Net Zero Energy Dwelling Concept Barry Kavanagh 04136861

Student Name: Student Number:

Building Energy Systems (Mechanical) - 2010

Abstract The idea of a Net Zero Energy dwelling is simple. It uses as much energy as it produces. This is quite clearly of huge benefit. This type of home will be cheaper to live in over the long term, and due to its use of renewable energies, will be hugely beneficial to the environment. The idea is simple. The complexities arise when this idea is put into practice. It is only within the past decade that technologies have developed sufficiently for the idea of a true net zero energy home to become a reality. In this paper I will discuss the methods of realising a dwelling such as this while also looking at a little bit of the history. I will separate the discussion of the dwelling into two sections, one being the passive structure and the other being energy generation. While a Net Zero Energy Dwelling doesn't necessarily need to be a passive house, as it could, in theory generate enough energy for its use, it is unlikely that this level of energy could be generated economically enough to warrant dismissal of a passive building envelope. I will then in this case consider a net zero energy dwelling to also be a passive house.

Contents History What is a Net Zero Energy Home Structure Passive Solar Design Insulation Windows Air Tightness Ventilation Space Heating Air Conditioning /Space Cooling Energy Production Photovoltaic Wind CHP Smart Metering The Most Important Factor of Net Zero Energy Dwellings References

History Minimum Energy and Low Energy Houses The late 1960s and early 1970s saw a rise in the idea of environmentalism. For the first time since the Industrial revolution, the idea that we should live in harmony with the world around us, rather than using as many resources as possible, found mainstream acceptance. There were regular shortages in the supply of fossil fuels and the public were extremely fearful of nuclear fuels. This led to the notion that we should attempt to limit the amount of energy we use. In 1979 in the Netherlands, the idea arose of saving energy by investing more money into the initial construction of a house. The idea was to invest about 4,500 1 more than a standard house with the aim of designing integrally from the foundation to the highest point. The scheme was implemented in 1982 and 1983 with 184 houses being built. It was found that despite the initial cost, the reduced energy use resulting in dramatic savings. During the oil shortages of the 1970s Sweden took 77% of its energy from oil. 2 In 1980 the country decided through a national referendum to phase out nuclear power. This meant hard measures had to be taken. The government actively set about reducing the country's energy use. They achieved this through tax discounts, research and investment, but also through regulation. Many of the ideas implemented in these early environmentally friendly buildings have continued and become readily accepted standards. Ideas such as triple glazed windows, rockwool insulation and draught proof dormer windows are now so common that they are no longer even regarded as radical. These ideas progressed as new technologies were developed, and as research was made into design and building methods. A new understanding of a dwelling's relationship to its surroundings and in particular to its solar location was born. Passivhaus In the late 1980s in Germany the idea was further developed into the Passivhaus. These houses, eventually deployed in Darmstadt in 1990, set standards regarding heating demand, primary energy consumption and air tightness. They used many of the ideas that we use today to realise construction of net zero energy buildings. However, unlike a net zero energy building, they are not required to have on site power generation options.

1 Experience with high Energy efficient Building in the Netherlands since 1982, Kristinsson, Jon 2 http://www.scandinaviacomplete.com/culture/nature/oil-free.asp

What is a Net Zero Energy Home? A net zero energy home expands on the idea of a passive house. Many of the same technologies and methods are used, however, the big difference is that a net zero energy home generates its own electricity. This energy is used by the house and supplemented with energy from the grid at times of low generation, or sold back to the grid at times of over generation. The term net zero energy refers to the fact that over the annual course, the energy taken from the grid will balance with the energy supplied to the grid, the net energy will equal zero. A net zero energy dwelling must be designed from the start with regard to its use, location and layout. Regard must be taken to the path of the sun and changing seasons, to wind and precipitation factors and to the site conditions. Structure of the House Passive Solar Design One of the best ways of replacing electricity use is to use a replacement. The greatest replacement being the sun. By using solar design we can reduce the energy requirements for lighting and heating considerably. By giving proper consideration to site positioning during the design process, we can maximise the amount of use we get from the sun. This usually means maximising solar gain during the winter and minimising it during the summer. We can design the dwelling in such a way that it will respond to the changing sun path according to time of year. By orienting the structure to face the equator, we can maximise the amount of sun it will receive. It is also important to take account of any physical obstructions that may limit the amount of solar energy available. The radiated heat from the sun can be very useful when utilised effectively. It can be used to heat a building using a solar air heating system. By using concepts such as a solar chimney, we can also cool a dwelling. A solar chimney is a simple vertical shaft treated so as to harness solar radiation. When the sun heats the air inside it creates a updraught sucking up air from below. This can can cool and ventilate the dwelling. The roof of a dwelling will receive most of the radiated energy from the sun. The use of green roofs has become very common. This essentially means a roof with a living garden on it. This green roof can act as a mass barrier or thermal resistor to the solar radiation. An alternative would be a cool roof, achieved by using a white or other light colour to reflect radiation away. Overhangs are an extremely important element of controlling solar gain particularly in warmer climates. An overhang of a meter on the south side of a particularly sunny locale can reduce unwanted heat gain. Thermal mass can be used to store heat. This can mean having a large concrete feature within a dwelling such as a dining room table, which will soak up heat on hot days, keeping the rest of the house cool, and release excess heat on a cold day.3

3 Galloway, Terry; Solar House A Guide for the Solar Designer Architectural Press

Insulation Insulation is perhaps the first and most effective way of achieving low energy standards in a building. It is vital that heat is prevented from escaping. Insulation is important in every element of the building envelope. This means designing the building with the actual end materials firmly in mind. We need to be very particular when specifying the materials to be used in all parts of a building and in deciding how they will be fixed. It is vital that when it comes to the construction phase, that the contractor is skilled and cautious in installation. Poor jointing or abuse of materials can result in gaps and thermal bridging, reducing the benefits of an expensive and technically advanced material drastically. The use of higher amounts of insulation should be taken into account at the design process. The amount of extra space taken up by this insulation can thicken a wall by a factor of a quarter of a metre in some cases. U-Values We can specify the insulating properties of a particular material in terms of area-weighted Uvalues. This value is the reciprocal of a materials resistive value, which relates to a materials conductivity, the amount of heat energy that can pass through it. It is only by specifying and using adequate materials and installing them correctly that we can expect to achieve proper insulation. It is most important that great care is taken in finishes to areas around doors, windows, corners, fittings and such areas where there tends to be less insulation or where the possibility of unwanted airflows may arise. Thermal bridging Thermal bridging is an enemy of insulation and without careful design and construction can become a serious problem. A thermal bridge is created when materials that are poor insulators come into contact. Heat can then flow along this path with very little impedance. There is little benefit in adding insulation to a thermal bridge as this will not prevent the passage of heat through it. It is essential to remove the thermal bridge. This can be achieved by either removing the component completely, reducing its cross section, or replacing the materials used with materials possessing better insulating properties. Adding a thermal break will also help to relieve thermal bridging. This consists of an extra insulation component between bridges. Windows In most buildings, windows present the least efficient element in regards to insulation. To combat this a zero energy dwelling can employ triple glazed windows. These windows can contain a gas other than air such as Argon or Krypton in between panes. Such a gas has a higher resistive value and as such will provide better insulation. It is also important that the frame have high resistance. It is also possible to coat window glass in metal or polyester. These coatings can change the way radiated heat passes through the window, while still provided extended insular properties. An example of this is a low emissivity coating allowing solar radiation to pass into a room while insulating the room.

Air Tightness Air leakage is defined as the flow of air through gaps and cracks in the building fabric. Uncontrolled air leakage increases the amount of heat loss as warm air is displaced through the envelope by colder air from outside. Air leakage of warm damp air through the building structure can also lead to condensation within the fabric (interstitial condensation), which reduces insulation performance and causes fabric deterioration. Air tightness is extremely important in a net zero energy dwelling. Uncontrolled air leakage increases the amount of heat loss as warm air is displaced through the envelope by colder air from outside. Air leakage of warm damp air through the building structure can also lead to condensation within the fabric (interstitial condensation), which reduces insulation performance and causes fabric deterioration.4
By controlling air movement,, the mechanical ventilation system can do its job properly and cool or extract heat and humidity from air before it enters or leaves the house.

Air tightness is achieved by carefully sealing every joint in the building envelope. One of the methods of sealing the house is to install an airtight membrane throughout the house. In some cases of the net zero energy dwelling, a membrane may not be required. In these cases, if the shape of the construction is simple enough to ensure adequate sealing of all elements, air tightness may be achieved more easily. Ventilation Due to the fact that these buildings are so well insulated and are quite air tight, there is a requirement for air control systems of some form. The air in any room needs to be replaced with fresh air in order to expel gases, bacteria and other pollutants. Discounting the idea of infiltration, due to good airtightness and insulation, there are three methods of ventilating a room, human controlled, natural and mechanical ventilation. At its most basic ventilation can be achieved simply by adding windows and doors that can be operated by occupiers in the event that they feel uncomfortable. This method of human interaction is perhaps not the most adequate case, however it is also possible to add mechanised systems for operation of windows. These systems rely on sensors to determine when ventilation is required and open the windows. These systems have the added benefit of determining temperature and air quality more precisely than a human, while also detecting potentially harmful elements such as Carbon Monoxide or radon that a human would not. The added expense associated with these systems can be off putting, in which case a mechanical system may seem to be a better use of money. Natural Ventilation, wind or stack driven, is the method of using natural forces to introduce outside air. Wind driven ventilation requires that wind catching ducts placed on the exterior of the building, usually on the roof. This air is then distributed through the building through vents and piping. This system depends completely on the speed and direction of wind in order to operate. This requires a particular knowledge and expertise at the design stage, perhaps even requiring alternate positioning of the dwelling. For this reason the method may not be compatible with solar design. This method can also lead to draughts in strong winds, and in the event of contaminated air, may lead to poor air quality. The other method of natural ventilation is stack driven ventilation. This is the principle of the solar chimney. In this case, warm air is less dense than cold air and so will rise above it. This causes a
4 Limiting Thermal Bridging and Air Infiltration Acceptable Construction Details July 2008, Government Publications

natural ventilating effect. This method requires cold air entering at low level with exit vents higher up in the dwelling for air that has warmed inside the dwelling. Mechanical Ventilation systems at their simplest use fans to introduce air from the exterior into a space and another fan to remove air. In a net zero energy dwelling, especially in temperate to cold climates, some element of mechanical ventilation is usually required. Natural ventilation through the opening of windows and doors can be undesirable in cold weather and provides less control. The mechanical ventilation unit allows for the introduction of external air without a loss in the envelope of the building. These systems have the added benefit of being able to condition and heat the air. Space Heating In the case of a Passive house, a central heating system is unnecessary. There is heat produced by internal appliances, such as televisions, white goods and other electronics. Electrical lighting and body heat is produced further heat and these along with solar gains result in acceptable temperatures. When the excellent insulation and control of air flow are taken into account, it can be sufficient to avoid the need for an artificial heating system of any type. In the case of a non-passive house, new technologies allow for very efficient heating systems. Technologies such as wood pellet boilers and high efficiency fossil fuel boilers, while useful, still consume carbon fuels and as such are not particularly desirable and are still dependant on commodity prices. Therefore it is a good idea to use alternative heating from electrical or ground sources. Ground Source Heat Pump A ground source heat pump is a device that pumps heat to or from the ground. Working similar in practice to a refrigerator or air-conditioning unit, it compresses a refrigerant, which is passed through the system, where it is cooled and condenses. It then passes through and expansion valve where the pressure is reduced and then evaporated so that it can be once again compressed. The ground is used as a source of heat in the winter and in the summer heat is pumped from the dwelling back into the ground. The heat pump itself consumes energy to operate, due to the compressor, but it produces a net gain in energy because it can move 3 to 5 times the amount of energy it consumes. Ground source heat pumps are very efficient, and although they are expensive to retrofit to a dwelling, if specified from the outset they provide one of the best investments in terms of renewable energies. These heat pumps also work particularly well with underfloor heating systems, providing unobtrusive and comfortable conditions throughout a dwelling. Air Conditioning /Space Cooling As spoken about earlier, mechanical ventilation systems have the ability to import air from the outside and extract the interior air. In a modern heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system there is also to ability to treat this air as it enters the dwelling. This air can be heated or cooled, and water vapour can be added or extracted as needed so as to provide adequate humidity in the dwelling.

Plants Indoor plants can reduce the amount of CO2 and harmful elements in the air. They are also capable of introducing humidity into the air. A good amount of indoor vegetation can be very helpful in a net zero energy house for these reasons, while also helping to produce a generally pleasant environment. Hot Water Hot water can be provided in a net zero energy home by the installation of solar panels. These panels, usually located on the roof usually consist of vacuum tubes, sometimes with a parabolic mirror, a simple heat exchanger, or in some cases even running water through the pipes, heated directly by the sun. In theory, a net zero energy dwelling could also heat water through electricity although solar water heating is a cost effective and proven method.

Energy Production Photovoltaic Of the energy the sun produces, 89 petawatts of light energy reaches the surface of the earth. This is up to 6,000 times the amount of energy we consume on this planet. The use of photovoltaic arrays has been on the steady rise over the past decade attempting to take advantage of this fact. Along with the rise in the need for a renewable form of electricity, the price of photovoltaic cells has been declining rapidly. These arrays consist of solar cells that can convert the radiation from the sun directly into electricity. These arrays can be deployed on a large scale, such as in the case of the Olmedilla Photovoltaic power plant in Spain producing up to 60 megawatts of electricity per day. They can also be deployed on a medium scale or in the case of a dwelling, a small scale. These are usually in the form of panel arrays on the roof of a home. Typically photovoltaic arrays have an efficiency of about 12%5, generating between about 1 kWh/m2/day, although this can vary depending on location and orientation. In the case of a net zero energy dwelling, these arrays could be controlled by motors so a to track the path of the sun and obtain the optimum amount of power. Wind In the case of a net zero energy dwelling, small wind turbines can be used either attached to a mast on top of a dwelling or located close by. These turbines convert the energy of the wind into electricity, the stronger the wind blows, the more electricity is generated. One of the main problems with wind energy is its efficiency relative to its size. According to the Betz Limit the maximum percentage of the wind's kinetic energy that can be converted by a turbine to electricity is 59.3%6. Due to various factors including energy storage and transmission losses and engineering restrictions, even this efficiency is currently unattainable. There is also the problem that wind speed is effected by friction and turbulence. Wind speed is much lower close to the ground due to the effects of friction. Wind speed is also clearly degraded by turbulence caused by any objects in the wind path. This means that, particularly in urban areas, wind turbines must be mounted quite high if they are to be effective. This can lead to issues with safety and appearance, often even making it difficult to secure planning permission for a turbine mast. Estimates vary hugely with some manufacturers claiming up to 1200 kW output per annum. Others dispute this claiming that wind power in an urban setting is pointless at best.. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) A Combined Heat and Power system generates electricity and useful thermal energy in a single, integrated system. This means that the thermal energy created in the generation of electricity, which would usually go to waste is now recycled and used for heating or cooling. This allows a CHP system to have very high efficiency, sometimes up to double that of separate heat and power systems. There is still the drawback that these systems use oil and gas to generate energy, their efficient use of these fuels, along with their non-reliance on electricity coming from the national grid renders them extremely useful in large scale developments. At the dwelling scale, micro-CHP
5 Thomas, Randall and Fordham, Max; Photovoltaics and Architecture Spon Press 2001 6 Gorban' A.N., Gorlov A.M., Silantyev V.M., Limits of the Turbine Efficiency for Free Fluid Flow, Journal of Energy Resources Technology - December 2001 - Volume 123, Issue 4

units have been developed. These units are more concerned with the generation of heat, with electricity generation being a useful by product. Smart Metering The main requirement of maintaining net zero energy use is the idea of being able to return power generated on site back to the national grid when use is low and generation at its peak. At present in many countries, including Ireland, this is not a capability available to the mainstream market. The smart grid required for this situation to become a reality is not yet in place. In order for a net zero energy home to benefit from its supply of electricity to the grid, there needs to be recording of this supply. This requires the installation of smart meters. Promises have been made in Ireland to introduce smart metering throughout the country7, although these promises are not readily being realised due in part to the lack of always on hard line broadband in many outlying areas. It is ironic that many of the locations where net zero energy dwellings have a greater chance of succeeding, due to the space for wind and solar power generation, and the possibility of disruptions to the grid, are the same areas where lack of broadband makes the introduction of smart metering impractical. In this case the only option available when generating and supplying electricity back to the grid is to affect the movement of the traditional electricity meter, although this gives little information about the home owner's generation. The Most Important Factor of Net Zero Energy Dwellings While a house may be designed to meet the most strict passive house standards and equipped with reasonable electricity generation, it is essentially the occupier who will be responsible for keeping energy use down. This means that there must be a conscious effort on the part of a resident to keep energy use low, through the use of efficient appliances and through conscientious practices.

7 Maximising Ireland's Energy Efficiency The National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2009-2020 http://www.dcenr.gov.ie/NR/rdonlyres/FC3D76AF-7FF1-483F-81CD-52DCB0C73097/0/NEEAP_full_launch_report.pdf

References Experience with high Energy efficient Building in the Netherlands since 1982, Kristinsson, Jon Scandinavica.com http://www.scandinaviacomplete.com/culture/nature/oil-free.asp Galloway, Terry; Solar House A Guide for the Solar Designer Architectural Press Limiting Thermal Bridging and Air Infiltration Acceptable Construction Details July 2008, Government Publications Thomas, Randall and Fordham, Max; Photovoltaics and Architecture Spon Press 2001 Gorban' A.N., Gorlov A.M., Silantyev V.M., Limits of the Turbine Efficiency for Free Fluid Flow, Journal of Energy Resources Technology - December 2001 - Volume 123, Issue 4 Sustainable Energy Ireland Energy Performance of Buildings Directive ConstructIreland http://www.constructireland.ie/ Wikipedia.com http://www.wikipedia.com/ Maximising Ireland's Energy Efficiency The National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2009-2020 http://www.dcenr.gov.ie/NR/rdonlyres/FC3D76AF-7FF1-483F-81CD52DCB0C73097/0/NEEAP_full_launch_report.pdf