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Reference: Chapter 6, Communication Systems, 4th Edition. by Simon Haykin Institute of Communications Engineering National Sun Yat-sen University
Table of Contents
4.1 Representation of Band-Pass Signals and Systems
4.1.1 Representation of Band-Pass Signals 4.1.2 Representation of Linear Band-Pass Systems 4.1.3 Response of a Band-Pass System to a Band-Pass Signal 4.1.4 Representation of Band-Pass Stationary Stochastic Processes
Table of Contents
4.3 Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals
4.3.1 Memoryless Modulation Methods 4.3.2 Linear Modulation with Memory 4.3.3 Non-linear Modulation Methods with Memory CPFSK and CPM
4.1 Representation of Band-Pass Signals and Systems The channel over which the signal is transmitted is limited in bandwidth to an interval of frequencies centered about the carrier. Signals and channels (systems) that satisfy the condition that their bandwidth is much smaller than the carrier frequency are termed narrowband band-pass signals and channels (systems). With no loss of generality and for mathematical convenience, it is desirable to reduce all band-pass signals and channels to equivalent low-pass signals and channels.
4
where S( f ) is the Fourier transform of s(t) and u( f ) is the unit step function, and the signal s+(t) is called the analytic signal or the pre-envelope of s(t). j 1 F 2u ( f ) = (t ) + t j 1 s+ ( t ) = ( t ) + s ( t ) = s ( t ) + j s ( t ) s ( t ) + js ( t ) t t
6
s ( ) t
A filter, called a Hilbert transformer, is defined as: 1 <t < h (t ) = , t The signal s (t ) may be viewed as the output of the Hilbert transformer when excited by the input signal s(t). The frequency response of this filter is: j ( f > 0 ) 1 1 j 2 ft j 2 ft H ( f ) = h (t ) e dt = e dt = 0 ( f = 0) t ( f < 0) j
7
s ( t ) = x ( t ) cos 2 f c t y ( t ) sin 2 f c t
s ( t ) = x ( t ) sin 2 f c t + y ( t ) cos 2 f c t
8
The low pass signal sl(t) is usually called the complex envelope of the real signal s(t) and is basically the equivalent low-pass signal.
9
s(t) can be represented as: j j 2 f c t 2 f c t + ( t ) s ( t ) = Re s t e Re a t e = ( ) ( ) l = a ( t ) cos 2 f c t + ( t ) a(t) is called the envelope of s(t), and (t) is called the phase of s(t).
x (t )
y (t )
10
= a ( t ) cos 2 f c t + ( t )
dt =
1 Re ( ) = + 2
j 2 f c t j 2 ft Re s t e e dt ( ) l
1 j 2 f c t j 2 f c t j 2 ft S( f )= s t e s t e e dt + ( ) ( ) l l 2 1 S f f S = + ( ) l c l ( f fc ) 2
11
= s ( t ) dt =
2
Re sl ( t ) e
j 2 f c t
dt
R e (
)=
1 + 2
j ( t ) 2 j 4 f t 1 2 j 4 f c t * * s t = a t e ( ) ( ) c l = sl e dt + 2 sl sl + sl e 4 2 ( j 4 f t + 2 ( t ) ) 2 1 1 2 j 4 f c t + 2 ( t ) * c dt = sl ( t ) dt + a (t )e + a (t ) e 2 4 2 2 1 1 = sl ( t ) dt + sl ( t ) cos dt 4 f c t + 2 ( t ) 2 2
( )
where sl ( t ) = a (t ) = a ( t )
2 2 *
12
The net area contributed by the second integral is very small relative to the value of the first integral, hence, it can be 2 1 neglected. = sl ( t ) dt (4.1-24) 2
13
= h* ( t ) e j 2 ft dt
= h ( t ) e j 2 ft dt = H ( f
H ( f ) Define H l ( f f c ) = 0
* l
(f (f
> 0) < 0)
0 then H ( f f c ) = * H ( f ) = H ( f )
14
(f (f
> 0) < 0)
where
H l* ( f f c ) e j 2 ft df using x = f f c
= H l* ( x ) e j 2 xt dx e j 2 fc t
Hl ( x) e
j 2 xt
dx e j 2 fc t = hl* ( t ) e j 2 fc t
In general, the impulse response hl(t) of the equivalent low-pass system is complex-valued.
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For a narrow band signal, Sl( f-fc)0 for f <0 and H*l(-f-fc)=0 for f >0.
1 S f f + S f f H f f + H ( ) ( ) ( ) l c l c l c l ( f fc ) 2
Sl ( f f c ) H l ( f f c ) = 0
4.1-27
For a narrow band signal, S*l(-f-fc)0 for f >0 and Hl( f-fc)=0 for f <0.
= x ( t ) cos 2 f c t y ( t ) sin 2 f c t
j 2 f c t z t e = Re ( )
a(t) is the envelope and (t) is the phase of the real-valued signal. x(t) and y(t) are the quadrature components of n(t). z(t) is called the complex envelope of n(t). If n(t) is zero mean, then x(t) and y(t) must also have zero mean values. The stationarity of n(t) implies that:
xx ( ) = yy ( )
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xy ( ) = yx ( )
Proved next.
x ( t + ) cos 2 f c ( t + ) y ( t + ) sin 2 f c ( t + )
1 1 f xx ( ) yy ( ) cos 2 cos 2 f c ( 2t + ) + + xx ( ) yy ( ) c 2 2 1 1 f sin 2 sin 2 f c ( 2t + ) yx ( ) + xy ( ) yx ( ) xy ( ) c 2 2 Since n(t) is stationary, the right-hand side must be independent of t. As a result, xx ( ) = yy ( ) and xy ( ) = yx ( ) Q.E.D. Therefore, nn ( ) = xx ( ) cos 2 f c yx ( ) sin 2 f c Note that this equation is identical in form to: =
n ( t ) = x ( t ) cos 2 f c t y ( t ) sin 2 f c t
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nn ( ) = xx ( ) cos 2 f c yx ( ) sin 2 f c
we can obtain: nn()=Re[zz()e j2fc] Therefore, the autocorrelation function nn() of the bandpass stochastic process is uniquely determined from the autocorrelation function zz() of the equivalent low-pass process z(t) and the carrier frequency fc. The power density spectrum of the stochastic process n(t) is:
nn ( f ) = =
j 2 f c j 2 f Re e e d ( ) zz
1 zz ( f f c ) + zz ( f f c ) 2
23
xy ( ) = xy ( )
xy ( ) is an odd function of and xy ( 0 ) = 0. If xy ( ) = 0 for all , then zz ( ) is real (from 4.1-48) and
the power spectral density satisfies zz ( f ) = zz ( f (i.e. zz ( f
If n(t) is Gaussian, x(t) and y(t +) are jointly Gaussian. For =0, they are statistically independent, and the joint PDF is: 2 2 2 ( x + y ) 2 2 1 p ( x, y ) = e = xx ( 0 ) = yy ( 0 ) = nn ( 0 ) , 2 2
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= x ( t ) cos 2 f c t y ( t ) sin 2 f c t
26
4.1-54
The power spectral density for white noise and band-pass white noise is symmetric about f =0, so yx()=0 for all . zz ( ) = xx ( ) = yy ( ) (from 4.1-48)
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2 v i i =1
A set of m vectors is said to be orthonormal if the vectors are orthogonal and each vector has a unit norm. A set of m vectors is said to be linearly independent if no one vector can be represented as a linear combination of the remaining vectors. Two n-dimensional vectors v1 and v2 satisfy the triangle inequality: 1 + 2 1 + 2
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The signals are orthogonal if their inner product is zero. The norm of a signal is defined as:
x (t ) =
x ( t ) dt
2
12
A set of m signals are orthonormal if they are orthogonal and their norms are all unity. A set of m signals is linearly independent, if no signal can be represented as a linear combination of the remaining signals.
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x ( t ) x ( t ) dt
a 1 2
x1 ( t ) dt
2
12
x2 ( t ) dt
2
12
33
Suppose that there exists a set of functions {fn(t), n=1,2,,K} that are orthonormal in the sense that: 0 ( m n ) f n ( t ) f m ( t ) dt = 1 ( m = n ) We may approximate the signal s(t) by a weighted linear combination of these functions, i.e.,
s ( t ) = sk f k ( t )
k =1 K
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e = s t s t dt s t s f t = ( ) k k ( ) dt ( ) ( )
2 K
(4.2-24)
Differentiating Equation 4.2-24 with respect to each of the coefficients {sk} and setting the first derivatives to zero. Use a well-known result from estimation theory based on the meansquare-error criterion, which is that the minimum of e with respect to the {sk} is obtained when the error is orthogonal to each of the functions in the series expansion.
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sn = s ( t ) f n ( t ) dt , n = 1, 2,..., K
Thus, the coefficients are obtained by projecting the signals s(t) onto each of the functions. The minimum mean square approximation error is:
min = e ( t ) s ( t ) dt = s ( t ) dt
2 2 = s sk k =1 K
s f ( t ) s ( t )dt
k =1 k k
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s = s = s ( t ) dt
k =1 2 k 2
s ( t ) = sk f k ( t )
k =1
When every finite energy signal can be represented by a series expansion of the form for which min=0, the set of orthonormal functions {fn(t)} is said to be complete.
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2 / T cos 2 kt / T , 2 / T sin 2 kt / T
is complete, and the series expansion results in zero mean square error.
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The 2nd waveform is constructed from s2(t) by first computing the projection of f1(t) onto s2(t):
c12 = s2 ( t ) f1 ( t ) dt
i =1
cik = sk ( t ) f i ( t ) dt ,
i = 1, 2,..., k 1
The orthogonalization process is continued until all the M signal waveforms have been exhausted and N M orthonormal waveforms have been constructed.
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sk ( t ) = skn f n ( t ),
n =1 2
k = 1, 2,..., M
N 2
2 k = s t dt s = ( ) kn = sk k n =1
43
m k sm sk sm sk Re ( km ) = = sm sk m k
sm ( t ) sk ( t ) dt
From 4.2-44 & 4.2-45.
d km = sm sk =
(e)
sm ( t ) sk ( t ) dt
2
12
= m + k 2 m k Re ( km )
12
d km = 2 1 Re ( km )
(e)
44
12
In the transmission of digital information over a communication channel, the modulator is the interface device that maps the digital information into analog waveforms that match the characteristics of the channel.
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46
48
51
= Am g ( t ) cos 2 f c t , m = 1, 2,..., M , 0 t T
where Am denote the set of M possible amplitudes corresponding to M=2k possible k-bit blocks of symbols. The signal amplitudes Am take the discrete values: Am = ( 2 m 1 M ) d , m = 1, 2,..., M ( ( M 1) d ... ( M 1) d ) 2d is the distance between adjacent signal amplitudes. g(t) is a real-valued signal pulse whose shape influences the spectrum of the transmitted signal. The symbol rate is R/k, Tb=1/R is the bit interval, and T=k/R=kTb is the symbol interval.
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54
d mn =
(e)
( sm sn )
1 g Am An = d 2 g m n 2
The minimum Euclidean distance between any pair of signals is: (e) d min = d 2 g
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57
where 0tTb and Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit. A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in a relative phaseshift of 180 degrees are referred to as antipodal signals.
58
s21 = s2 ( t ) 1 ( t ) dt = Eb
0
Tb
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where i = 1, 2, 3, 4; E is the transmitted signal energy per symbol, and T is the symbol duration. Equivalently
2E 2E si ( t ) = cos ( 2i 1) cos ( 2 f ct ) sin ( 2i 1) sin ( 2 f ct ) T 4 T 4
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1 (t ) =
2 cos (2f c t ), T
0tT
2 2 (t ) = sin (2f c t ), 0tT T There are four message points, and the associated signal vectors are defined by ( ) E cos 2 i 1 4 , i = 1,2,3,4 si (t ) = E sin (2i 1) 4
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65
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The two-dimensional vectors sm=[sm1 sm2] are given by: 2 2 2 2 cos sin sm = ( m 1) ( m 1) , m = 1, 2,..., M g M M g
68
Average probability of symbol error for coherent M-ary PSK: E sin Pe erfc N M 0
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2 (t ) =
2 sin (2f c t ), T
T 3T t 2 2
The phase transitions likely to occur in offset QPSK are confined to 90 degrees. However, 90 degrees phase transitions in offset QPSK occur twice as frequently.
71
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The normalization factor KMOD = 10-1/2 is used for the dual-carrier modulation. An approximate value of the normalization factor may be used, as long as the device conforms to the modulation accuracy requirements.
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j m j 2 f c t sm ( t ) = Re V e g t e ( ) m = Vm g ( t ) cos ( 2 f c t + m )
Vm =
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g ( t ) cos 2 f c t and f 2 ( t ) =
g ( t ) sin 2 f c t
1 1 sm = [ sm1 sm 2 ] = Amc g Ams g 2 2 The Euclidean distance between any pair of signal vectors is: 1 2 2 (e) = sm sn = d mn g ( Amc Anc ) + ( Ams Ans ) 2
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(e) d min = d 2 g
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= slm ( t ) =
2 cos [ 2 f c t + 2 mf t ] T 2 j 2 mf t e , m = 1, 2,..., M , 0 t T T
km
4.2-45
2 T = 2
j 2 ( m k ) ft
dt =
sin T ( m k ) f
r Re ( km ) =
T ( m k ) f
e j T ( m k )f
Note that Re(km)=0 when f=1/2T and mk. | km |=0 for multiple of 1/T.
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[ [
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
] ]
sN = 0 0 0
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90
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Tb
Eb , = 0,
Eb s1 = 0
0 s2 = E b
93
2 1 1 = sm s = + = 1 M M M
2
95
cmj = 1 smj ( t ) =
2 c cos 2 f c t , 0 t Tc Tc
(1 2 N ) N 2 r = = N
d ( e ) = 2 (1 r ) = 4 / N
99
01 102
Delay modulation is equivalent to encoding the data sequence by a run-length-limited code called a Miller code and using NRZI to transmit the encoded data (will be shown in Chapter 9).
104
There are two elementary waveforms s1(t) and s2(t) and their negatives -s1(t) and -s2(t), which are used for transmitting the binary information.
105
s1 s2 s3 s2 s2 s3 s4 s3
107
where q1=P(ak=0) and q2=P(ak=1). For the NRZI signal with equal state probabilities p1=p2=0.5,
1 2 P= 1 2
1 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 + = 1 2 0 1 2 1 0 2
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d(t) is used to frequency-modulate the carrier. {In} denotes the sequence of amplitudes obtained by mapping k-bit blocks of binary digits from the information sequence {an} into the amplitude levels 1,3,,(M-1). g(t) is a rectangular pulse of amplitude 1/2T and duration T seconds.
113
( t ; I ) = 4 Tf d d ( ) d = 4 Tf d I n g ( nT ) d n = 2 f d T
k =
+ 2 f d ( t nT ) I n
nTt(n+1)T
0 (t < 0) n 1 q ( t ) = t 2T ( 0 t T ) = h Ik k = h = 2 fdT 1 2 ( t > T ) Note that, although d(t) contains discontinuities, the integral of d(t) is continuous. Hence, we have a continuous-phase signal. n represents the accumulation (memory) of all symbols up to time nT ?. Parameter h is called the modulation index.
115
= n + 2 hI n q ( t nT )
( t ; I ) = 2
k =
I h q ( t kT ) ,
k k
nT t ( n + 1) T
when hk=h for all k, the modulation index is fixed for all symbols. when hk varies from one symbol to another, the CPM signal is called multi-h. (In such a case, the {hk} are made to vary in a cyclic manner through a set of indices.)
The waveform q(t) may be represented in general as the integral of some pulse g(t), i.e.,
q (t ) =
g ( )d
t 0
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LRC, L=2
LRC, L=1
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( otherwise )
2 t 1 cos LT 0
LRC
( 0 1 LT ) ( otherwise )
1/ 2 1/ 2 T T GMSK g ( t ) = Q 2 B t ( ln 2 ) Q 2 B t + ( ln 2 ) 2 2 1 x2 / 2 Q (t ) = e dt t 2
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1 n 1 (t ; I) = I k + I n q(t nT ) 2 k = 1 t nT = n + I n , 2 T
From 4.3-54
nT t (n + 1)T
1 t nT s (t ) = A cos 2 f c t + n + I n 2 T
From 4.3-52
nT t (n + 1)T
1 1 I n t n I n + n , = A cos 2 f c + 4T 2
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i = 1, 2
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The plus (minus) sign corresponds to sending symbol 1 (0). We can find that h h fc + = f1 f = f2 c 2Tb 2Tb We thus get 1 f c = ( f1 + f 2 ) 2
125
h = Tb ( f1 + f 2 )
127
From (*), we may express the CPFSK signal s(t): 2 Eb 2 Eb s (t ) = cos t cos 2 f t sin sin ( 2 f c t ) ( t ) ( ) ( c ) Tb Tb
S I cos ( 2 f c t ) SQ sin ( 2 f c t )
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(**)
2 Eb = cos Tb 2Tb
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132
0 t Tb
where the coefficients s1 and s2 are related to the phase states (0) and(Tb), respectively.
133
s ( t )1 ( t ) dt = Eb cos ( 0 ) ,
Tb t Tb
s ( t )2 ( t ) dt = Eb sin (Tb ) , 0 t 2Tb Both integrals are evaluated for a time interval equal to twice the bit duration. Both the lower and upper limits of the product integration used to evaluate the coefficient s1 are shifted by the bit duration Tb with respect to those used to evaluate the coefficient s2. The time interval 0tTb, for which the phase states (0) and(Tb) are defined, is common to both integrals.
0
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135
136
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x ( t ) 1 ( t ) dt = s1 + w1 ,
Tb t Tb
( 0) = 0 If x1 > 0 ( 0) = If x1 < 0
138
x ( t ) 2 ( t ) dt = s2 + w2 ,
0 t 2Tb
Error probability of MSK Eb 1 Pe = erfc N 2 0 which is exactly the same as that for binary PSK and QPSK.
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141
MSK does not produce as much interference outside the signal band of interest as QPSK.
142
n =
[I
2n
g (t 2nT ) jI 2 n +1 g (t 2nT T ) ]
Problem 4.14
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146
148
149
4.4 Spectral Characteristics of Digitally Modulated Signals In most digital communication systems, the available channel bandwidth is limited. The system designer must consider the constraints imposed by the channel bandwidth limitation in the selection of the modulation technique used to transmit the information. From the power density spectrum, we can determine the channel bandwidth required to transmit the informationbearing signal.
150
(t ) =
where the transmission rate is 1/T = R/k symbols/s and {In} represents the sequence of symbols.
151
n =
g (t nT )
Deterministic
(t + ; t ) =
n = m =
( m n) g
ii m '=
(t nT ) g (t + mT ) let m ' = m n
= =
(m ') g
ii n = n =
m =
( m ) g ii (t nT ) g (t + nT mT )
152
is periodic in the t variable with period T. Consequently, (t+;t) is also periodic in the t variable with period T. That is (t + T + ; t + T ) = (t + ; t ) In addition, the mean value of v(t), which is E [ (t ) ] = E I n g (t nT ) = i g (t nT ) n = n = is periodic with period T.
153
2 T 2
(t + ; t )dt
1 = ii (m) m = n = T 1 = ii (m) m = n = T
2 T 2
g (t nT ) g (t + nT mT )dt g (t ) g (t + mT )dt ( t = t nT )
T 2 nT
T 2 nT
154
155
ii (m) = T
1 2T
1 2T
ii ( f )e j 2fmT df
Second, let us consider the case in which the information symbols in the sequence are real and mutually uncorrelated. In this case, the autocorrelation function ii(m) can be expressed as (applying 2.2-5 and 2.2-6)
2 2 + i i ii (m) = 2 i
(m = 0) (m 0)
m =
j 2 fmT ( m ) e ii
n =
jns t
= +
2 i 2 i
2 i
m =
e j 2 fmT
the exponential Fourier series of a periodic train of impulses with each impulse having an area 1/T.
m (f ) = + T m = T
i2
The desired result for the power density spectrum of v(t) when the sequence of information symbols is uncorrelated.
m m ( f ) = G( f ) + 2 G( ) ( f ) T T m = T T
2
i2
i2
158
159
zero
sin fT 2 2 ( f ) = A T + A i ( f ) fT
160
nonzero
161
ii (m) = E ( I n I n + m ) = E ( bn + bn 1 )( bn + m + bn + m 1 )
2 2 E bn 2 b b b + + n n 1 n 1 2 b E n + bn bn +1 + bn 1bn +1 + bn bn 1 = 2 E b b b b b + + n n 1 n n 2 n 1 + bn 1bn 2 E [bn bn + m + bn bn + m 1 + bn 1bn + m + bn 1bn + m 1 ]
E[(Xi-0)2]=1
(m = 0) (m = 1) (otherwise)
162
= 2(1 + cos 2 fT ) = 4 cos 2 fT and the corresponding power density spectrum for the (low-pass) modulated signal is (from 4.4-12)
4 2 ( f ) = G ( f ) cos 2 fT T
163