Thoery of Matrices Mac Duffee

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The theory of matrices / by C.C. MacDuffee.
MacDuffee, Cyrus Colton, 1895-
New York : Chelsea , 1956.
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.49015001327999
Public Domain, Google-digitized
http://w w w .hathi tr u s t.o r g /ac c es s _ u s e# pd- g o o g le
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Unversty of Mchgan-Fnt brary
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D T DU
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G D M T M T
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. . M DUFF
orrected eprnt of Frst dton
PU G MP
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P T D T U T D T T F M
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85258
Preface.
Matrc agebra s a mathematca abstracton underyng many
seemngy dverse theores. Thus bnear and uadratc forms, near
assocatve agebra (hypercompe systems), near homogeneous trans-
formatons and near vector functons are varous manfestatons of
matrc agebra. ther branches of mathematcs as number theory,
dfferenta and ntegra e uatons, contnued fractons, pro ectve
geometry etc. ma e use of certan portons of ths sub ect. ndeed,
many of the fundamenta propertes of matrces were frst dscovered
n the notaton of a partcuar appcaton, and not unt much ater re-
cognzed n ther generaty.
t was not possbe wthn the scope of ths boo to gve a competey
detaed account of matrc theory, nor s t ntended to ma e t an
authortatve hstory of the sub ect. t has been the desre of the wrter
to pont out the varous drectons n whch the theory eads so that the
reader may n a genera way see ts e tent. he some attempt has
been made to unfy certan parts of the theory, n genera the matera
has been ta en as t was found n the terature, the topcs dscussed
n deta beng those n whch e tensve research has ta en pace.
For most of the mportant theorems a bref and eegant proof has
sooner or ater been found. t s hoped that most of these have been
ncorporated n the te t, and that the reader w derve as much pea-
sure from readng them as dd the wrter.
c nowedgment s due Dr. aurens are ush for a crtca
readng of the manuscrpt.
yrus oton MacDuffee.
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ontents.
page
. Matrces, rrays and Determnants 1
1. near agebra 1
2. epresentaton by ordered sets 1
3. Tota matrc agebra 2
4. Dagona and scaar matrces 5
5. Transpose. ymmetrc and s ew matrces 5
. Determnants
7. Propertes of determnants 8
8. an and nuty 10
9. denttes among mnors 12
10. educbty 14
11. rrays and determnants of hgher dmenson 15
12. Matrces n non-commutatve systems 1
. The characterstc e uaton 17
13. The mnmum e uaton 17
14. The characterstc e uaton 17
15. Determnaton of the mnmum e uaton 20
1 . haracterstc roots 22
17. on ugate sets 24
18. mts for the characterstc roots 25
19. haracterstc roots of untary matrces 28
. ssocated ntegra Matrces 29
20. Matrces wth eements n a prncpa dea rng 29
21. onstructon of unmoduar matrces 31
22. ssocated matrces 31
23. Greatest common dvsors 35
24. near form modus 37
25. deas 38
. uvaence 40
2 . uvaent matrces 40
27. nvarant factors and eementary dvsors 43
28. Factorzaton of a matr 44
29. Poynoma domans 45
30. uvaent pars of matrces 48
31. utomorphc transformatons 50
. ongruence 51
32. Matrces wth eements n a prncpa dea rng 51
33. Matrces wth ratona ntegra eements 54
34. Matrces wth eements n a fed 5
35. Matrces n an agebracay cosed fed 0
3 . ermtan matrces 2
37. utomorphs 5
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ontents.
page
. marty 8
38. mar matrces 8
39. Matrces wth eements n a fed 9
40. eyr s characterstc 73
41. Untary and orthogona e uvaence 75
42. The structure of untary and orthogona matrces 78
. omposton of matrces 81
43. Drect sum and drect product 81
44. Product-matrces and power-matrces 85
45. d ugates 8
. Matrc e uatons 89
4 . The genera near e uaton 89
47. caar e uatons 94
48. The unatera e uaton 95
. Functons of Matrces 97
49. Power seres n matrces 97
50. Functons of matrces 99
51. Matrces whose eements are functons of compe varabes . . 101
52. Dervatves and ntegras of matrces 102
. Matrces of nfnte order 104
53. nfnte determnants 104
54. nfnte matrces 10
55. matrc agebra of nfnte order 10
5 . ounded matrces 108
57. Matrces wth a non-denumerabe number of rows and coums . 110
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. Matrces, rrays and Determnants.
1. near agebra. near agebra 2t of order n over a fed s
composed of two or more numbers , / , y,.. . and three operatons,
addton ( ), mutpcaton ( ) and scaar mutpcaton such that
.f, a, a are un uey defned numbers of 21, where a s
n t s further assumed that addton s commutatve and asso-
catve, and that mutpcaton s dstrbutve wth respect to add-
ton. f a and b are n t s assumed that
a a , a(b ) (ab) , a ) bp) (ab orf ),
( b) a b , a( f ) a aft.
Fnay t s assumed that 21 contans a fnte number of numbers
e1, e2, . . ., e such that every number of 21 s of the form
a1s1 a2s2 ,
where the s are n f 1.
2. epresentaton by ordered sets. f
a1s1 a2e2 ... anen
s a number of 21, and f the ordered set
a2, . . ., f
of numbers of be made to correspond to a, addton, mutpcaton
and scaar mutpcaton for such sets can be so defned that they
gve a representaton of 21. Thus f
a, a2, . . ., , / b, b2, . . ., bn ,
then by defnton
ff oo 1 b, a2 b2, .. ., an b , a co aa1, aa2, . . ., aan .
f
f cn et c, 2 eg . c n en,
then
P e 2 h e 2 (a b) (e y) 21 a b U . s1.
so that
For every choce of the 3 numbers c . . of g an agebra over s ob-
taned2.
1 Dc son, . .: gebren und hre ahentheore, p. 23. urch 1927.
2 amton, . .: ements of uaternons.
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2
Matrces, rrays and Determnants.
f n partcuar the agebra s assocatve, then
( e ) e e, (e e ). ( , , , 2 , )
Ths means that the n3 numbers c) are sub ect to the n condtons
(2.1) r . c ,r. ( ,/,f, s ,2 n)
f denotes the ordered set of numbers
c

( sr)
c2
c.22
csn2
cn
c2n
and f mutpcaton and scaar mutpcaton of such sets are defned by
( ,r) (c ,r) ( ct r ,s ) ,
a (ac,f),
then (2.1) may be wrtten1
.
Thus the sets combne under mutpcaton n the same manner
as the bass numbers of 21. f the sets t are not neary ndependent
wth respect to the sets t obtaned by borderng t above wth a
row of s and on the eft wth dr ( ronec er s 8), are neary nde-
pendent and are somorphc wth the e under mutpcaton2.
f, fnay, addton of sets s defned by the dentty
(csr c ) ,
t s evdent that these sets gve a representaton of the agebra3.
t s nterestng that n the same year that Poncare s note was
pubshed, yvester wrote: The Perces (subse uenty to 1858)
had prefgured the unversazaton of amton s theory, and had
emtted an opnon to the effect that probaby a systems of agebraca
symbos sub ect to the assocatve aw of mutpcaton woud be even-
tuay found to be dentca wth near transformatons of schemata
susceptbe of matrcuar representaton. . . . That such must be the
case t woud be rash to assert, but t s very dffcut to conceve how
the contrary can be true4.
3. Tota matrc agebra. The consderatons of 2 suggest that
a near agebra of order n2 over g can be so defned that every agebra
of order n over w be somorphc wth one of ts proper sub-agebras5.
1 chur, .: Uber ene asse von Matrzen, p. 59. ern 1901.
2 Dc son: gebren und hre ahentheore, p. 35.
3 Poncar , .: . . cad. c., Pars o. 99 (1884) pp. 740 742.
eyr, .: .- . bohm. Ges. ss. Prague (1887) pp. 1 18. tudy, .:
nc. math. ss. o. 4 (1904) 10.
4 yvester: mer. . Math. o. (1884) pp. 270 28 .
5 van der aerden: Moderne gebra o. p. 37. ern 1930.
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3
More generay we defne the tota matrc agebra 9ft of order n2 over
a rng 91 to consst of the sets of n2 number each of the type

( n
M
an an2 .
sub ect to the foowng operatons and postuates:
Two sets (ars) and (brs) are e ua f and ony f ar, brs
for every r and s.
The operaton of addton s defned by
a b ).
vdenty the sets form an abean group wth respect to addton,
snce the same s true of the eements of the rng 9 . The dentty set,
whose eements are a 0, w be denoted by 0.
The operaton of mutpcaton s defned by
( dnb,),
that s, by row by coumn mutpcaton of the sets. The product
s evdenty un ue, and 0 for every .
Mutpcaton n 9ft s assocatve, snce mutpcaton n ft s as-
socatve. ) u( )
(27y an(by ,)) ( ).
Mutpcaton n s dstrbutve wth respect to addton, for the
same s true n 9 .
( ) (a ) cu)
( (arcs brcs)) .
mary ) .
Theorem 3.1. The tota matrc agebra of order n2 over a rng 9 s
tsef a rng.
othng s ganed n ths connecton by specazng 9 , for mut-
pcaton n 9ft remans usuay non-commutatve even when 9 s a com-
mutatve rng, and the nverse as to mutpcaton of 0 does not
aways e st even for a rng wthout dvsors of zero. f, however,
9 s a rng wth the unt eement 1, then the matr ( 5T() ( ron-
ec er s deta) s such that for every , and 9ft s a rng
wth unt eement .
e defne a matr over 9 to be a number of a tota matrc agebra
over 9.
uppose (ars), (brs), (crs) to be n-rowed matr-
ces. et and be separated nto boc s:

12
n
12

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21
21 22
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4
where n has rows and coumns, n has 7 rows and coumns,
and n has rows and coumns. t s ready verfed that
r s, (r, s, 1, 2)
where the rectanguar boc s /1 ., . are mutped row by coumn .
Ths hods for a separatons of the matrces nto boc s, provded the
rows of are separated n the same ways as the coumns of .
e sha use the word array to mean an ordered set of eements
such that two arrays are e ua f and ony f each conssts of the same
number of eements and f correspondng eements are e ua. f
mn, the array can be arranged n the form of a rectange. Under
certan crcumstances the sum or product of two arrays may have
meanng, for nstance when they are matrces or as n the ast paragraph
when they are boc s cut from matrces, but no such operatons are
mpct n the defnton of array.
matr s an nstance of an array of 2 eements, but t s much
more than that, for t s a member of a tota matrc agebra for whch
the operatons of addton and mutpcaton are defned. The mportance
of the matrc theory derves from the rues of combnaton of matrces,
whe the fact that they may be represented by s uare arrays s n-
cdenta.
r Thomas Mur recenty remar ed: ne of the frst of such e -
tensons of usage was entrey uncaed for, especay n ngand,
namey to ma e t (the word matr ) ta e the pace aready satsfactory
occuped by the word array. ow satsfactory ths was w be ready
seen on oo ng through te tboo s of determnants e cott s1.
capabe hstoran . . . woud certany add further to hs credt f n
the course of hs wor he made manfest by precept and e ampe an
rreproachabe mode of usng n each other s company the terms array,
determnant, matr 2.
rters are far from agreed on a consstent termnoogy. The word
matr was frst used by yvester3 to denote a rectanguar array
from whch determnants can be formed. The concept of a matr as
a hypercompe number s due n essence to amton but more drecty
to ayey4. hateet, among others, uses matr for a rectanguar
array and tabeau for a member of a matrc agebra5. ut the es-
senta pont, to whch hateet agrees, s to dfferentate the concepts.
1 cott, . F.: treatse on the theory of determnants. ambrdge 1880.
2 Mur, Thomas: Trans. oy. oc. . frca o. 18 (1929) pp. 219-227.
3 yvester: Phos. Mag. o. 37 (1850) pp. 3 3 370 - o. or s o.
p. 145.
ayey: Trans. ondon Ph. oc. o. 148 (1858) pp. 17-37 - o. or s
o. pp. 475-49 .
5 h teet: es groupes abeens fns. Pars 1924.
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4. Dagona and scaar matrces. matr of the type
1 0 0 ... 0
D
. 0
0
0 3 ... 0
0 0 0
ft. 2, ...,
s caed dagona. From the defntons of addton and mutpcaton
of matrces t foows that
ft, 2, ..., h, h, . . ., ft h, 2 2,..., n n ,
ft, 2, . . ., n 1, 2, . . ., ft1, 22, . . . nn .
dagona matr a of whose dagona eements are e ua s caed
scaar1.
f denotes , ,..., , then , ,
0 0.
Thus
Theorem 4.1. The scaar matrces of consttute a subrng of so-
morphc wth 3 .
t s customary to wrte for and for . f 91 s a rng wth
unt eement 1, then 1 /.
Theorem 4.2. f s a commutatve rng wth unt eement, and f
for every n , then s scaar.
For f h n
r s r a s
s repaced by dhpd , there resuts
ardpd, drpd,a,, arp 8, drpats. (r, s,p, 1,2,..., n)
For s and r p ths gves arp 0, whe for s and r p
t gves rr ss.
5. Transpose. ymmetrc and s ew matrces. The matr T ( sr)
obtaned from (ar,) by changng rows to coumns s caed the
transpose2 of . matr such that T s caed symmetrc,
a matr such that T s caed s ew3 (s ew-symmetrc, or
aternatng).
yvester: mer. . Math. o. (1884) pp. 270-28 - o. or s
o. pp. 208-224.
2 r con ugate. Many dfferent notatons for the transpose have been used,
as , , , , 1, , . The present notaton s n eepng wth a systematc
notaton whch, t s hoped, may fnd favor.
3 avey: . rene angew. Math. o. 32 (184 ) pp. 119 123 - o. or s
o.1 pp. 332 33 . aguerre: . coe poytechn. o.25 (18 7) pp. 215 to
2 4 uvres o. pp. 228-233.
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Theorem 5.1.
)T T T r T.
Theorem 5.2. f s a commutatve rng ( . . . )T T. . . T T.
For ( )T (2 )T r ,) T T. The genera theorem
foows by nducton1.
Theorem 5.3. f 91 s a rng n whch 2 a s sovabe for every a,
every matr of over 91 s-un uey e pressbe as a sum of a symmetrc
and a s ew matr 2.
ssume , T , T -0.
Then T T T - so that , - .
onversey for every t s possbe to form a symmetrc matr and
a s ew matr n the above manner.
. Determnants. et be an agebra of -rowed matrces wth
eements n a fed g. t s desrabe to have assocated wth every
matr of a number ( ) of whch woud serve the purpose of
an absoute vaue. Ths end woud be attaned by fndng a scaar
functon 0 ) of the eements ars of a genera matr such that
1. For every , ) s a non-constant ratona ntegra functon
of the ars of owest degree such that
2. ( ) ( ) ( ).
t foows drecty from (2) by ta ng that ( ) ) 9(1),
and snce ( ) s not constant, (1) 1. 0,(2) gves (0)
( ) (0). gan because ( ) s not constant, (0) 0.
hen n 3, for nstance, et
0 0
. 1 0 0 , (t)
0 0 1
2 7, (-0 7, T(1 / ) /.
nce 0( ( t)) 1, t foows that ( (t)) s ndependent
of t, otherwse the eft member of the above e uaton woud be of
degree 0 n t. ence ( (t)) has for every vaue of t the same
vaue that t has for t 0, namey
( (t)) 1.
onsder
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
t .
T(t) --
0
t
0
0
0
11
0
0
1
0
1
0
t
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
t
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1 ayey: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o. 148 (1858) pp. 17 37
o. or s o. pp. 475 49 .
2 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o. 84 (1878) pp. 1 3. ayey: 1. c.
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1. Matrces, rrays and Determnants.
7
at T Tt. nce ( ) , (T (T2). nce (T(t)) 0( (1/ )
1 and (T(t)) s of the same degree n t that 0(7(1//)) s n 1//, t
foows that (T(t)) must be a monoma a t7 n /. nce (T()) 1,
1. e now nvo e the mnmum prncpe (1) and assume that
1. Ths s ustfed by actuay obtanng under ths restrcton a
functon satsfyng the gven re urements. Then
(T) t.
onsder
100 110 1 0 0 0
-110 0 10 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 o
or 1Pf2 T1F (-). ence
) -1 .
f s a genera matr , 9(T ) td( ) so that
1 . The functon 0( 4) s a poynoma n the eements whch
s homogeneous and near n the eements of each row.
nce ) ), t foows that
2 . 0( ) merey changes sgn when two rows are permuted.
3 . 0(1) 1
The three propertes ust stated were caed by eerstrass the
characterstc propertes of a determnant. y 1 .
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
0
1
0
0
1
8( ) e . .
h.,h ,
anhn
Permute rows 1 and 2 and add, whence by 2 ,
2 ( ,... h e , ... , f2 , nh 0 .
ence n genera / , ,... s 0 f two subscrpts concde, whe f
the h s and s are a dstnct, e,,... accordng as
the substtuton / 1 ,

s even or odd. nce (1) , t foows that b1, 2 1. ence
n genera
( .1) ( ) 2 , ,... . 1 1 2 ,
where the summaton s over a permutatons (h, h,. . ., h ) of
(1, 2, . . ., n), and e , s 1 or 1 accordng as the permutaton
s even or odd2.
1 Ths treatment s due to . ense: . rene angew. Math. o. 159 (1928)
pp. 24 -254.
2 eerstrass-G nther: ur Determnantentheore. 188 1887 er e
o. pp. 271 28 . ronec er: oresungen uber de Theore der Deter-
mnanten o. 1 p. 291 et. se . Teubner 1903.
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8
That ths functon ) satsfes the demands of ense w foow
from oroary (7.9).
t s possbe to deveop the entre theory of determnants from the
characterstc propertes of eerstrass1.
7. Propertes of determnants. s ayey remar ed, the dea
of matr (or s uare array) precedes that of determnant 2. determn-
ant s a number assocated n a precse way wth an array of n2 ordered
numbers. Ths pont of vew seems to have been cear to auchy who
gave the frst systematc treatment of determnants, a treatment whch
can scarcey be mproved upon today3. Unfortunatey the word deter-
mnant s often used today to mean both an array and a number
assocated wth that array. ( ote the remar s of Mur n 3, and
ennett s crtcsm of ocher4. For a very cear statement of the
ordnary determnant theorems from the present pont of vew, see
asse, ohere gebra , de Gruyter 192 .)
There s no room n the present tract for an e tended treatment
of determnant theory. practcay compete bbography s gven
n Mum s Theory of determnants n the hstorca order of deveop-
ment , 4 v., Macman 190 23. The eary hstory s attractvey
presented by ronec er, oresungen ber de Theore der Deter-
mnanten , Teubner 1903, p. 1 9. n e ceent reference boo s
G. owaews s nfuhrung n de Determnantentheore , epzg
1909.
et be a s uare array wth eements n a fed g and et d( ) or
be ts determnant. few mportant theorems are sted for future
reference.
Theorem 7.1. d T) d( ).
Theorem 7.2. f s obtaned from by the nterchange of two rows
or of two coumns, d( ) d( ).
Theorem 7.3. f two rows or two coumns of are dentca, d( ) 0.
The usua proof of ths resut, namey n notng that the hypothess
gves 2d ( ) 0 and hence d( ) 0, fas when g has the character-
stc 2. The proof can be modfed to ncude ths case5 or the resut
can be proved otherwse.
Theorem 7.4. f s obtaned from by mutpyng any row or
any coumn of by , then d( ) d( ).
Theorem 7.5. f s a s uare array each eement of whose th row
s a sum
d ,t . . . d sm (s , 2, ..., n)
1 ovc: ev. Math. spec. o.37 (1927) pp. 433 43 and 457 458.
2 ayey: . rene angew. Math. o. 50 (1855) pp. 282 285.
3 auchy: . fcoe poytechn. o. 10 (1815) pp. 51 112.
1 ennett, . .: mer. Math. Monthy o. 32 (1925) pp. 182 185.
5 ych , .: . rene angew. Math. o. 1 7 (1932) p. 197.
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then
d( ) d( 1) d( 2) ... d( m),
where h s the array obtaned by repacng the eements of the th row
by d h, d 2h, . . ., d nh. mary for coumns.
Theorem 7. . f s obtaned from by addng to any row (or coumn)
a near combnaton of the other rows (coumns), then d( ) d( ).
f s a s uare array of n rows,
r , ars, ar,
au ans, ar,s
ar s ar ar t
s caed a -rowed mnor array of . rr s a prncpa mnor array.
Theorem 7.7.
where the summaton s over the ways of seectng the numbers 1, ...,
from among the numbers , . . ., n wthout regard to order, and the sgn
s or accordng as the substtuton
h, s, .., , . ..,
r. r2, r , r u .... r
s even or odd1.
n partcuar d( rs) ars. et rs denote d( . . ,r, r, . . . ),
the sgn beng or accordng as
r, , .... r , r , .. ., n
s, 1, . .., s 1, s 1, .. ., n
s even or odd. a r the cofactor of ars n .
Theorem 7.8.
n n
ap ap t dp d( ),
s t s 1
where dp s ronec er s deta.
Theorem 7.9. et and be n-rowed matrces wth eements n a
fed . et M 1 be an m-rowed mnor matr of the product .
Then
where the summaton s over a seectons of 1, . . ., m from 1, . . ., n
wthout regard to order2.
oroary 7.9. d( ) d( )d( ).
1 apace: Mem. cad. c. Pars 1772.
- Dc son: Modern agebrac theores, p. 49. hcago 192 .
r, ... rt
s,... s
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8. an and nuty. f s an m . n array wth eements n a
fed , the ran g of s the order of a mnor s uare array of of
ma mum order whose determnant s not zero1. f s s uare of
order n, then n g s caed the nuty of .2
Theorem 8.1. f s a s uare array of order n, wth eements n a
fed of nuty and ran g n , there e st e acty neary
ndependent near reatons among the rows (coumns) of , and con-
versey.
earrange the coumns of so that the frst r are neary ndependent
whe each remanng coumn s neary dependent upon these. a
the resutng matr . Then evdenty ( ) ( ). There are
e acty n r ndependent reatons
h h1 h h hg he hh
( ,2, ..., h r 1, ..., n)
among the coumns of . y Theorems 7.5 and 7.4 every (r- -)-
rowed mnor of has a determnant whch can be wrtten as a near
combnaton of determnants each havng at east two e ua coumns,
and hence vanshes. Thus r.
ow suppose that
bn .
. . he
bn .
. he
h
h1 .
. . he
be .
ho
hh
0
h1 . .
. he
h
for every h and . y Theorem 7.8
h1 ff bp2 ... bpe bpU ft 0
for every p and . ut the cofactors 1 are ndependent of , so there
s a reaton
bp1 h bp2 2h bpe gh bph hh 0
for every p and h. Moreover for h , hh 4 0 snce s of ran .
Thus the number n r of neary ndependent near reatons among
the coumns of s at east n g, so r g. ence g r, n r .
oroary 8.2. f 0, g( ) g( ) n. For every there
e sts a such that g ( ) g ( ) n.
souton of the e uaton 0 of ran n g( ) s caed
a compete souton. Denote by ( ) the vector or one-coumn array
( , 2, . . ., n). Then (y) ( ) can be wrtten for
a y . (, 1, 2, ..., n).
1 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.8 (1879) pp. 1 19. The concept
of ran seems to be mpct, however, n a paper by . eger: Den schr. ad.
ss. en o. 14 (1858) pt. 2 pp. 1 121.
2 yvester: ohns op ns Unv. rcuars o. (1884) pp. 9 12
o. or s o. pp. 133-145.
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f s a compete souton of the e uaton 0, and f ( ) s an
arbtrary vector, then (y) ( ) s the most genera souton of the
e uaton (y) 0.
emna 8.3. f the vector (z) ranges over the soutons of the e uaton
(z) 0, then (z) represents e acty ( ) ( ) neary n-
dependent vectors.
For among the r n ( ) ndependent soutons of the e uaton
(z) 0 beong the a n ( ) soutons (z ), (z ),. .., (zM) of the
e uaton (z) 0. f these are e tended by the soutons (z( 1)),.... (zw)
to. a compete system of t soutons, the r a ( ) ( )
vectors (z 1)),.. ., ( r)) are ndependent. For a reaton
a 1 (z ) , ( M) ( 1(2 1 ) ,( )) 0
woud mpy
a 1 ) ... , 1 (/) ( ),
and hence 1 T 0.
Theorem 8.3. f , , are three matrces of order n wth eements
n ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).
n the emma repace by . Then ( ) ( ) s
the number of vectors (y ), (y ),... for whch (y) 0 and the
vectors (y ), (y ),... are ndependent. Then (z ) (y ),
(z ) (y ), ... satsfy the e uaton (z) 0, and the vectors
(z ) (y ), (z ) (y ),... are ndependent. ut snce there
are not more than ( ) ( ) such vectors1 (/), (z ), ...,
( ) - ( ).
oroary 8.3. The nuty of the prdduct of two matrces s at east
as great as the nuty of ether factor, and at most as great as the sum of
the nutes of the factors 1.
For when 0, Frobenus theorem gves ( ) ( ) when
0 t gves ( ) ( ) and when 7, t gves
e( ) ( ) n ( ).
f s an -rowed s uare matr wth eements n a doman of
ntegrty 2) contanng the fed as a sub-varety, the coumn-nuty
of wth respect to f s the number of neary ndependent near
reatons among the coumns of wth coeffcents n . The coumn-
nuty may not e ua the row-nuty3.
1 Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1911 pp. 20 29.
8 yvester s aw of nuty . ohns op ns Unv. rcuars o. 3 (1884)
pp. 9 12 o. or s o. pp. 133 145.
3 MacDuffee, . .: nn.ofMath. o.27 (1925) pp. 133 139.
rgebnsse der Mathemat . MacDuffee.
2
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Theorem 8.4. f s a matr of ran , and d ,... s denoted
by bf , ,2,...,m m ( ) , then the m-rowed s uare matr
(brs) s of ran .1
uppose the rows and coumns of arranged so that n 0. The
ast n rows are near combnatons of the frst rows, so f sutabe
near combnatons of the frst rows are added to each of the ast
n rows, these atter may be made to consst e cusvey of 0 s.
Ths process does not ater the ran of or the ran of . ow br, 0
e cept when r 1, so the rato
ba : b2: : bm
s ndependent of . n other words,
br, rbs,
Theorem 8.5. n a symmetrc matr of ran there s at east one non-
snguar prncpa mnor of order .2
uppose symmetrc of ran . y Theorem 8.4 set
h mP h m P, (t 1, 2, ..., m)
where some p, say p , s not 0. et b c p m. Then bf mpp .
f m were 0, woud be of ran g. ence b 0.
Theorem 8. . The ran of a s ew matr s even9.
uppose of odd ran and br bsr. et
h MP , b m P -mP , p 0.
For m b p 2 ths mpes
h mpp -mp p.
ence every b 0, contrary to the assumpton that the ran of
was .
9. denttes among mnors. Theorem 9.1. mong the mnors of
order m of a symmetrc matr of order n there e sts the reaton5
r .27 t
r , 2, .... m s m , m 2, ..., 2m h m , ..., 2m
1, 2, ..., m , h m , h 1, m, h , ..., 2m.
et have ndependent eements. et ar, a. The operaton
2m r m
2 1 da
1 owaews : nfhrung n de Determnantentheore, p. 124.
2 ronec er: . rene angew. Math. o. 72 (1870) pp. 152 175.
3 acob: . rene angew. Math. o.2 (1827) pp. 347 357.
4 The ast three proofs are by G. . ss: nn. of Math. o. 1 (1914)
pp. 43 44.
ronec er: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1882 pp. 821 844 er e
o. pp. 389 397.
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frst repaces the eements of coumn h by eements wth the same frst
subscrpt but wth the second subscrpt m, and then repaces the eements
of the ast row of the new determnant by eements wth the same second
subscrpt but wth the frst subscrpt h. onse uenty
2m 2m m
h m m h
The eft member s e ua to
2m
2m 2m
h m m
da
2U
d a
am dah
1 1
h
nce 0, 4 w n the second summaton. For h , 0.
amm oam ah
ow consder to be symmetrc. The coeffcent of ah , h , s
2-
, 2a a
a m dam dath damh8au/
1 1
nce the nterchange of coumns h and does not ater ths e presson,
t vanshes. ence the entre eft member reduces to1
2m
a
2
mh
h m
forma proof of ronec er s denttes was gven by . chen-
de . . hte3 proved them from nown denttes n agebrac
nvarant theory. . Mehm e4 stated that they are mped n Grass-
mann s neaen usdehnungsehre 18 2, p.
. unge5 proved that a near reatons among the mnors of a
symmetrc matr are neary dependent upon those of ronec er,
and found neary ndependent systems. e aso proved that no such
reatons e st for s ew matrces. s resuts are sgnfcant n con-
necton wth the generazatons of ronec er s denttes by Mur ,
and een arton7.
Metzer8 gave some compcated denttes among the mnors of
a matr whch ncude ronec er s n the symmetrc case. very
compete account of the denttes among the mnors of a matr was
recenty gven by . . eaver9.
1 touffer, . .: Proc. at. cad. c. U. . . o.12 (192 ) pp. 3- 4.
2 chende, .: . Math. Phys o. 32 (1887) pp. 119 120.
3 hte, . .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 2 (189 ) pp. 13 -138.
Mehm e, .: Math. nn o.2 (188 ) pp. 209 210.
5 unge, .: . rene angew. Math. o.93 (1882) pp. 319 327.
Mur: Phos. Mag. o.3 (1902) pp. 410 41 .
7 arton, een: Proc. at. cad. c. U. . . o. 12 (192 ) pp. 393 39 .
8 Metzer: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 2 (1901) pp. 395 403.
8 eaver, . .: mer. Math. Monthy o. 39 (1932) pp. 2 27 .
2
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MacMahon1, and Mur2 showed that there are ust n2 n
ndependent prncpa mnors of a matr . touffer3 showed that ( ,
( ), n ) consttute such a system, the subscrpts ndcatng deeted
rows and coumns. touffer4 gave a method for e pressng the deter-
mnant of a matr of any order n terms of not more than 14 of ts
prncpa mnors of ower order, and ater5 showed that the determnant
of a matr of order n s a functon of four mnors of order n 1 and one
of order n 2. genera theorem on the e presson of a determnant
n terms of ts subdetermnants was proved by . . Fe ner .
10. educbty. Theorem 10.1. f s ether a genera matr or
a genera symmetrc matr , there s no dentty
d ) f a )g a ),
where f and g are poynomas n the eements of nether of whch s
a constant.
uppose the eements of ndependent and d( ) f g. nce
d ) s near n every eement, f au occurs n / t does not occur n g.
o term of d( ) contans a11ar, hence g s of degree 0 n every ar.
nce no term of d( ) contans arsar, g s of degree0 n every ar, and
s therefore constant. ny a sght modfcaton s re ured to e tend
the proof to the genera symmetrc matr 7.
Ths s a speca case of the theorem that the determnant of an
rreducbe group matr s an rreducbe functon of the varabes8.
Theorem 10.2. The determnant of the genera s ew matr of even
order s the s uare of a ratona functon of ts eements.
The theorem s obvous for n 2, and the proof foows by nducton.
s s ew of odd order and hence ts ran s n 2 at most.
(Theorem 8. .) et f be the cofactor of af n 4 . s
n the proof of Theorem 8.5,
mpp ,
where pt s a ratona functon of the eements of . y assumpton
s the s uare of a ratona functon of the a , so the same must
be true of m, whch may be ta en as 1. y the apace deveopment
d( ) f a a n ptan)2.
The foowng more genera theorem was proved by . yns 9.
et be a matr obtaned from (ars) by repacng a certan
1 MacMahon: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o. 185 (1893) pp. 111 1 0.
2 Mur: Phos. Mag. o. 38 (1894) pp. 537 541.
3 touffer: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o.2 (1924) pp. 35 -3 8.
4 touffer: mer. Math. Monthy o. 35 (1928) pp. 18 21.
5 touffer: mer. Math. Monthy o. 39 (1932) pp. 1 5 1 .
8 Fe ner, . .: nn. of Math. o.29 (1927) pp. 373 37 .
7 cher: ntroducton to hgher agebra, p. 177. Macman 1907.
8 Dc son: Modern agebrac theores, p. 259. hcago 192 .
yns , .: u. nt. cad. Poon. c. 1921 pp. 101 104.
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number of eements by 0. et be a. matr obtaned from by
repacng by 0 s those of the eements whch do not actuay fgure
n the deveopment of d( ). necessary and suffcent condton for
the rreducbty of d( ) s as foows: tartng from one eement
ar, of , one can reach each of the other eements (not 0) by a cosed
poygon each sde of whch s mted by two eements ars beongng
to the same row or to the same coumn of .
. Gegenbauer1 proved that f the rows of a matr are cycc
permutatons of the frst, n the fed of the roots of unty the deter-
mnant s a product of near factors. . urnsde2 generazed ths
to the case where the successve rows proceed from the frst by the
permutatons of an abean group of order n.
Frobenus3 proved that f the eements of the matr are n-
dependent varabes, and those of the matr near functons of
these varabes, and f d( ) cd( ), c 0, then ether
or where and are constant matrces. For n 1 ony
one of these reatons can hod and are un ue up to scaar factors.
. chur4 generazed the above theorem as foows: et be an
array of m rows and n coumns whose mn eements are ndependent
varabes. et be an array of the same type whose mn eements yrs
are near homogeneous functons of the eements rs of . f for a
f ed r, 2gcgw, 2gr , t s nown that the mnors
of order r of are neary ndependent near homogeneous functons
of the mnors of , then for m 4 n the array s of the form
where and are non-snguar constant s uare arrays of orders m
and n respectvey. f m n, ether or T .
. rrays and determnants of hgher dmenson. The noton of
e tendng the theory of determnants to cubc arrays and arrays of
n dmensons has occurred to many wrters, begnnng wth ayey5.
. Gegenbauer, M. ecat and . . ce, among others, have wrtten
e tensvey n that fed. ecat gave a chronoogca st of 50 papers,
and n 192 brought the st up to date7. n e ceent e poston was
recenty gven by ce8. The sub ect seems to e much coser to tensor
1 Gegenbauer, .: .- . ad. ss. en ( , 2) o.82 (1880 81) pp.938
to 942.
2 urnsde, .: Mess. Math. o.23 (1894) pp. 112 114.
4 chur, .: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1925 pp. 454 4 3.
ayey: Trans. ambr. Phos. oc. o. 8 (1843) pp. 1 1 o. or s
o. pp. 75-79.
ecat, M.: brege de a theore des determnants a n dmensons. Gand.
oste 1911.
7 ecat, M.: nn. oc. c. ru ees o.4 (192 ) pp. 1 39.
8 ce: . Math. Physcs, Massachusetts nst. Techno. o. 9 (1930) pp. 47
to 71.
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1
anayss than to the theory of matrces, as was ceary shown by
. M. ramet1.
matr s often consdered as a near vector functon. . D. ar-
ter2 nvestgated homogeneous vector functons of degree p. e states
that no anaogue for characterstc root e sts for the generazed matr .
o success has as yet been attaned n e tendng to hgher dmensons
the concept of matr n the sense of hypercompe number n whch
t s used n ths boo . nce every assocatve system can be represented
n terms of two-dmensona matrces, ths ac of success s not sur-
prsng. ut -dmensona arrays have receved some attenton n
connecton wth mutnear forms and tensor anayss. Ther mpor-
tance es n the varous generazatons of ran whch can be apped
to them3.
12. Matrces n non-commutatve systems. Determnants of ma-
trces whose eements are uaternons were dscussed by amton4.
. M. Perce5 defned a determnant of a matr of uaternons by
wrtng the eements of each term n the order of ther coumn ndces.
. r represented b uaternons and tr uaternons as matrces wth
uaternon eements. . tudy7 gave a bref dscusson of matrces
of uaternons.
Matrces whose eements beong to a dvson agebra or non-com-
mutatve fed attan consderabe mportance from the theorem of
. . M. edderburn8 that every smpe agebra can be represented
as a tota matrc agebra whose eements beong to a dvson agebra9.
Determnants of matrces over a dvson agebra n connecton
wth the souton of systems of near e uatons were consdered by
. . chardson10, . eytng11, and 0. re12. The atter defnes
the rght-hand determnant by
ar, u ) an ... , / ),
where the are a set of soutons of the homogeneous eft-hand
system t, .
2M1w 0. (7 2. .... )

1 ramet, . M.: mer. . Math. o. 49 (1927) pp. 89 9 .
2 arter, . D.: Unv. aforna Pub. Math. o.1 (1920) pp. 321 343.
3 tchcoc , F. .: . Math. Physcs, Massachusetts nst. Techno. o. 7
(1927) pp. 39 85. - ce, . .: bd. 1928 pp. 93-9 .
4 amton: ements of uaternons ( ppend ). ondon 1889.
Perce, . M.: u . mer.Math. oc. o.5 (1899) pp. 335 337.
r, .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o.4 (190 ) pp. 124 130.
7 tudy, .: cta math. o.42 (1920) pp. 1 1.
8 edderburn, . . M.: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. (1908) p. 99.
9 ee Dc son: gebren und hre ahentheore, p. 120. urch 1927.
chardson, . .: Mess. Math. o.55 (192 ) pp. 145-152 Proc.
ondon Math. oc. o. 28 (1928) pp. 395-420.
11 eytng, .: Math. nn. o.98 (1927) pp. 4 5 490.
12 re, .: nn. of Math. o. 32 (1931) pp. 4 3-477.
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. The characterstc e uaton.
17
Two matrces are sad to be rght-e uvaent f ther rght determnants
vansh together. Two matrces and are rght-e uvaent f they
dffer by the nterchange of two rows or of two coumns or f s
obtaned from by mutpyng the eements of a coumn on the eft,
or the eements of a row on the rght, wth 0 or f s obtaned
from by addng one row to another row or one coumn to another
coumn.
13. The mnmum e uaton. f s a matr of order n over a
fed , the matrces /, , 2,. .., consttute n2 1 sets of n2
numbers each, and hence are neary dependent n Thus satsfes
some e uaton
m ( ) m11 -1 . . . mf 0
wth coeffcents n of mnmum degree f. e sha ca f the nde
of . The nde of a scaar matr s 1. very matr e cept 0 has
an nde .
Theorem 13.1. f f( ) 0, m ).) f /.)
rte / ( ) ( ) m ( ) r ( ) where r ().) 0 or ese r ( ) s of
degree f. nce f( ) m( ) 0, r( ) 0. nce f was mnma,
r( ) 0.
oroary 13.1. The mnmum e uaton m(/.) 0 s un ue.
The constant term of the mnmum e uaton w be caed the norm
of , wrtten n( ).
14. The characterstc e uaton. The matr obtaned from (ars)
by repacng every ars by the cofactor ,r of asr s caed the ad ont
of , wrtten
f d( ) 4 0, the matr d( ) s caed the nverse of , wrtten
1 or - y Theorem 7.8,
Theorem 14.1
(4),
1 /.
Theorem 14.2. f satsfes an e uaton
p( ) 0 -1 ... 0,
/ e s fot g oner matrces wth eements n a fed then
satsfes the e uaton dp ) 0 whose coeffcents are n
vdenty p( ) can be consdered as an -th order matr whose
eements are poynomas n of degree . ts ad ont
f ) D0 ( - D -D- ...
1 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) p. 1 3.
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18
has poynoma eements of degree (n 1). Then
dp( ) p0 n p1 - ... p n
has coeffcents n nce
p ( ).p ) dp( ) ,
(n-) n
D ( -)- - P n- ,
0 f 0 4 0
fc(n-) n
D... 1 .(y yp n.h m.
-o y o . o
Ths hods for ndetermnate. y e uatng coeffcents of the powers
of , n 1 e uatons are obtaned. f the -th e uaton s mutped
on the rght by h and the resuts added, the sum may be wrtten
0,
n (n-)
2p n- D -1)- y, -
h 0 0 y o
or dp ( ) 0.
Ths s a speca case of a theorem of . . Phps1 who proved
that f ,..., are -th order matrces, and ..., are matrces
commutatve n pars such that
1 1 ... 0,
and f p(P, ...,0 ) d( 1 ... M where ft,.... are n-
determnates of then
p( 1,..., ) 0.
The proof whch we have gven s smar to Frobenus 2 proof for
the near case. Frobenus attrbutes the dea to Pasch3.
oroary 14.21. very matr satsfes ts characterstc e uaton
d( - ) 0.
Ths s the famous amton- ayey theorem, estabshed for
uaternons by . . amton4, and proved for n 2, 3 by . ay-
ey5 who stated the theorem n the genera case wth the comment
that t was not necessary to underta e ts proof. Many proofs, more
or ess satsfactory, have been gven . . . Forsyth7 apped dfference
e uatons to the proof. . uchhem made the proof essentay n
the manner of Frobenus8, statng that t was ta en n concept from
Tat s uaternons, p. 81.
1 Phps, . .: mer. . Math. o.41 (1919) pp. 2 278.
2 Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 189 p. 0 .
3 Pasch: Math. nn. o. 38 (1891) pp. 24 49.
4 amton, . .: ectures on uaternons, p. 5 . Dubn 1853.
ayey, .: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o.148 (1858) pp. 17 37.
aguerre, .: . F oe poytechn. o.25 (18 7) pp. 215 2 4 uvres
o. pp. 228 233.
Forsyth, . .: Mess. Math. o. 13 (1884) pp. 139 142.
8 uchhem: Mess. Math. o.13 (1884) pp. 2 .
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19
n connecton wth Theorem 14.2, t shoud be noted that uch-
hem1 stated that the roots of the e uaton 0 are roots
of ) 0.
oroary 14.22. The nde f of s n.
The name characterstc e uaton of for the e uaton 0
s due to auchy2. The eft member s caed the characterstc functon
of .
Theorem 14.3. f
f( ) -t1 - tt - tn 0
s the characterstc e uaton of , then tt s the sum of a the prncpa
-rowed mnors of .
For the coeffcent of n- n 0 s the sum of the deter-
mnants of a mnors obtaned by suppressng n rows of
and the correspondng coumns.
The frst coeffcent t( ) au ann s caed the trace
o . t s a scaar functon of second ony n mportance to tn d ( ).
Theorem 14.4. very e uaton of degree n wth coeffcents n s
the characterstc e uaton of some matr of order n wth eements n
et the gven e uaton be
f( ) n b1 - ... bn 0.
The matr
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

-
- -1
-2 .
has / ( ) 0 as ts characterstc e uaton. For f n the matr
one mutpes the ast coumn by and adds to the (n mth, mutpes
the ( tmth coumn of the new matr by and adds to the (n 2mth
and so on, there resuts
0 -1
0 .
. 0
0 0
-1 .
0
f( )
y the apace deveopment, the determnant of ths matr s seen

to be f( ).
1 uchhem: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 1 (1884) pp. 3 82.
2 auchy: ercses d anayse et de phys ue mathemat ue o. (1840)
p. 53 ( uvres o. 11 pp. 75 133.
3 G nther, .: . Math. o.21 (187 ) pp. 178 191. asant, . .:
u. oc. Math. France o.17 (1889) pp. 104 107. ados, G.: Math. nn.
o.48 (1897) pp. 417-424.
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20
. oewy1 caed (or ts negatve) a egetmatr . e sha
ta e the berty of cang t the companon matr of the e uaton
(/) o.
f f( ) s competey reducbe n , say
f( ) ( - .y ...( - y,
where the are dstnct, et
1 0 ... 0
0 t ... 0
where
7

0 0 ... /t
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
0 0 0 ...
s of order t. t s evdent that d( ) f( ). Ths matr / w
be caed a ordan matr 2.
15. Determnaton of the mnmum e uaton. Theorem 15.1. et
f( ) 0 be the characterstc e uaton of , and et h ( ) be the greatest
common dvsor of the (n )-rowed mnors of 7.1 . Then
g( ) f( ) h( ) 0
s the mnmum e uaton of .3
et ( ). Then ( ) h( ) ( ) where the eements
of ( ) are reatvey prme. nce / ( ) ( ) ( ),
g( ) ( ) ( )h ) ( ),
and, snce h( ) e o,
(15.1) g( ) ( ) ( ).
nce ( ) 0, g( ) 0 and m( ) g( ) where m( ) 0 s the mn-
mum e uaton of .
From m( ) m(f) ( f ) ( , u), we obtan
m( ) - m( ) m ) - m( ) ( ) ( , ).
ut m ) 0. ence
( )m( ) f( ) ( , ),
h( ) ( )m( ) h( )g( ) ( , ).
nce h ( ) 0, t may be canceed. nce g ( ) dvdes every eement
of ( )m( ), and the eements of ( ) are reatvey prme1 g( ) m( ).
1 oewy, .: .- . edeberg. ad. ss. o. 5 (1918) p. 3 - Math. .
o. 7 (1920) pp. 58-125.
2 ordan, .: Trats des ubsttutons et des uatons g br ues, vre 2
pp. 88 249. Pars 1870.
3 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) pp. 1 3.
4 Proof by . Perron: Math. nn. o. 4 (190 ) pp. 248-2 3.
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21
oroary 15.1. f s the companon matr (or the ordan matr )
of f( ) 0, then f( ) 0 s the mnmum e uaton of (or ).
nce n 1, the mnmum e uaton of s ewse ts char-
acterstc e uaton.
y crossng out of the frst coumn and ast row of / ,
a mnor of order n 1 s obtaned whose determnant s free of .
ence the g.c.d. of the (n mrowed mnor determnants of s
1, and the mnmum e uaton of /s ewse ts characterstc e uaton.
Theorem 15.2. The dstnct factors of the characterstc functon /(/)
of whch are rreducbe n concde wth the dstnct rreducbe factors
of the mnmum functon m ( ).
s n the proof of Theorem 15.1,
f( ) m( )h( ).
ence every root of m ( ) 0 s a root of / ( ) 0, so every rreducbe
factor of m( ) dvdes f( ). From (15.1)
( ) ( ) m( ) .
Ta ng determnants, . , /, r , u.
f( )d ( ) m( ) n.
ence every root of / ( ) 0 s a root of m ( ) 0, and every rreducbe
factor of f( ) dvdes m( ).1
oroary 15.2. f ether d( ) or n( ) vanshes, both vansh.
ence a matr s snguar or non-snguar accordng as n( ) 0
or n ( ) 4 0.
matr s caed derogatory2 f ts nde f s ess than n.
Theorem 15.3. f s non-snguar of order n and nde f, 1 s
a poynoma n of degree f 1.3
et the mnmum e uaton of be
m( ) m1 -1 m n( ) 0.
et -( -1 m1 P-2 - h mf,-1 ) n( ).
Then . ut 1 1 , so
1
Theorem 15.4. f s snguar of order n and nde f, there e sts
a matr e pressbe as a poynoma n of degree f 1 such that
0.
For f - ( -1 w, - hm ), n( ) 0.
oroary 15.4. very matr s ether non-snguar or a dvsor of zero.
Theorem 15.5. f m( ) 0 s the mnmum e uaton of , then
df( ) 0 f and ony f m( ) and f( ) have a common factor of
degree g.4
1 ee . .Dc son: gebren und hre ahentheore, p. 21. urch 1927.
2 yvester: . . cad. c., Pars o. 98 (1884) pp. 471 475.
3 aguerre: . fcoe poytechn. o.25 (18 7) pp. 215 2 4.
ense, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 127 (1904) pp. 11 1 .
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uppose m( ) h ( ) ( ), f ( ) h ( ) ( ), h ( ) of degree 1. Then
) s of degree / and ( ) 4 0. Then
m( ) 0 h( ) ( ),
and h( ) s snguar. Then /(/ ) s aso snguar.
et h( ) be a g.c.d. of m( ) and /( ) so that
h( ) p( )m( ) ( )f( ).
Then ( ) 9( )/( ).
f /(4) s snguar, h ( ) s aso snguar, and h( ) s not a constant.
f g . . . )
Theorem 15. . et r( , y, ,...) / ratona
y, )
functon of the scaar ndetermnates , y, z, . . ., where p and are poy-
nomas. et of nde , of nde f, of nde v, ... be commutatve
matrces such that ( , , , . . .) s non-snguar. Then r( , , , . . .)
s un uey defned, and can be represented as a poynoma of degree
n , of degree f n , of degree n , . . .
poynoma n , , ,. .. s but up by the operatons of ad-
dton, mutpcaton and scaar mutpcaton. nce , , ,...
are commutatve, the resut at each step s un ue. nce ( , , ,. . .
s non-snguar, 1 e sts and s a poynoma n , and therefore n
, , , . . . ence p p, and r s un uey defned. y usng
the mnmum e uatons of , , , . . ., the degree of r may be reduced
as stated.
1 . haracterstc roots. et be a matr of order n wth eements
n a fed and et /( ) be ts characterstc functon.
et be an e tenson of n whch / ( ) 0 s competey reducbe.
The n roots n of /( ) 0 are caed the characterstc roots1.
Theorem 1 .1. et , , , . . . be commutatve matrces, and et
f ( , y, z, ...) be any ratona functon. The characterstc roots a1,.. .,an of
, b, . . ., bn of etc. can be so ordered that the characterstc roots of
f( , , , . . .) are /( b1, c,...),.. .,/( , b , cn, . . .). Ths order-
ng s the same for every functon /.2
et f
a.(co) (a as), P(o ) (a b ), y ( w) (w c ), ...

be the mnmum e uatons of , , , . . . respectvey. rte
f( , y,z, ...) f(a(, b , c , ...) /( , b , c , ...) f(f, b , c , ...)
U( ,y,c ,...) f( , b ,c ,.,.) ( - a)f ... y b g c...
(z c )h . .. Therefore
n U( , y,z,...)- f au b , c , ...) ( ) (3(y) M y(z) . ..,
, , ,...
,..., , ,...,f, , ..., v, ...
1 r atent roots, yvester.
2 Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 189 1 pp. 01 14.
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23
nce , , ,... are commutatve, these two poynomas gve e ua
matrces when ,y ,z ,... ence
s satsfed by the matr f( , , ,...). Therefore the mnmum
functon of f , , ,...), of degree a n, s e ua to a product of
a near factors
y Theorem 15.2 these ncude a the dstnct factors of the characterstc
e uaton. The roots of , , ,... are ordered by cang the -th
root of a f 0 /( (, , c,. . .).
The above process can be carred through when / s a poynoma
n of degree 1, n y of degree f 1, n z of degree 1, ...
wth ndetermnate coeffcents, and an orderng of the roots of
, , , . . . so obtaned. y Theorem 15. every ratona functon
of , , ,. .. can be obtaned by specazng the coeffcents of
ths /. ence the orderng s the same for a ratona functons1.
. . orchardt2 proved that the characterstc roots of n are
the -th powers of the characterstc roots of . The speca case for
symmetrc was redscovered by . . yvester3. . pottswoode1
new that the roots of 1 are the recprocas of the roots of . G. Fro-
benus5 proved Theorem 1 .1 frst for a snge matr and ater n the
form above . yvester redscovered pottswoode s7 resut and
Frobenus 8 theorem of 1878.
T. . . romwch9 noted that Frobenus theorem need not
hod when / s not a ratona functon.
Theorem 1 .2. The characterstc roots of are the same as those
of .10
y Theorems 14.3 and 7.9 the coeffcent of - n the character-
stc e uaton of s
1 Proof by . chur: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1902 1 pp. 120 125.
2 orchardt, . .: . rene angew. Math. o.30 (184 ) pp. 38 4
. Math, pures app. o. 12 (1847) pp. 50 7.
3 yvester, . .: ouv. nn. math. o. (1852) pp. 439 440.
4 pottswoode, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 51 (185 ) pp. 209 271 and
328-381.
5 Frobenus, G.: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) pp. 1 3.
Frobenus, G.: 1. c.
7 pottswoode: . . cad. c., Pars o. 94 (1882) pp. 55 59.
8 yvester: G.: Phos. Mag. o. 1 (1883) pp. 2 7 2 9.
romwch,. T. . .: Proc. ambrdge Phos. oc. o. 11 (1901) pp. 75
to 89.
10 yvester: Phos. Mag. o. 1 (1883) pp. 2 7-2 9.
o - /( . b , c , ...) 0
co f a, b , c , ...).
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24
where both (r, . . ., r ) and ( 1, . . ., h) range over a f seectons
of dstnct numbers of the set 1, 2,..., n wthout regard for order.
The theorem foows upon nterchangng the summaton ndces.
yvester stated the theorem wthout proof. proof based upon
consderatons of contnuty was gven by . . Thurston1. proof
s s etched by . . Turnbu and . . t en2.
. hateet3 noted that the theorem of Frobenus affords an
easy method of appyng a Tschrnhausen transformaton. et t
be re ured to fnd the e uaton whose roots are the ratona functon y
of the roots of f( ) 0. et be the companon matr of f( ) 0.
Then y p( ) 0 s the re ured e uaton.
f f( ) 0 has agebrac ntegra roots, the eements of are ratona
ntegers. f 9 s a poynoma wth ratona ntegra coeffcents, p ( )
has ratona ntegra eements, so that the roots of y. p ) 0
are agebrac ntegers. Ths s a short proof that a poynoma functon
wth ratona ntegra coeffcents of an ntegra agebrac number s
ntegra.
ony f the characterstc roots of are roots of unty4.
f n the seres , 2, 8, . . . the same matr1 appears more than
once, then the system contans . f v s the mnmum nteger for whch
y , then the ony dfferent matrces n the set are , ,.. ., r-1 5
. anum gave a method for e pressng a the powers of as
near combnatons of , ,..., -1.
f for some v v 0, then d( ) d( ).7
17. on ugate sets. f the characterstc e uaton of the -th order
matr 1 s f( ) 0, a set of matrces 2, . . ., n form wth a
compete set of con ugates f
1. They have the same characterstc e uaton,
2. They are commutatve,
3. The eementary symmetrc functons of these matrces are mu-
tpes of by the correspondng eementary symmetrc functons of
the agebrac roots of /( ) 0.8 f the eementary dvsors of 1
are near, the con ugates aways e st.
The product of the con ugates 2 3.. . n s . . . ennett9
1 Thurston, . .: mer. Math. Monthy o. 38 (1931) pp. 322-324.
2 Turnbu, . ., and . . t en: n ntroducton tc the theory of
canonca matrces, p. 181. ondon 1932.
3 hateet, .: nn. fcoe norm. o.28 (1911) pp. 105 202.
4 pschtz, .: cta math. o. 10 (1887) pp. 137 144.
5 ronec er, .: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1890 pp. 1081 1088.
anum, .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 17 (1911) pp. 457. .4 1.
7 Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 189 1 pp. 01 14.
8 Taber, .: mer. . Math. o. 13 (1891) pp. 159 172.
9 ennett, . .: nn. of Math. o.23 (1923) pp. 91 9 .
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25
caed 2 n the ad ont-trace of 1, snce ts sum wth 1
s (4 /.
P. Fran n1 modfed the defnton of con ugate set by the oms-
son of the frst condton, and showed that for every 1 a set of generazed
con ugate matrces e sts, not aways un uey, however. ater2 he gave
a systematc method for fndng a sets of con ugates for a gven matr .
. amson3 noted a partcuar matr such that of form
a compete set of con ugate matrces n the sense of Taber, where to
s a prmtve tt-th root of unty.
T. . Perce4 proved that the fed generated by the roots of any
cycc e uaton s somorphc wth the fed generated by the matrc
roots of ths e uaton.
18. mts for the characterstc roots. n ths paragraph g s
the compe fed. et c denote (ars), obtaned from by repacng
every eement by ts con ugate compe number.
The matr s hermtan f T.5 rea hermtan matr
s symmetrc.
The matr s s ew-hermtan f T. rea s ew-
hermtan matr s s ew.
The matr U s untary f U1 U T.7 rea untary matr s
orthogona.
matr s nvoutory f 1 , .e., f 2 1.8
Theorem 18.1. f a matr has two of the three .propertes n a set,
t has a three.
1. ea, orthogona, untary.
2. ymmetrc, orthogona, nvoutory.
3. ermtan, untary, nvoutory.
The frst of these s due to utonne9, the ast two to . ton10.
Theorem 18.2. very matr s un uey e pressbe
where s hermtan and s s ew-hermtan.
The proof s e that of theorem 5.3.
Theorem 18.3. f where s hermtan and s s ew-
hermtan, and f a, h, , are the ma ma of the absoute vaues of the
1 Fran n, P.: nn. of Math. o.23 (1923) pp. 97 100.
2 Fran n, P.: . Math. Physcs, Massachusetts nst. Techno. o. 10 (1932)
pp. 289 314.
3 amson, .: mer. Math. Monthy o.39 (1932) pp. 280 285.
4 Perce, T. .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 3 (1930) pp. 2 2 2 4.
ermte, .: . . cad. c., Pars o.41 (1855) pp. 181 183.
oewy, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 122 (1900) pp. 53 72.
7 utonne, .: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 1 (1902) pp. 104 128.
8 oss, .: Math. nn. o. 13 (1878) pp. 320 374. Prym, F.: bh. Ges.
ss. G ttngen o. 38 (1892) pp. 1 42.
9 utonne: u. oc. Math. France o. 30 (1902) pp. 121 134.
10 ton, .: omogeneous near substtutons. ford 1914.
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2
eements of , , , respectvey, and f a P s a characterstc
root of , then
o na, .nh, f3 n .
nce a s snguar, there e sts a vector ( ) ( ,..., n)
whose coordnates are not a 0 such that ( a ) ( ) 0. ence
a as . ( ,/ 1, 2, .... n)
t then foows that
a t a ( ,
a a. 5,. .
ence, addng and subtractng,
(18.1) 2 h .
,
(18.2) - fr ,.
,
ow
From the ne uaty
(18.3) ( n) s m( ),
t foows that
mary nh, f n .
oroary 18.31. The characterstc roots of an hermtan matr are
a rea.
For f s hermtan, 0, 0, and every / 0.
The frst proof that the roots of a rea symmetrc matr are a
rea s due to . auchy2. Many ater proofs have been gven by
acob, yvester, uchhem etc. The e tenson to matrces such
that T c was made by ermte3 and resuted n such matrces
beng named for hm.
oroary 18.32. The characterstc roots of a s ew-hermtan matr
are a pure magnares .
For n ths case h 0, a 0.
Ths theorem was proved for s ew matrces by . ebsch5 and
ater by eerstrass .
1 Theorem and proof by . rsch: cta math. o. 25 (1901) pp. 3 7 370.
auchy, .: ncens ercses. 1829 1830 o. or s o. 9 pp. 174
to 195.
3 ermte: . . cad. c., Pars o. 41 (1855) pp. 181 183.
4 corza, G.: orp numerc e gebre pp. 133 1 79. Messna 1921.
5 ebsch, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 2 (18 3) pp. 232 245.
eerstrass: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1879.
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27
Theorem 18.4. f n the ast theorem s rea, then
From (18.2),
)
7
nce t #,)/ are a rea, the ne uaty (18.3) may be apped
to gtve r T , 1 (n-) v. -

2
ence 0 / 2 3 . 1
The case when s rea was proved by . end son2, and the
paper of end son seems to have nspred the wor of rsch.
Theorem 18.5. et a a - - f be a characterstc root of .
Then m M where m s the east and M the greatest of the char-
acterstc roots of .
et the eements of the hermtan matr be denoted by hrs.
y (18.1) s a vaue of the rato
/( ) 2 12
,
where the ,..., n are ndependent compe varabes. The greatest
and east vaues whch f( ) assumes are characterstc roots of , for
upon settng uf fy, the condtons
P- P- (7 1,2, ..., )
ead to the e uaton
h f 0.
, s
ence m s the mnmum vaue whch / ( ) assumes and M s the ma -
mum vaue. Then m s ot M .3
romwch4 found an e pct e presson for and / from whch
rsch s ne uates may be derved.
. chur5 derved the ne uates by another method.
1 Ths theorem and proof are by . rsch : 1. c.
2 end son, .: cta math. o.25 (1901) pp. 359 3 5.
3 The rea case by end son, the compe case by rsch: 1. c.
4 romwch: cta math. o. 30 (190 ) pp. 295 304.
5 chur, .: Math. nn. o. (1909) pp. 488-510.
rgebnsse der Mathemat . MacDuffee. 3
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28
. T. rowne1 proved that f s a characterstc root of and f m
s the east and M the greatest characterstc root of the hermtan
matr T, then m M.
Frobenus2 proved that f the eements of are a rea and postve,
t has a characterstc root whch s rea, postve, smpe, and greater
n absoute vaue than any other characterstc root.
Theorem 18. . The roots of the mnmum e uaton of an hermtan
matr are dstnct.
f the hermtan matr has the mnmum e uaton
m( ) (- ),
where 1, defne
m1( ) ( - 1) -1h ).
Then m( ) m1 ( ) 2. The matr 1 hr,) m1 ( ) s hermtan, and
0 so that t( ) 0. ut
U ,
so that 1 0 and m1 ( ) 0. ut m1 ( ) s of ower degree than
m( ). ence the assumpton 1 eads to a contradcton3.
19. haracterstc roots of untary matrces. Theorem 19.1. The
characterstc roots of a untary matr are of absoute vaue unty.
f s a characterstc root of the untary matr U, s a
root of the hermtan matr U U1 17 U T, and s
a root of the s ew-hermtan matr U U1 U U T by Theorem
1 .1. ence by oroares 18.31 and 8.32,
2r, 2s,
where r and s are rea. That s,
r s, r s,
whence r2 s2 .4
nother short proof was gven by . rauer5. f U (ur,) s
untary, u 1, so the eements of U are bounded n absoute
vaue. The same s therefore true of the coeffcents of the characterstc
e uaton of U, and of ts roots. ut U1 and U are ewse untary,
and the characterstc roots of U are the recprocas of those of U,
the characterstc roots of U are the -th powers of those of U. Uness
each characterstc root of U were of absoute vaue unty, some postve
or negatve power of t coud be made arbtrary arge, thus eadng to
a contradcton.
1 rowne, . T.: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 34 (1928) pp. 3 3 3 8.
2 Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1908 pp. 471 47 .
3 edderburn, . . M.: nn. of Math. o.27 (192 ) pp. 245 248.
1 ramata, .: Toho u Math. . o. 28 (1927) p. 281.
5 rauer, .: Toho u Math. . o. 30 (1928) p. 72.
Theorem 1 .1.
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29
f U s untary, and f T T , and f s a root of U 0,
then /2 where s the greatest n absoute vaue and
t2 the east n absoute vaue of the characterstc roots of . ach
characterstc root of a prncpa mnor of a untary matr s s n
absoute vaue1.
oroary 19.1. The compe characterstc roots of an orthogona
matr occur n recproca pars2.
nce the characterstc e uaton of an orthogona matr has rea
coeffcents, the compe roots occur n con ugate pars, whch by
Theorem 19.1 are recproca pars.
ther proofs of ths theorem have been gven by . . ahusen3
and . oucc4. n connecton wth ths atter paper see aso G. ta5.
P. urgatt proved that f 0 has recproca roots,
s ether orthogona or nvoutory.
. Toscano7 proved that f the coeffcents e udstant from the
ends of the characterstc e uaton of are e ua, h - - 0
has a rea roots, whe8 f these coeffcents occur n pars wth opposte
sgns, 0 has a rea roots.
20. Matrces wth eements n a prncpa dea rng. commutatve
rng wthout dvsors of zero s caed a doman of ntegrty. doman
of ntegrty wth unt eement 1 n whch every par of eements not
both 0 has a greatest common dvsor representabe neary n terms
of the eements s caed a prncpa dea rng9.
n a prncpa dea rng , a number whch dvdes 1 s caed a
unt. The reaton a ub where u s a unt s recproca, and two
numbers a and b so reated are caed assocates. set of numbers of
P no two of whch are assocated but such that every number of
s assocated wth one of them s caed a compete set of non-assocates
n . Thus the postve ntegers and 0 consttute a compete set of non-
assocates n the rng of ratona ntegers.
number a of nether 0 nor a unt s prme or composte accordng
as a be mpes or does not mpy that b or c s a unt.
1 oewy, ., and . rauer: Toho u Math. . o. 32 (1929) pp. 44 49.
2 rosch, F.: . Math, pures app. o. 19 (1854) pp. 253 25 .
3 ahusen, . .: s undge pgaven o. 5 (1893) pp. 392 394.
4 oucc, .: o. Un. Mat. ta o. (1927) pp. 258 2 0.
ta, G.: o. Un. Mat. ta. o. 7 (1928) pp. 1 7.
urgatt, P.: o. Un. Mat. ta. o. (1928) pp. 5- 9.
7 Toscano, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 8 (1928) pp. 4 9.
Toscano, .: Toho u Math. . o. 32 (1929) pp. 27 31.
9 van der aerden : Moderne gebra o. pp. 39 and 0.
3
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30
n mportant nstance of a prncpa dea rng s a eucdean rng
defned by the foowng propertes:
1. ssocated wth every eement a (e cept possby 0) of the rng,
there s a postve or 0 nteger s(a) caed the stathm of a.
2. For every par of numbers a and b, b 0, there e st two numbers
r and such that a b r, and ether r 0 or ese s(r) s(b).
Thus for the Gaussan compe numbers a b, a stathm s
a2 b2. For the poynoma doman ( ) of a commutatve fed r,
the degree of the poynoma serves as a stathm. For the trva nstance
of a fed, s(a) may be ta en as 1 for every a. eucdean greatest
common dvsor process e sts n every eucdean rng.
The eucdean rng s proper f t s not a fed and f a stathm
can be determned such that s(ab) s(a) s(b) for every a and b. nce
s (0 b) s (0) s (b), ether s(b) 1 for every b so that dvson s aways
possbe and ( s a fed, or ese s (0) 0. onversey et s (a) 0.
ther a 0 or ese for every b,b a, and s agan a fed.
nce s (1 b) s (1) s (b), ether s(b) 0 (and (5 s a fed) or
s(1) 1. et m be a unt, and uv . Then s(u) s(v) 1 so that
s(u) 1. onversey f s (a) 1, a s a unt, for the stathm of the
remander upon dvdng any number by a must be 1 and hence be 0.
Thus n a proper eucdean rng s(a) 0 f and ony f a 0, s (u)
f and ony f u s a unt, and s(a) s (b) f and ony f a and b are as-
socated1.
et 9 consttute the set of a -th order matrces whose eements
beong to a prncpa dea rng sub ect to the operatons of addton
and mutpcaton as n 3. 2 s a rng but not a prncpa dea rng.
matr U of 9 s caed unmoduar or a unt matr f and ony
f there e sts a matr U of 9tt such that UU .
Theorem 20.1. U s a unt matr f and ony f d(U) s a unt of
For UU / mpes d(U) d(U ) 1 so that d(U) s a unt of
onversey f U s n and d(U) s a unt of ty, then U1 s n D and
serves as the U of the defnton.
Theorem 20.2. matr of t s a dvsor of zero f and ony f
d( ) 0.
For f s n 9 , the matr of Theorem 15.4 (such that
0) s aso n 2 .
matr nether a dvsor of zero nor a unt s caed prme f
every reaton mpes that ether or s a unt. Matrces
nether dvsors of zero nor unts nor prmes are caed composte.
Theorem 20.3. composte matr can be e pressed as a product of
at most a fnte number of prmes.
or 1 3 ...,
1 ee . . M. edderburn: . rene angew. Math. o. 1 7 (1931) pp. 129
to 141.
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31
where no t s a unt matr mpes
d( ) d( d( 2)d( 3) ....
where no d( s 0 or a unt. That s, each eement n the se uence
d( 1)d( 2)d( 3) .... d( 2)d( 3) d( 3)...
s a proper dvsor of the precedng. uch a se uence can contan but
a fnte number of eements1.
21. onstructon of unmoduar matrces. Theorem 21.1. et
1, a2,. .., a be numbers of a prncpa dea rng wth greatest com-
mon dvsor dn. There e sts a matr of determnant dn havng a1,a2, ...,an
as ts frst row2.
The theorem s evdenty true for n 2. uppose t true for n 1,
and et Dn-1 be a matr whch has a1, a, -1 as ts frst row, and
whose determnant s the g. c. d. d -1 of 1, a2,..., an- . Determne p
and so that pdn-1 an dn. onsder the matr D obtaned by
borderng Dn-1 on the rght by a ,0, . . ., 0, 0 and then beow by
1 / n-1. 2 n-1. - n-1 -1. P. Then d Dn) dn
ther proofs have been gven by . ehrauch4, anch5, and
. ancoc 8.
ermte7 proved more generay that a matr can be found wth
a gven ast row n , an2, ann and a determnant 2an2-
ann where the s are arbtrary.
The theorem has been generazed as foows. p.n array of ratona
ntegers s gven, p , and the g. c. d. of the p-rowed mnor determnants
s d. t s aways possbe to add n p rows of ntegers to ths array so
that the resutng s uare array sha be of determnant d. . . . mth8
and T. . tet es9 proved ths theorem and determned a possbe
borders. och3 gave a short proof by nducton.
22. ssocated matrces. Two matrces and are caed eft
assocates f there e sts a unt matr U such that U . The
notaton w be used to e press ths reatonshp, whch possesses
the prere ustes for an e uaty reatonshp, namey10:
1 van der aerden : Moderne gebra o. p. 4
8 For ratona ntegers, n 3, G. sensten: . rene angew. Math. o. 28
(1844) pp. 289 374. For any n, . ermte: . Math, pures app. o.14
(1849) pp. 21 30.
3 och, .: u. oc. Math. France o. 50 (1922) p. 100 110.
1 ehrauch, .: . Math. Phys o.21 (187 ) pp. 134 137.
anch : ezon sua Teora de umer gebrc, pp. 1 7.
ancoc , .: mer. Math. Monthy o. 31 (1924) pp. 1 1 1 2.
7 ermte: . rene angew. Math. o.40 (1850) pp. 2 1 278.
s mth, . . .: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o. 151 (18 1 18 2)
pp. 293-32 .
tet es, T. .: nn. Fac. c. Unv. Tououse o.4 (1890) pp. 1 103.
re, .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 37 (1931) p. 538.
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1. Determnaton. ther 5 or f .
2. efe vty. .
3. ymmetry. mpes .
4. Transtvty. f and , then .
smar theory hods for the reaton or U.
The foowng eementary operatons upon the rows of a matr can
be accompshed by mutpyng the matr on the eft by an eementary
matr , namey the matr obtaned by performng the eementary
operaton under consderaton upon the dentty matr /.
1. The nterchange of any two rows.
2. The mutpcaton of the eements of a row by a unt of
3. The addton to the eements of any row of tmes the cor-
respondng eements of any other row, where s n
very eementary matr s a unt matr whose nverse s an
eementary matr of the same type. f s obtanabe from by a
fnte number of eementary transformatons, .1
Theorem 22.1. very matr wth eements n 3 s the eft assocate
of a matr havng s above the man dagona, each dagona eement
yng n a prescrbed system of non-assocates, and each eement beow the
man dagona yng n a prescrbed resdue system moduo the dagona
eement above t.
matr of ths type w be sad to be n ermte s norma form.
et (ars) have eements n ther every eement of the
ast coumn s 0 or there s at east one non-zero eement whch by a
permutaton of the rows can be put nto the (n, n)-poston. et dn be
a g.c.d. of the eements of the ast coumn, and suppose that
Mn h 2n 1- Mnn 4.
y Theorem 21.1 there e sts a unmoduar matr U havng , b2,..., bn
as ts ast row. Then U has dn n the (n, mposton, where
d dvdes every an. y subtractng a proper mutpe of the ast row
from each of the other rows, a matr 1 s obtaned whose ast coumn
has ony s above the man dagona.
n the (n mth coumn ether every eement of the frst n 1
rows s 0, or by a permutaton of the frst n 1 rows a non-zero eement
can be put nto the (n ,n mposton. et dn-1 be a g.c.d. of
,n- 2,n-. n-,n- and et
n-1 2f2,n- n- n-,n- n-
12
1,n-1
0
h
h .
.. -
0
0
0
0
1
1 ee . ronec er: M.- . preu . ad. ss. 18 pp. 597 12.
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33
be unmoduar. Then U1 1 has s above the man dagona n the ast
coumn, dn-1 n the ( 1, n mposton, and each eement above
n-1 dvsbe by dn-1, so that these can be made e ua to 0 by eementary
transformatons. The process s contnued unt a matr s obtaned
whch has ony s above the man dagona.
n order to ma e au e n any prescrbed system of non-assocates,
t s at most necessary to mutpy t by a unt. Ths s accompshed
by an eementary transformaton of the second type.
y subtractng a mutpe of the ( 1mth row from the -th
row, an - can be made to e n any prescrbed resdue system moduo
0n-1,n-1. mary every eement can be reduced moduo the dagona
eement above t. t s understood that a b mod f and ony f
a b.
Theorem 22.2. f d( ) 0, the norma form of ermte s un ue.
The proof w be made for n , but the process s genera. uppose
1 9. f.
31 32 33
where both (ars) and
s unmoduar.
a.
h1
0
0
0
bn
bn
b
31 32 u
(bre) are n norma form and (rs)
b13 13 33 0 , 23 23 a33 0 .
nce d( ) 0, 0 and 13 0. mary every eement
of above the man dagona s 0.
nce d ( ) s a unt of , u, 22, 33 are a unts of 5p. Then
s s bu, and snce a and bu beong to the same system of non-asso-
cates, t 1. Then
bnv
nce b32 and a.
Then
32 32 22 32
32 e n the same resdue system moduo a22, 32 0.
31 31
a.
11 31
and smary 31 0. Thus .
oroary 22.2. very non-snguar matr whose eements are
ratona ntegers s the eft assocate of a matr whose dagona eements
au are postve, ar 0 for r , and 0 ar au for r . Ths
form s un ue1.
Theorem 22.3. f has eements n a eucdean rng , the reducton
to norma form can be accompshed by eementary transformatons.
et (ars) have eements n . ther every eement of the ast
coumn s 0 or there s at east one non-zero eement wth mnmum
postve stathm whch by an nterchange of the rows can be put nto
the (n, mposton. f ann does not dvde some an, set
fn ann r. (s(r) s(ann))
1 ermte, .: . rene angew. Math. o.41 (1851) pp. 191 21 .
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34
Then by an eementary transformaton of the thrd type, an can be
repaced by r. gan nterchange rows f necessary so that the eement
n the (n, mposton s of mnmum stathm and proceed as before.
ventuay ann w dvde every an. The proof now proceeds as n
Theorem 22.1.
Theorem 22.4. very unmoduar matr wth eements n a eucdean
rng (5 s a product of a fnte number of eementary matrces.
et U be unmoduar. y Theorem 22.3 there e st eementary
matrces such that
1 2... / ,
where U s unmoduar and reduced. nce d(U ) s a unt of , each
dagona eement of U s a unt of , and may be ta en to be 1. nce 0
consttutes a compete system of resdues moduo 1, U . Then
U -1... ,
where each s an eementary matr .
oroary 22.4. very unmoduar matr wth eements n a eucdean
rng havng but a fnte number of unts s a product of a fnte number
of matrces of a certan fnte set.
Ths was proved for ratona ntegers by ronec er1.
Theorem 22.5. very unmoduar matr wth eements n a eucdean
rng (5 s a product of matrces of the types
0
0 .
. 0
1
0
1 .
. 0
0
1
0 .
. 0
0
1
0 .
. 0
0
c/2
0
0 .
. 0
0
0
0 .
. 1
0
0
0 .
. 1
0
0
0 .
. 0
1
.
. 0
0
e
0 .
. 0
0
0
1 .
. 0
0
0
1 .
. 0
0
. Ut(e)
0
0 .
. 1
0
0
0 .
. 1
0
0
0 .
. 0
0
0 .
. 0
1
The effect of U1 s to permute the rows cyccy. The effect of U2
s to nterchange the frst two rows. y repeated use of these two
operatons any two rows of a matr can be brought nto postons
one and two. Then by use of U2 or U3 or Ut the desred eementary
operaton can be performed, and the rows then restored to ther orgna
postons.
Ths theorem s essentay that of . razer2 who proved that
1 ronec er: M.- . preu . ad. ss. 18 pp. 597 12.
2 razer, .: nn.Mat.puraapp. o. 12 (1884) pp. 283 300.
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35
every matr wth ratona ntegra eements and of determnant 1 s
a product of ust three, namey
1
1 .
.. 0
0
1 .
.. 0
0
0 .
.. 1
0
-1 .
. 0
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0 ..
. 0
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. 0
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. 0
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. 1
0
0 .
. 1
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23. Greatest common dvsors. f three matrces wth eements
n a prncpa dea rng are n the reaton D, then D s caed
a rght dvsor of , and s caed a eft mutpe of D. greatest com-
mon rght dvsor (g.c.r. d.) D of two matrces and s a common
rght dvsor whch s a eft mutpe of every common rght dvsor of
and . east common eft mutpe (.c..m.) of two matrces and
s a common eft mutpe whch s a rght dvsor of every common
eft mutpe of and .
Theorem 23.1. very par of matrces and wth eements n
have a g.c.r.d. D e pressbe n the form
D P .
onsder the matr n
0
of order 2n. s n the proof of Theorem 22.1, a unmoduar matr U
of order 2n can be found such that the g.c.d. of the eements of the
-th coumn of F s n the (n, n)-poston n UF. Then eementary
transformatons w reduce to 0 every eement of ths coumn beow ann.
Ths process may be contnued to obtan an e uaton
(23.1)
where the frst factor s unmoduar. Thus
U 12 D
so that every common rght dvsor of and s a rght dvsor of D.
nce s unmoduar, there e sts a matr 1 wth eements n
such that
1 11
w
0 1
1 D
0
M
M
0
0
0

0 1
u
D
0
1
o 1
n
1 0
o 1

nD.
whence
ence D s a g.c.r.d. of and .
oroary 23.11. f the 2n n array s of ran n, the matrces
and have a non-snguar g.c.r.d.
oroary 23.12. f and have a non-snguar g.c.r.d. D, every
g.c.r.d. of and s of the form UD where U s unmoduar.
For f D1 s another g.c.r.d.,
D PD1, D1 D, D P D, P /.
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Theorem 23.2. very par of non-snguar matrces and wth
eements n P have a .c..m. M un ue up to a unt eft factor.
The reaton n 0
foows from (23.1). Therefore
M n - n
s a common eft mutpe of and . f M1 s another c..m. ther
g.c.r.d. M PM M
s a c..m., so there e sts a c..m. M2 such that M M2. uppose
M2 .
Then n , - M ,
and snce and are non-snguar,
. 21 , 22 .
ut 7 . 2 12 . 22 22 12 2 , so s a uut matr ,
and M s a rght dvsor of f1 .1
emma 23.3. et denote an n-th order matr wth eements n a
proper eucdean rng . For every eement m of there e st matrces
and such that ether (1) m or ese (2) m where
0 s d( ) s(mn).
y mutpyng on the eft by a unmoduar matr , t can be
put nto ermte s norma form. Determne ( r,), (rrs) such
that a m r ,
where 0 s r ) s (m) for /, whe 0 s (rf) s (m) for .
Uness every s(r ) ( ),
s d( ) s r rM ... rnn s (r1) s (r22) ... s(rn ) s(m) n s(mn),
and m
s n form (2).
f every s(r) s(w) and every other eement of s 0, m
where s dagona, and
m( )
s n form (1)..
f every s (ru) s (m) and some eement of beow the man dagona
s not 0, e.g.,
11
0
0

0
0
31
0
r33
1 The proofs of the ast two theorems are due n essence to . ahen : Th ore
des nombres o. . Pars 1914, and n the form here presented to . hateet:
Groupes abeens fns. Pars 1924.
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t s aways possbe to obtan form (2). et the ast coumn havng a
non-zero eement beow the man dagona be the t-th, and et r be
the frst such eement n that coumn. dd row to row . Then
U m 1 where s d( ) s(mn).
m 1 1, then m U 1 U 1 where s d (U s mn).
Theorem 23.3. f and are matrces wth eements n a proper
eucdean rng , and f d( ) 0, there e st matrces and such
that and ether 0 or ese 0 s d( ) s d( ) .
y the emma there e st matrces and such that
b , b d ),
and ether 0 or ese 0 s d( ) s(bn). f 0, and
the theorem hods wth 0. f -b -
( - ) . Then
b ,
.
ut s d ) s d( ) s d( ) s ( ) s -1 s d( ) s(ft) -1.
Therefore
0 s ( ) s( ) s ( ) .
The emma and theorem were proved for ratona ntegers by . G. du
Pas uee1, who proceeded by ths means to estabsh the e stence of
the g.c.r.d.
24. near form modus. et be a near form modu of order
wth respect to a rng 91. That s, conssts of a numbers of the
form
1 e1 a2 e2 an n .
where the a s range ndependenty over 9 , and the e s are neary
ndependent wth respect to . The e s are caed a bass of .
The bass s not un ue, for any other set
, ( ,/ 1.2, ..., )
where U (urs) s unmoduar wth eements n 9 s aso a bass for
for every near combnaton of the e s s a near combnaton of the
e s, and vce versa. onversey, every two bases of a near form modu
are reated by such a transformaton. The foowng dscusson s reatve
to a f ed bass s1, e2,.. ., en of .
et be a near form submodu of order n of ,2 and et have
the bass , 2, . . ., n. Then
g e , ( . / 1. 2,...,n)
1 du Pas uer, . G.: schr. naturforsch. Ges. urch o. 51 (190 ) pp. 55
to 129.
2 f s a prncpa dea rng, every submodu of 2 s a near form modu.
van der aerden: Moderne gebra o. p. 121.
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where G1 (grs) s a non-snguar matr wth eements n 9 . e
sha say that the matr G1 s assocated wth the bass ,, 2, . . ,
of f. very non-snguar matr G1 determnes n ths way a bass
of a near form submodu of 2.
f 2 wth bass fa, f t, ..., fn s a near form submodu of order
of , every number of 2 s n f , and
P cU h - 2 c g e .
The matr G2 assocated wth the bass fa, f2, fn of 2 s G1,
where s a non-snguar matr wth eements n 9 . Ths proves
Theorem 24.1. contans 2 f and ony f G1 s a rght dvsor
of G2.
oroary 24.1. Two modus and 2 are e ua f and ony f
G G2.
For f G2 and G 2G2, then 1 2 .so that 1 and 2
are both unmoduar.
e sha say that the matr G1 corresponds to the modu 1 (G1 ),
understandng that G s determned ony up to a unt eft factor.
ow specaze 91 to a prncpa dea rng The set of numbers
common to two modus 1 and 2 consttute a modu caed the
greatest common submodu (or ogca product) of the two modus
and 2. t may aso be defned as that submodu of 21 and 2 whch
contans every common submodu of 1 and 2.
The set of a numbers contaned n ether 1 or 2 or both, to-
gether wth ther sums and dfferences, consttutes a modu 2m caed
the east common supermodu (or ogca sum) of 1 and 2. t may aso
be defned as that modu contanng 1 and 2 whch s contaned n
every modu contanng 1 and 2.
Theorem 24.2. et G1 1, G2 2, Gd 2d, Gm m. Then Gd
s the g.c.r.d. of G1 and G2, and Gm s the .c..m. of G1 and G2.
t s proper to spea of the g. c. r. d. and . c. . m. for each s determned
up to a unt eft factor, the same attude of defnton as that of Gd
and Gm. The proof foows drecty from Theorem 24.1.
The appcaton of matrces wth ratona ntegra eements to the
theory of modus s n arge part due to . hateet1. s wor s
summarzed n two boo s, econs sur a th ore des nombres, Pars
1913, and Groupes abeens fns, Pars 1924.
25. deas. et 91 be a rng wth unt eement, and et be a near
form modu wth respect to 9 whch s aso a rng, and whose eements
are commutatve wth those of 9 . n nstance of such a system s a doman
of ntegrty of a near assocatve agebra n the sense of Dc son2.
1 h teet, .: e.g., nn. fcoe norm. o.28 (1911) pp. 105 202
. . cad. c., Pars o. 154 (1912) p. 502.
2 Dc son, . .: gebren und hre ahentheore, p. 154. urch 1927.
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39
s n 1 et the constants of mutpcaton of be c c, and defne
(c.r) .
submodu of whch s cosed under mutpcaton on.the eft
by numbers of s caed a eft dea1. mary there may be defned
rght deas and two-sded deas.
Theorem 25.1. modu of s a eft dea f and ony f ts cor-
respondng matr G satsfes the condtons
G DG, ( 1,2,...,n)
where the D are matrces wth eements n 9 .
ssume that 1, t,..., n consttute a bass for a eft dea where
very number of 5 s of the form
g e ,
whe every number s of s of the form
nce s s n for every s and , there e st numbers dr of 9 such
that
s s g c heh drgrtet.
nce the e s are neary ndependent,
.2 s c h dr grh .
n partcuar there e st vaues dp r of dr when s dp and 8 .
For these vaues
2 g cp h 2,dptrgrh,
or
G PT DpG, Dp (dpr,). (P 1, 2, ..., )
onversey, the condton s suffcent. et dp r and g be numbers
of 9 satsfyng the above condtons. Defne
The set of numbers s evdenty a modu. et s be any number
of . Then
s s n c r er 2 ( du, s
s agan n the modu, whch s therefore a eft dea2.
h teet3 set up a correspondence between deas n an agebrac
fed and matrces wth ratona ntegra eements. f , t,. .., .
1 van der aerden : Moderne gebra o. p. 53.
2 MacDuffee, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 31 (1929) pp. 71 90.
3 h teet: nn. coe norm. o.28 (1911) pp. 105-202.
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. uvaence.
are the con ugates of n and , 2,. . ., n s a dagona
matr , he proved that a necessary and suffcent condton that 1
be ntegra s that , apart from a dagona matr as a factor, corre-
spond to a bass of an dea.
ow specaze 9 to a prncpa dea rng f two eft deas
and 2 of have bases 1,..., n and f,..., fn respectvey, the set
of numbers
where d range over s evdenty a modu. nce s a prncpa
dea rng, t s a near form modu. t s ready seen to be cosed under
mutpcaton on the eft by a number of , so t s a eft dea. The
dea so defned s caed the product of the deas 3 and 2 n that order.
. Poncare1 set up a correspondence between matrces and uad-
ratc deas whch s an nstance of the correspondence of ths paragraph,
and caed the matr correspondng to the dea product the second
product or commutatve product of the matrces correspondng to the
factors. e noted the somorphsm of dea mutpcaton wth com-
poston of uadratc forms.
The matr correspondng to the product of the two eft deas 31
and 2 s the g.c.r.d. of the matrces
G2 T(y, ,2,...,n)
where G2 corresponds to 2, and 1, 2,..., n s a bass of v
f ,..., a are numbers of an agebrac fed of order n, a mnma
bass of the dea ..., ot ) s ready determned from ts assocated
matr , whch s a g.c.r.d. of
( 2), .... oc ).3
. uvaence.
2 . uvaent matrces. et P , where each matr has
ts eements n a prncpa dea rng . Then s a mutpe of .
Theorem 2 .1. f s a mutpe of , the g.c.d. dt of the -rowed
mnor determnants of dvdes the g. c. d. d of the -rowed mnor deter-
mnants of .
Ths foows mmedatey from Theorem 7.9.
Two matrces and wth eements n are e uvaent )
f there e st two unmoduar matrces U and such that U .
1 Poncar , .: . coe poytechn. ah. 47 (1880) pp. 177 245.
8 hover, Grace, and . . MacDuffee: u. mer. Math. oc. o.37
(1931) pp. 434-438.
3 MacDuffee, . .: Math. nn. o. 105 (1931) pp. 3 5.
4 ense, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 114 (1894) pp. 109 115.
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. uvaence.
41
The reaton of e uvaence s determnatve, refe ve, symmetrc and
transtve. ( f. 22.) The present chapter has to do wth those propertes
of matrces whch are nvarant under ths reatonshp.
oroary 2 .1. f , every g. c. d. dt of the -rowed mnor deter-
mnants of s assocated wth every g.c.d. d of the -rowed mnor deter-
mnants of .1
ementary operatons on the rows of a matr are defned as n 22,
each beng accompshed by mutpyng the matr on the eft by a
unmoduar matr . ementary operatons on the coumns are defned
n an anaogous manner, each beng accompshed by mutpyng the
matr on the rght by a unmoduar matr . The nverse of an eemen-
tary operaton s an eementary operaton of the same type.
Theorem 2 .2 very matr of ran wth eements n s e uv-
aent to a dagona matr , ht,.. ., he, 0,..., 0 where 1 .2
Ths dagona form w be caed mth s norma form.
f s of ran , the rows and coumns can be shfted by eementary
transformatons so that the mnor determnant of order n the upper
eft corner s 0. Then as n the proof of Theorem 22.1, the eement
n the (1, mposton can be made 0 and a g.c.d. of the eements of
the frst coumn. The eements of the frst coumn beow the frst row
can then be made s by eementary transformatons on the rows. f
the eement whch now stands n the (1, mposton dvdes every other
eement of the frst row, these other eements can a be made s by
eementary transformatons on the coumns so as not to dsturb the
frst coumn of s. f they are not a dvsbe by ths eement a11,
then can be repaced by the g.c.d. of the eements of the frst row,
and ths g.c.d. w contan fewer prme factors than an. The process
s now repeated unt an eement n the (1, mposton s obtaned whch
dvdes every other eement of the frst row and every other eement
of the frst coumn. nce every number of s factorabe nto a fnte
number of prmes, ths stage s reached n a fnte number of steps3.
y wor ng wth the ast n 1 rows and coumns, then wth the
ast n 2 rows and coumns etc., can be reduced to an e uvaent
D h, h2, he , , 4 0.
ow M 0, for f one eement of M were not 0, t coud be shfted nto
the (e , mposton, and woud have a non-vanshng mnor
determnant of order .
1 yvester, . .: Phos. Mag. o.1 (1851) pp. 119 140.
2 mth, . . .: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o. 1 (18 1 18 2)
p. 314.
3 van der aerden: Moderne gebra o. p. 124.
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42
. uvaence.
y addng coumn 2, coumn 3, .. ., coumn to coumn 1, D s
made to assume the form
h 0 0 ... 0
h2 h2 0 ... 0
h3 0 3 ... 0 .
he 0 0 ... he
s n the proof of Theorem 22.1, there s a unmoduar matr U whch,
used as a eft factor, repaces h1 by the g.c. d. of h,..., he. The new
matr UD has every eement a homogeneous near combnaton of
hg, so each eement of UD s dvsbe by the new h1. gan
reduce to the dagona form h, 2, , where now h1 dvdes
h2,. .., he. ontnue unt h 1, 1, 2, ...,( 1.
ow consder a matr wth eements n a rng , wth unt
eement and no dvsors of zero, n whch both eft and rght dvson
transformatons e st. That s, a stathm s defned for every number
of ( e cept 0, and for every par of numbers a and b, b 4 0, there
e st numbers , ,r, r , such that
a b r , r 0 or s(r) s( ),
a fb /, / 0 or s(/) s( ).
( f. 20.) f s commutatve, t s a eucdean prncpa dea rng ( .
f s(ab) s(a) s(b), s proper.
n eementary transformaton s one of fve types:
1. The addton to the eements of any row of the products of any
eement of by the correspondng eements of another row, beng
used as a eft factor.
2. The addton to the eements of any coumn of the products of
any eement of by the correspondng eements of another coumn,
beng used as a rght factor.
3. The nterchange of two rows or of two coums.
4. The nserton of the same unt factor before each eement of any row.
5. The nserton of the same unt factor after each eement of any
coumn.
ach of these eementary operatons can be effected by mutpyng
the gven matr ether on the eft or on the rght by a certan eementary
matr . product of eementary matrces s caed a unt matr , n
spte of the fact that the concept of determnant s not defned for
matrces wth eements n a non-commutatve rng.
. . M. edderburn1 has proved that f has eements n ,
there e st unt matrces P and such that
P h1,h2, he, 0, .... 0 ,
1 edderburn, . . M.: . rene angew. Math. o. 1 7 (1931) pp. 129 141.
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. uvaence.
43
beng defned as the ran of , and f ( s proper, s both a rght
and a eft dvsor of h .1
Ths ast resut for proper had been gven essentay by . . Dc -
2. nce the resutng dagona matrces are factorabe nto prme
matrces n but one way apart from unt factors, the same s true for
a matrces wth eements n whch are of ran n.
27. nvarant factors and eementary dvsors. et be a matr
wth eements n a prncpa dea rng , and et
D h1,h2,...,hg,0,...,0
be ts e uvaent norma form (Theorem 2 .2). t has been seen (Theorem
2 .1) that the g.c.d. dt of the -rowed mnor determnants of s as-
socated wth the g.c.d. d of the -rowed mnor determnants of D.
nce t foows that
Theorem 27.1. The g.c.d. d h1h2...h of the -rowed mnor
determnants of dvdes the g.c.d. d 1 h h . . . h 1 of the ( 1m
rowed mnor determnants of .
The uotents h1 d1,h2 d2 d, h3 d d , are caed the n-
varant factors of . They are nvarants under the reaton of e uv-
aence, and are determned up to a unt factor.
n a prncpa dea rng every eement nether 0 nor a unt can be
factored un uey (e cept for unt factors) nto a product of powers
of prmes3. uppose
h p1 p , p h .
nce h h 1, the e ponents of each prme factor form a se uence
en e -1, ... eu. (1 1,2, ..., )
uch of these powers pf as are not unts are caed the eementary
dvsors of eerstrass . They are defned up to a unt factor.
The eementary dvsors are smpe f each s a prme4.
Theorem 27.2. f and ony f and have the same eementary
dvsors (nvarant factors).
f and have the same nvarant factors, they can be reduced
to the same norma fo1m and hence are e uvaent. f they are e u-
vaent, they have the same nvarant factors, for these are nvarants.
The nvarant factors determne the eementary dvsors un uey, and
conversey.
oroary 27.2. Two matrces and wth eements n a commutatve
fed are e uvaent f and ony f they have the same ran .
1 ee aso van der aerden: 1. c.
2 Dc son, . .: gebras and ther rthmetcs. Unv. of hcago Press
1923 p. 174.
4 ronec er, .: M.- . preu . ad. ss. 1874.
rgcbnsse der Mathemat . MacDuffee. 4
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44
. uvaence.
For n ths case every eement of g e cept 0 s a unt, and a norma
form 1,..., 1, 0, ..., 0 may be chosen where the number of s s
the ran .
The theory of eementary dvsors s one of the odest and most
thoroughy e poted branches of matrc theory. The terature s so
e tensve that the reader s referred to P. Muth s Theore und n-
wendungen der ementarteer1 for the eary papers. The theory was
ntated by . eerstrass2 for the poynoma doman of the compe
fed, by . . . mth3 and G. Frobenus4 for matrces wth ratona
ntegra eements, and by Frobenus5 for matrces wth eements n
a moduar fed. Frobenus ater gave a ratona treatment of the
eerstrass theory.
. h teet7 proved that f and have ratona ntegra eements,
and f D s ther g.c.r.d. and M ther .c..m., then M 1 and M 1
have, respectvey, the same nvarant factors as D and D1.
28. Factorzaton of a matr . et be a matr of ran wth
eements n a prncpa dea rng y Theorem 2 .2, s a product
by unt matrces of a dagona matr
D h2,...,he, 0, .... 0 .
y 4, D s a product of matrces of the type
, 1, ...,p, .... 1 ,
where p s an rreducbe factor of h, and a dagona matr
1, ,..., 1, 0,..., 0 of ran . The matrces 1,. . ., p,. .., have
prme determnants and are therefore rreducbe8.
. ronec er9 gave the foowng decomposton for a unmoduar
matr wth eements n a fed for the case 4 0:
and another decomposton when 0.
. aurent10 dscussed the factorzaton of a matr nto eementary
matrces.
1 Muth, P.: Teubner 1899.
eerstrass, .: M.- . preu . ad. ss. 18 8 pp. 310 338.
3 mth, . . .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o.4 (1873) pp. 23 -253.
1 Frobenus, G.: . rene angew. Math. o. 8 (1879) pp. 14 208.
Frobenus, G.: . rene angew. Math. o.88 (1880) pp. 9 11 .
8 Frobenus, G.: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1894 pp. 31 44.
7 hateet, .: . . cad. c., Pars o. 177 (1923) pp. 729-731.
8 du Pas uer, . G.: schr. naturforsch. Ges. urch o. 51 (190 ) pp. 55
to 129.
9 ronec er, .: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1889 pp. 479 505.
1 aurent, .: ouv. nn. Math. o. 15 (189 ) pp. 345-3 5.
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. uvaence.
45
. esten1 showed that every matr s a product of eementary
matrces of three types: ( ) s obtaned by repacng the 0 n row
and coumn of the dentty matr by . ( ) s obtaned by repacng
the 1 n row and coumn of the dentty matr by . s the
dentty matr wth the rows cyccy permuted.
. ett2 noted that every second order ntegra matr s a
product of powers of
fa 0
1 1 0
0 )
0 1
29. Poynoma domans. n mportant nstance of a prncpa dea
rng s the poynoma doman ( ) of a poynomas n wth coeffcents
n a commutatve fed . The eements of (e cept 0) are the unts
of ( ). Moreover ( ) s eucdean, for f a and b 0 are two numbers
of the doman, there e st two other numbers and r such that
a b r,
where ether r 0 or ese r s of ower degree n than . f s
agebracay cosed3 (e.g., the compe fed), the prmes n ( ) are
the near poynomas n .
matr (ars0 ars ars ) wth eements n
can be wrtten as a poynoma n ,
( o) ( r.) (ars ) 1,
whose coeffcents are matrces wth eements n The matr
s of degree f (ars ) 4 0. t s proper f t s of degree and
d(ars ) 0.
Theorem 29.1. f and are matrces wth eements n ( ), and
f s proper of degree , then there e st matrces and ( 1 and
such that , 1 ,
where ether 0 ( 1 0) or ese ( ) s of degree .
et
... 0, ... 0, .
nce d( ) 0, the e uaton has a souton - .
Then - - s of degree 1 at most. ontnue as n
ordnary ong dvson unt a remander s obtaned of degree .
Theorem 29.2. f and are proper of degrees and respectvey,
and f P P2 , there e sts a matr and two matrces 1 and 2,
of degrees r1 and r2 respectvey, such that
2 , P1 ,, P2 2, , r2
1 esten, .r achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 1909 pp. 77 99.
2 ett, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 23 (1914) pp. 208 212.
3 van der aerden: Moderne gebra o. p. 198.
4 Frobenus, G.: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1910 pp. 3 15.
4
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4
. uvaence.
Determne , t, 1, 2 so that
P2 2 2, P1 1,
where 1 s 0 or of degree /, and 2 s 0 or of degree . Then
,- 2 ( 2- 1) .
The eft member s ether 0 or of degree whe the rght member
s ether 0 or of degree /. ence / 2 and, snce and
are non-snguar, 2 1.
Theorem 29.3. f and are proper, of degree 1, and e uvaent,
then there e st non-snguar matrces P and wth eements n such
that P .
nce and are e uvaent n ( ), there e st non-snguar
matrces P1 and P2 whose determnants are n such that
P1 P2 .
nce and are each of degree 1, the matrces 1 and 2 of Theorem
29.2 have eements n t remans ony to show that 1 and 2 are
non-snguar. et
P11 - 3 3,
where 3 s ether 0 or of degree r3 0. Then
P1p1 (g3 3) (
3 3 1 2 3 3 ,
- 3 1 ( 3 3 2 3 ) .
The eft member s ether 0 or of degree 0 n , whe the rght member
s0 or of degree 1 n /. ence each member s0, 3 1 , d( 1) 4 0.
mary rf(f2) 4 0. Then P , where P 2 and
. . de eguer1 showed how to reduce 2f to dagona
form drecty by means of constant matrces P and .
The characterstc matr of the matr wth eements
n a commutatve fed g s an mportant nstance of a matr n ( )
whose eements are near. et
- M h( ))h2( ),...,hn( ) ,
where the second member s the norma form of Theorem 2 .2.
Theorem 29.4. The mnmum e uaton of s hn( ) 0.
Ths foows from Theorems 15.1 and 27.1.
oroary 29.4. matr s not derogatory when and ony when the
eementary dvsors of ts characterstc matr are powers of dstnct
prmes.
1 de eguer, . .: u. oc. Math. France o. 3 (1908) pp. 20 40.
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. uvaence.
47
matr of the form
1 0 .
. 0
0 2 .
. 0

0 0 .
.
w be caed the drect sum of the matrces , t,. . ., , and w
be wrtten1 . . . .
1 2 h .
Theorem 29.5. s e uvaent to the matr
( ) n( ) 5n- ( ) . ( ),
where 1, .. ., 1, hn- ( ),. . ., hn( ) s the mth norma form of ,
and ( ) s any matr whose nvarant factors are a s but the ast
whch s h( ).
uppose Pt ( ) 1,..., 1, f
P Pn Pn- ... Pn. , n n- ... n- ,
then a sutabe permutaton of the rows and coumns of P gves
1, ...,,hn- ,
n partcuar ( ) may be chosen to be
-1 0 ... 0
0 ... 0
hs
h,.
h h-
where h ) 1 ,-1
f ( ) s competey reducbe n say
( -a,)h1...(- .
( ) may be chosen n the form , where / s the ordan form
dscussed n 14. ( ee oroary 15.1.)
f s an agebracay cosed fed , every ht( ) beng competey
reducbe, the ordan norma form correspondng to each nvarant
factor s a drect sum of ordan forms each correspondng to an eemen-
tary dvsor of . y a shftng of the rows and coumns these
forms can be arranged n any order. Thus ( ) can be chosen
( ) n( ) n() ... n ) ,
where each u( ) s the ordan form correspondng to an eementary
dvsor ( se,:).
t w be seen that there are two types of nvarant for the fed ,
the dstnct roots of the characterstc e uaton, ,..., , whch may
1 res, .: ontrbuton a a theore des systems neares. urch 190 .
res attrbutes the notaton to . urwtz.
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48
. uvaence.
be caed numerca nvarants, and the e ponents eu of the eementary
dvsors, whch may be caed nvarants of structure1. The e ponents
wrtten n the array . , .
e e21 e 1
e12 e2 ... e 2
or (eu, e12, . ..), (e2, e22, ...),... consttute the egre characterstc
of the matr 2.
30. uvaent pars of matrces. Two pars of matrces , 2
and 1, 2 wth eements n a commutatve fed are sad to be e u-
vaent f and ony f there e st two non-snguar matrces P and
wth eements n such that
1 P 1 , 2 P 2 .
Theorem 30.1. f 1 and 1 are non-snguar, the fars of matrces
, 2 and , 2 are e uvaent f and ony f the matrces 2
and 1 2 n the poynoma doman ( ) have the same nvarant
factors (or eementary dvsors)3.
et 1 t , 1a 2 . f P and 2 P 2 ,
then evdenty P for every . n the doman ty( ), P and
are unmoduar snce ther determnants are non-zero numbers of
so by Theorem 27.2 the nvarant factors of and concde.
f, conversey, and have the same nvarant factors, there
e st two matrces P1 and 1 whose determnants are non-zero numbers
of but whose eements may nvove , such that P 1. nce
and are proper, there e st by Theorem 29.3 two non-snguar
matrces P and wth eements n such that
2 P( 1 2)
for ndetermnate. ence 1 P 1 and 2 P 2 .
n treatng the case where both and 2 are snguar, t s more
convenent to use the symmetrc near combnaton 2f whose
eements e n the poynoma doman ( , f) of homogeneous poy-
nomas wth coeffcents n ( , f) s somorphc wth (a). The
nvarant factors of 2f w be caed the nvarant factors
of the par , 2. The par of matrces , 2 s sad to be a non-
snguar far f d( 1 2,u) s not zero n ( , f).
emma 30.2. f 1 1f 2 , 2 1r 2s, where f, ,r,s
and the eements of 1 and 2 are n and f fs r 0, then the
nvarant factors of 2 f are obtaned from those of 1u 2v
by the substtuton
u p rf, v s/n.
1 f. . attes: nn. Fac. c. Unv. Tououse o. 28 (1914) pp. 1 84.
2 egre, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, Mem. o. 19 (1884) pp. 127 14 .
3 eerstrass : M.- . preu . ad. ss. 18 8 pp. 310 338.
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. uvaence.
49
Ths substtuton, havng an nverse, defnes an automorphsm of
the doman P( , /) ( , v) by whch 2 f oo /41m 2v.
Theorem 30.2. Two non-snguar pars of matrces , 2 and 1, 2
wth eements n a fed are e uvaent f and ony f they have the same
nvarant factors.
f they are e uvaent, they have the same nvarant factors. Ths
foows as n the proof of Theorem 30.1.
f , 2 s a non-snguar par, there e sts a non-snguar matr
1 p 2 . hoose r and s n any way so that ps r 0,
and defne 2 1r 2s. Defne /, 2 cogredenty. Then by the
emma , 2 have the same nvarant factors as 1, 2 , snce , 2
have the same nvarant factors as , 2. n ths case the pars , 2
and 1, 2 are e uvaent by Theorem 30.1. Then the pars u 2
and 1, 2 are e uvaent.
oroary 30.21. f s non-snguar, the par , 2 wth eements
n s e uvaent to the canonca par , where
n . n- ,
and s the companon matr of the -th nvarant factor of , 2.
oroary 30.22. f 1 s non-snguar the par , 2 wth eements
n an agebracay cosed fed s e uvaent to the canonca par ,
n n- n- ,
and / s the ordan matr of the -th nvarant factor of , 2.
The probem of the e uvaence of snguar pars of matrces presents
more dffcuty. M. Pasch1 and P. Muth2 treated snguar pars of
thrd order matrces. Muth3 treated the genera case. . . Dc son4
proved that two snguar pars are e uvaent by ratona transformatons
f and ony f they have the same nvarant factors and the same mnma
numbers M, whch he defnes. Turnbu and t en5 have an
orgna treatment of the snguar case.
nce a poynoma n more than one varabe s usuay not factorabe
nto near factors, the eerstrass eementary dvsor theory does
not generaze so as to be appcabe to the probem of the e uvaence
of sets of more than two matrces. . antor generazed the concept
of eementary dvsor by geometrc methods to hande ths probem.
new method n the e uvaence of pars of matrces was deveoped
by . G. D. chardson7. Frst suppose that 1,..., are the roots
1 Pasch, M.: Math. nn. o. 38 (1891) pp. 24 49.
2 Muth, P.: Math. nn. o.42 (1893) pp. 257-272.
3 Muth, P.: Theore und nwendungen der ementarteer. Teubner 1899.
4 Dc son, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o.29 (1927) pp. 239 253.
5 Turnbu and t en: anonca matrces, hap. . Gasgow 1932.
antor, .: .- . ayer. ad. ss. o.98 (1897) pp. 3 7 381.
chardson, . G. D.: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 2 (1924) pp. 451 478.
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50
. uvaence.
of 0 and are a dstnct. et (ar,), (br). There
e st sets or poes ( , ..., n ), (yn, ..., yn), no one of whch conssts
entrey of zeros, such that
(au - b ) 0, (, , 2, ..., n)
(a - bu)y 0. ( , / 1, 2 , )
s
These poes may be normazed so that ,y b 1. nce
2 yu y h 2 yn b h 21 yn bu a ,
t foows that f 4 ,
y,yn 0, - t 0.
The matrces (#re) and (yrs) are orthogona reatve to and .
Then
, ,2,..., n .
n case the roots of 0 are not a dstnct, varous
cases arse. f s mutpe, the number of neary ndependent poes
. . ., n ) may st be e ua to the mutpcty. n ths case the
argument proceeds as before. The case when there are fewer neary
ndependent poes than the mutpcty p s caed the rreguar case.
Then the soutons of the e uatons
- r 2 (h 2,...,p)

are used to f out the rows of and . f s a root of mutpcty 3.
for nstance, and f the number of neary ndependent poes s , the
norma form attaned for s
0 0
0 h- 1 .
- 1 0
31. utomorphc transformatons. f P , the eements of
each matr beng n a commutatve fed g, the matrces P and
determne an automorphc transformaton of wth respect to the
reaton of e uvaence.
Theorem 31.1. f d( ) 4 0 and M s an arbtrary matr such that
d( M)d( - M) 4 0 then
P ( M) - M) ( M)1 ( - M)
defne an automorphc transformaton of . There are no others for whch
d( P)d( 0 .1
1 ayey, .: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o.148 (185 ) pp. 39 4 .
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. ongruence.
51
vdenty
(/ M) ( - M) ( - M) ( M),
( M) ( -M) ( - M) 1( M).
y ta ng the nverse of each member t foows that
( - M) M)1 ( M - M)1,
( M) - M) ( M ( - M) .
ence f P and both e st, both are non-snguar, and they defne
an automorph of .
ovng the e uatons defnng P and yeds, respectvey,
M (P (P- ) , M ( - )( f.
f P ,
(P- ) ( ) (P ) ( - ),
and the two vaues for M are e ua. ence for every P and such
that P , and (P )1 and )1 e st, there s an M n
terms of whch P and may be defned as n the statement of the
theorem.
The restrcton that P - - and / be non-snguar s a serous
one, however, and s not easy avoded.
Frobenus1 noted that P ,d ( ) 4 0, then f(P) f ( 1) 1 ,
where / s any ratona functon such that f( 1) s non-snguar. e
aso proved that a necessary and suffcent condton n order that P
and be capabe of transformng a non-snguar matr nto tsef s
that t be possbe so to order the eementary dvsors of 1 P and
that correspondng eementary dvsors are of the same degree
and vansh for recproca vaues of .
. ongruence.
32. Matrces wth eements n a prncpa dea rng. f PT P
where each matr has eements n a prncpa dea rng and f P
s unmoduar, then s congruent wth , wrtten . ongruence
s an nstance of e uvaence, and s determnatve, refe ve, sym-
metrc, and transtve. ( f. 22.)
f a bnear form h of matr be transformed by cogre-
dent transformatons of matr P nto a form of matr , then
PT P. t s the purpose of the wrter to present the sub ect as
pure matrc theory free from the noton of bnear form, but the
reader w have no dffcuty n transatng the resuts nto the no-
taton of form theory f he so desres. Thus Theorem 34.1 states that
1 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o. 4 (1878) pp. 1 3.
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. ongruence.
the norma form for a uadratc form s g1 g2 22 gff e2. ar d
Theorem 32.2 states that the aternatng form can be reduced to
Theorem 32.1. f s symmetrc and 1 , then s symmetrc.
f s s ew and 1 , then s s ew.
For f , PT P, then tT PT TP. f T , then ,T ,.
mary for .
matr / wth eements n cannot as a rue be wrtten as a sum
of a symmetrc matr and a s ew matr (Theorem 5.3) but 2 can
aways be so e pressed.
oroary 32.11. f 1 1 where and , are symmetrc
and and 1 are s ew, then 5t and 1.
For by Theorem 5.3 the e presson of a matr as a sum of a sym-
metrc matr and a s ew matr s un ue.
oroary 32.12. f , the nvarants of and are n-
varants of .
ronec er1 noted that b c s a cogredence nvarant of
M c d)
ts s uare s the determnant of the s ew component of 2M.
Theorem 32.2. very s ew matr of ran 2f s congruent
wth a drect sum
0
-h.
0 h.
o
/ o h1
- o
where h1 h2 . .
f every eement of the frst coumn of
0 12 13
0 0
0 0.
2
- 12 0
93 23
0
s 0, the coumns and correspondng rows may be permuted unt ths
s not so. et
12 h 92 3 3 t n
be a g.c. d. of the eements of the frst row. hoose
10 0..
P
0 b.
1 ronec er: bh. preu . ad. ss. 1883 pp. 1 0.
2 ahen, .: Theore des nombres o. p. 282. Pars 1914.
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. ongruence.
53
unmoduar wth eements n 5 (Theorem 21.1). Then PT P s of the
form wth the further property that 12 0 and dvdes every other
eement of the frst row. y eementary transformatons these other
eements can be made s. The process may be contnued unt a matr
0
12
0
0
12
0
23
0
0
0
34
0
0
34
0
s reached.
ther 12 dvdes every other eement of , or another congruent
matr of the same type can be obtaned n whch the eement n the
(1, 2(-poston has fewer prme factors than 12. y addng row 2,
row 3, . . ., row n to row 1, and then addng coumns smary, a new
congruent matr s obtaned whose frst row conssts of
0 , 12 12 23 , 13 23 34 , h n - 1, n
very g.c.d. of ( 12,. .., -1,n) s a g.c.d. of (12,. .., n) and con-
versey. s n the frst part of ths proof, a congruent matr can be
obtaned smar n form to but wth the eement n the (1, 2mposton
a g.c.d. of ( 2, . . ., n-1,n). Uness 12 , for every , ths g.c.d.
w have fewer prme factors than 12.
Thus n a fnte number of steps a matr can be reached n
whch 12 dvdes every eement. y proceedng smary wth the ast
n 1 rows and coumns, a matr s obtaned n whch
12 23 1 34 g 1 , /,
ow by addng a proper mutpe of row 1 to row , 23 can be made 0.
very , wth even can be made 0 n successon. Ths proves the
theorem.
t s agan evdent that s snguar f n s odd (Theorem 8. ). et
2f.
Theorem 32.3. The numbers ,, h1, h2, h2, . . ., h , of the canonca
form of are the nvarant factors of .
The non-vanshng mnor determnants are h h , . . . h ., where
each subscrpt s an nteger of the set 1, 2, . .., f no nteger of whch
can appear more than twce. t s evdent then that the g.c.d. of the
-rowed mnor determnants s dt hh1h2h2h3 ... to factors. Thus
d1 1, d2fd1 h, d d2 .h2, , whch proves the theorem1.
oroary 32.31. The s ew canonca form s un ue e cept that the
eements may be repaced by assocates.
For the nvarant factors are nvarants ( 27).
1 ahen: 1. c.
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54
. ongruence.
oroary 32.32. Two s ew matrces wth eements n are congruent
f and ony f they have the same nvarant factors.
oroary 32.33. f two s ew matrces wth eements n are e uvaent,
they are congruent1.
oroary 32.34. n a s ew matr the 2-th nvarant factor s e ua
to the (2 )-th2.
oroary 32.35. The g.c.d. of the mnors of the same even order of
a s ew matr s a perfect s uare3.
Matrces congruent wth each other consttute a cass.
oroary 32.3 . There s but a fnte number of casses of non-snguar
s ew matrces wth a gven determnant.
nce factorzaton nto prmes n a prncpa dea rng s un ue
e cept for unt factors, there s but a fnte number of choces for each
nvarant factor.
The theory of congruent symmetrc matrces s by no means as
smpe as that of s ew matrces. Ths theory occurs n the terature
prncpay n connecton wth uadratc forms. The reaton PT P
was frst gven by . sensten4, who noted that f a uadratc form
of matr be transformed by a transformaton of matr P, the new
uadratc form s of matr .
Theorem 32.4. very symmetrc matr of ran wth eements
n a prncpa dea rng s congruent wth a matr of the form
h1
h
0
h
0
ha
ha
where s 0 f .
The proof s practcay dentca wth that of the frst part of the
proof of Theorem 32.2.
Ths reduced form s not un ue, and ndeed the probem of fndng
a un ue symmetrc canonca form s one of e treme dffcuty f t
s not actuay mpossbe. t has not been attaned even for two-rowed
matrces whose eements are ratona ntegers, as w appear n the ne t
secton.
33. Matrces wth ratona ntegra eements. Ths topc, whch
consttutes a arge and mportant chapter n the theory of numbers,
can ony be touched upon here. ompete references up to the date
of ther pubcaton are gven n artces by . T. ahen , and
2 Frobenus: 1. c. 3 Frobenus: 1. c.
4 sensten, .: . rene angew. Math. o.35 (1847) pp. 117 13 .
5 ahen, . T.: nzy . math. ss. o. 2 2 (1904) pp. 582 38.
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. ongruence.
55
. . Dc son1. The treatses by P. achmann2 and Dc son3 cover
the fed ute thoroughy.
The foowng fundamenta theorem was stated by . ermte4 and
proved much ater by touff5.
Theorem 33.1. There s but a fnte number of casses of symmetrc
matrces wth ratona ntegra eements of gven non-zero determnant.
( f. oroary 32.3 .)
The proof s too ong for ncuson here.
et

d ( ) 0 , a 0 .
a
b ,
uch a matr s postve defnte. f
a 2b a, c a,
wth 0 f c a, the matr s caed reduced. very postve
defnte symmetrc matr of order 2 s congruent wth one and ony
one reduced matr .
f d( ) 0, s caed ndefnte. f / s that root of
a 2 2b c 0
whch nvoves the postve radca, and s s the other root, then s
reduced f / 1, s 1, fs 0. ere agan there s at east one
reduced form n every cass, and usuay more than one, but never
more than a fnte number. y a method of Gauss these can be ar-
ranged nto chans of reduced forms so that each chan corresponds
to one and ony one cass.
These resuts are suffcent to ndcate the genera stuaton. an-
onca forms have been defned n varous ways so that every cass
sha be represented at east once and at most a fnte number of tmes.
The goa of defnng a un ue canonca form has been attaned ony n
speca nstances.
Theorem 33.2. f (brs), where br, s the postve g.cd. of r and s,
thef, U), p(2),..., p(n) ,
where p() s the uer (f-functon of .1
et 95 (m) be the number of ntegers n a reduced set of resdues
moduo m. Then m p(d) summed over a dvsors d of m. et
1 Dc son, . .: story of the theory of numbers o. pp. 284 288.
ashngton 1923.
2 achmann, P.: De rthmet der uadratschen Formen. Teubner 1923.
3 Dc son: tudes n the theory of numbers. Unv. of hcago Press 1930.
1 ermte, .: . rene angew. Math. o.47 (1854) p. 33 .
touff: nn. coe norm. o. 19 (1902) pp. 89 118.
ronec er: bh. preu . ad. ss. 1883 pp. 1 0.
7 mth, . . .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. 18 pp. 208 212.
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. ongruence.
p 1 f , otherwse pf 0. nce p( 1 and p 0 for ,
d(p ) 1. et P (/ ), 9 (2)...., 9 (m) , ( ) PT0P.
Pt 9 ( ) Pu 2(P (dr,)
summed over a common dvsors drs of r and s. ence brs s the postve
g.c.d. of r and s.1
34. Matrces wth eements n a fed. Theorem 34.1. very sym-
metrc matr of ran wth eements n a fed not of characterstc 2
s congruent n g wth a dagona matr g1, g2,..., gg, 0,..., 0 , g ) 0.a
onsder
11 12 13

12 22 :
014 no .
ssume the mnor of order n prncpa poston (upper eft corner)
to be non-snguar. f u 0, some a 4 0. fter addng row to
row 1 and coumn to coumn 1, the new eement n the (1, mposton
s 2a f 0, so we assume an 4 0. dd a an tmes the frst row
to the -th row, and smary for coumns, thus reducng a eements
of the frst row and coumn to 0 e cept the frst. ow proceed smary
wth the ower rght mnor of order n , and so on unt the dagona
form s reached.
oroary 34.1. f s the prncpa mnor of order n the upper
eft corner of the symmetrc matr , and f p d 0, then gt
can be determned as a ratona functon of the eements of n aone.
For n ths case none of the frst rows and coumns need be nter-
changed wth any of the ast n rows and coumns.
commutatve fed s caed ordered f for every eement a of
the fed one and ony one of the reatons
a 0, 0, 0
hods, and f further a 0 and b 0 mpy a b 0 and ab 0.3
Theorem 34.2. f s an ordered fed, and f G g...., gg, 0, , 0
s congruent wth h, . .., he, 0,.. ., 0 , then the number of g s whch
are 0 s e acty e ua to the number of h s whch are 0.
Ths theorem s yvesters s4 aw of nerta . t was redscovered
by acob5.
1 Proof by Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o. 8 (1879) pp. 14 208.
2 For dfferenta forms by agrange: Msc. Taur. o. (1759) p. 18.
For the genera fed by . .Dc son: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 7 (190 )
pp. 275-292.
3 van der aerden: Moderne gebra o. , p. 209.
4 yvester: Phos. Mag. 1852 pp. 138 142.
5 acob: . rene angew. Math. o. 53 (1857) pp. 2 5 270.
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. ongruence.
57
et and be any two congruent matrces and suppose that
- PT P or
,1
et ,.. ., n be at present undetermned. Then
2 r at, 2 ( Pr r) h P, ,
r, , r s
Denote pr r by y. f n partcuar and G,
r
ow suppose h1 0,.. ., h 0, h 1 0,. . ., hg 0, g1 0,. . .,
g 0, g 1 0,..., ge 0, . Then
... h - g, 1y,2 1 - - gffye2
f1 y12 . . . g y 2 - 1 e .
hoose 1 n 0 and ,.. ,, not a zero so that the
near forms y.,,..., y are a zero. nce ths mpes
2 ,,2 0 for the # s not a 0, a contradcton s reached,
and t must be true that . nce the reatonshp between and
G s mutua, .
The number 2 a s caed the sgnature of ff, and s the
number of postve terms dmnshed by the number of negatve terms
n the norma form1. The two nvarants and a determne the number
of postve and the number of negatve terms n the canonca form.
oroary 34.21. Two symmetrc matrces n the rea fed are congruent
f and ony f they have the same ran and the same sgnature a.
For every postve h can be reduced to 1, and every negatve ht
to 1, by an eementary transformaton n the rea fed.
oroary 34.22. Two symmetrc matrces n an agebracay cosed
fed are congruent f and ony f they have the same ran .
For n ths case each ht can be reduced to 1.
symmetrc matr n an ordered fed s caed postve defnte
f a n, and negatve defnte f a n. t s sem-defnte
f a or a.
f s symmetrc and 1,..., n ndetermnate, f a s
caed a uadratc form. f PT P, then f b yy where
t p y . f s postve defnte (or negatve defnte), then / 0
(or / 0) e cept for 1 2 n 0. f s postve (or nega-
tve) sem-defnte, then / 0 (/ 0)
These propertes of / characterze .
symmetrc matr of ran s reguary arranged f no two
consecutve prncpa mnor determnants p1 au, pt an a22 ,
1 Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1894 1 pp. 241 25 and 407 431.
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58
. ongruence.
Pa 22 33 , are zero. uch an arrangement s aways possbe,
and f pt 0, then p-1p 1 0.1
Theorem 34.3. f s reguary arranged, the sgnature o of s
e ua to the number of permanences mnus the number of varatons of
sgn n the se uence
, p, pt, .... pe,
where ether sgn may be attrbuted to a p whch vanshes .
t was remar ed n oroary 3 4.1 that t s possbe to reduce
to dagona form n such a way that g1, . . ., g s obtaned from
ay1 au 11 by eementary transformatons n case the atter
s non-snguar. That s, ,..., g . ence g1g2. . . g has
the same sgn as pt d( t) n case the atter s not 0, and g 0 f
and ony f p-1 and p have opposte sgns. n case pt 0, then p 1
and p 1 have opposte sgns, so one permanence and one varaton s
obtaned whether pt s counted postve or negatve. so g . . . g-1
and g . . . g 1 have opposte sgns, so one of g,g 1 s postve and
the other negatve. nce a s nvarant, the resut s true ndependenty
of the method of reducton to norma form.
oroary 34.3. f s any matr , T s postve sem-defnte.
. Mn ows 3 proved that two non-snguar symmetrc matrces
wth ratona eements are congruent n the ratona fed f and ony
f three nvarants , , concde. ere / s the number of negatve
eements n the dagona form, s ( ) tmes the product of the
prmes occurng n the determnant to an odd e ponent, and s a
certan product of odd prmes. Ths theory was e tended to snguar
matrces by . asse4.
. . Dc son5 proved that n the ratona fed a non-snguar
symmetrc matr can be reduced to the dagona form
, b, c, , ..., 1, 1, .... -1 ,
where the s are absent uness a, b and c are a negatve.
Theorem 34.4. very s ew matr of ran 2f wth eements n
a fed s congruent wth a matr of the form9
0 / 0 34 . / 0 #.-1, - _/0 0 -
1 Gundefnger, . : . rene angew. Math. o.91 (1881) pp. 221 237.
2 Darbou , .G.: . Math, pures app. o.19 (1874) pp. 347 39 .
Gundefnger: 1. c.
3 Mn ows , .: . rene angew. Math. o. 10 (1890) pp. 29.
asse, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 152 (1923) pp. 205 224.
Dc son, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 7 (190 ) pp. 275 292.
8 Muth, P.: . rene angew. Math. o. 122 (1900) pp. 89 9 .
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59
Ths s a speca case of Theorem 32.2.
0. eben and P. Fran n1 stated that the anaogous form for
symmetrc matrces does not hod for a feds, but does hod for moduar
feds.
oroary 34.4. n the rea fed every s ew matr of ran 2f
s congruent wth
U o) - (- o) (o o) - (o o
where ust f boc s are not zero2.
Theorem 34.5. f s a fed not of characterstc 2, there e st two
n-th order symmetrc matrces and , d( ) 0, wth eements n
such that has as nvarant factors any prescrbed poynomas
P1, P2, . .., P
.wth coeffcents n such that Pt P 1 and such that the sum of the
degrees of the P s s n.3
et P( ) m b1 m-1 b2 m-9- ... bm.
et h be the greatest nteger n (m ), and form the matr
cu c12 0 0 ... 0 0
c9, 0 ... 0

,12
33
-
0 -
- 1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
of m rows and coumns, where the ast c s chh, the c s beng for the
moment undefned. For m odd, the eement n poston (h, h) s chh ,
whe for m even t s chh.
For m odd, add tmes coumn h to coumn h 1, tmes row h
to row h , tmes coumn h 1 to coumn h 2, tmes row h 1
to row h 2, etc. For m even, start wth coumn h 1 and proceed
as before. The resut n ether case s
1
f( )
12
0 .
. 0
1
c.
. c h
0 .
. 1
. 0
0
1
. 0
0
1 eben, ., and P. Fran n: nn. of Math. o. 23 (1921) pp. 1 15.
rosch, F.: . rene angew. Math. o. 52 (185 ) pp. 133 141.
3 Dc son: Modern agebrac theores, p. 12 . hcago 192 .
rgebnsse der Mathemat . MacDuffee. 5
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. ongruence.
where h
d c t( ) m- c v-2 - 2 c . - .
1 1 f 2
For m odd, /( ) may be dentfed wth P( ) by choosng
1 , c - , - 2,
n case m 2h, the coeffcent of m-1 n /( ) s 0. ut f P( )
be wrtten () ). (a _ ). - ... ,
ts coeffcents may be dentfed wth those of /( ) smary.
Defne ( to be wth the s repaced by 0 s for m odd and by
s for m even. Defne to have 1 s n the secondary dagona and
0 s esewhere. Then
d( ) P(), ( ) 0.
nce the cofactor of an n s 1, the nvarant factors
of are 1, 1, . . ., P( ).
ow defne
1 ... , . .
Then 1, and .4 P. has the prescrbed nvarant factors.
35. Matrces n an agebracay cosed fed. The resuts of ths
secton are restrcted to matrces wth eements n an agebracay
cosed fed ,1 due prncpay to the fact that the foowng theorem
s not vad for a genera fed, athough ts anaogue for s ew matrces
( oroary 32.33) hods for a prncpa dea rng.
Theorem 35.1. f and are symmetrc matrces wth eements n ,
and f , then n g.
y oroary 27.2 f and ony f they have the same ran .
y oroary 3422 1 f and ony f they have the same ran .
oroary 35.1. very non-snguar symmetrc matr wth eements
n (5 can be wrtten T .
For f s non-snguar, by oroary 34.3, and T .
Theorem 35 1 s not, however, suffcenty e pct to be usefu.
The foowng more e pct theorem s due to Frobenus2.
emma 35.21.3 f f() s a poynoma of degree n 0, wth coef-
fcents n , whose constant term s not 0, there e sts a poynoma g ( )
of degree n such that
g( ) , mod f ).
emma 35.22. f s non-snguar wth eements n , there e sts
a non-snguar matr f( ) wth eements n such that 2 .
3 Proofs are gven n cher: ntroducton to hgher agebra, p. 297.
Dc son: Modern agebrac theores, p. 120.
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. ongruence.
1
et / ( ) be the characterstc functon of , and et g ( ) be determned
as n emma 35.21. et g( ) .
Theorem 35.2. f P where and are both symmetrc or
both s ew and P and non-snguar, then there e sts a non-snguar
matr whch depends upon P and but not upon and such that
T .
f P where and are both symmetrc or both s ew,
then T PT, and
P T PT, TP PT .
f U s defned as TP, then
U UT, (U) f(UT)
for every poynoma /. et f(U) , where 2 U ( emma 35.22).
Then
T T T T T 1TP P .
oroary 35.2. f P 1 and P 1 where and ,
aso and 1, are both symmetrc or both s ew, there e sts a non-snguar
matr such that
T 1, T 1.
Theorem 35.3. f d ( ) 0, a necessary and suffcent condton
that n the fed s that T and T have the
same nvarant factors1.
f 5, then T , and T T T . ence
T T( )
for and ndetermnate, and ). T has the same nvarant
factors as T (Theorem 27.2).
f, conversey, T has the same nvarant factors as 5T,
then by Theorem 30.1,
P , T P T .
Then
T P( T) , - T P( - T) .
ut T and T are symmetrc, whe T and T
are s ew. ence there e sts a non-snguar matr such that
T T T) , - T T - T)
by oroary 35.2. ence, addng2,
T .
Ths theorem s vad aso for the case d( ) 0, but the proof s
too ong for ncuson here3.
1 ronec er: M.- . preu . ad. ss. 1874 pp. 397 447.
2 Proof by Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 189 p. 14.
3 Muth, P.: Theore und nwendung der ementarteer, p. 143. Teubner 1899.
5
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2 . ongruence.
Theorem 35.4. Two pars of matrces ( , ) and ( , ), where
a are symmetrc, or a are s ew, or , are symmetrc and , 1 are
s ew, are congruent f and ony f they are e uvaent.
Ths foows drecty from oroary 35.2.
P. Muth1 proved that two congruent pars of rea symmetrc
matrces , and 1, 1 such that has ony magnary
eementary dvsors, are congruent wth respect to the rea fed. f
/. 1, and f and 1 are sem-defnte of the same
sgn, the pencs are congruent wth respect to the rea fed f they
have no near eementary dvsors wth bass otherwse f and ony
f and 1 have the same sgnature.
. . Dc son2 gave necessary and suffcent condtons for the
congruence of pars of symmetrc matrces, both snguar and non-
snguar, wth respect to the rea fed. so3 he gave condtons for
the congruence of pars of two-rowed symmetrc matrces n any fed.
3 . ermtan matrces. Ths theory s an abstracton of the theory of
hermtan forms T (a ) under con unctve transformatons,
and the theorems may be so nterpreted. et r be any fed, and any
number of g whch s not a s uare n . The fed g (f ) obtaned by
ad onng to f a root 1 of the e uaton 2 s dentca wth ts con ug-
ate fed g ( 2) obtaned by ad onng to f the other root 2. Thus the
substtuton of 2 for 1 defnes an automorphsm of the fed . f h s
a number of , we sha denote by h the number of to whch h cor-
responds under ths automorphsm. vdenty h f and ony f
h s n
et (ars) be any matr wth eements n . The con ugate
of s by defnton
( r,) .
f T c, s caed hermtan . The dagona eements of an
hermtan matr are n
f T c, s caed s ew hermtan. ( f. 18.) The dagona
eements of a s ew hermtan matr are mutpes of 1 by a number
of .
ome propertes of the characterstc roots of an hermtan matr
when s the compe fed were deveoped n 18.
Two matrces and are con unctve or congruent n the hermtan
sense (wrtten ) f and ony f there e sts a non-snguar matr P
wth eements n such that
PT P .
1 Muth, P.: . rene angew. Math. o. 128 (1905) pp. 302 321.
Dc son, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 10 (1909) pp. 347 3 0.
3 Dc son, . .: mer. . Math. o. 31 (1909) pp. 103 108.
4 ee . ermte: . . cad. c., Pars o. 41 (1855) p. 181.
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. ongruence.
3
Ths reatonshp s determnatve, refe ve, symmetrc and transtve.
f , and P have eements n g, becomes .
Theorem 3 .1. f s hermtan (s ew hermtan) and , then
s hermtan (s ew hermtan).
For PT P mpes
P T P, cT PT TP , PT Pc ,
and smary for the s ew hermtan case.
There s a mar ed paraesm between the propertes of hermtan
matrces under con unctve transformatons and symmetrc matrces
under cogredent transformatons. The proofs aso are parae and
w be omtted.
Theorem 3 .2. very hermtan matr of ran wth eements n
a fed wthout characterstc 2 s con unctve n wth a dagona
matr g1, g2, . . ., g , 0, . . ., 0 , n g and # 0.
The proof s smar to that of Theorem 34.1.
Theorem 3 .3. f s an ordered fed and 2 0, and f
G g , .. ., gs, 0, . . ., 0 s con unctve wth h, ..., he, 0, . . ., 0
n the fed ( ), then the number of g s whch are 0 s e acty
e ua to the number of h s whch are 0.
For f 2 0, 0, and 0 f and ony f 0. The proof
proceeds as n the proof of Theorem 34.2 wth r2 repaced by r r, etc.
f s the rea fed so that s the compe fed, then each eement
of the dagona form can be reduced to 1 or 1. ence
Theorem 3 .4. Two hermtan matrces are con unctve n the compe
fed f and ony f they have the same ran and the same sgnature.
Theorem 3 .5. necessary condton n order that two
pars of hermtan matrces , and 1, 1, and non-snguar,
be con unctve n s that and 1 1 have the same nvarant
factors.
Theorem 3 . . There e st pars of hermtan matrces of order n,
one of whch s non-snguar, havng any gven admssbe eementary
dvsors.
ny mnor changes n the proofs of the correspondng theorems for
symmetrc matrces s necessary to obtan proofs of the above theorems1.
n fact symmetrc and hermtan matrces are consdered smutaneousy
by . . Dc son 2.
f s a characterstc root of (ars), there e st n numbers
( ,..., n) n the fed of the eements of such that
( - 0. ( 1, 2, ..., n)
1 ogsdon, M. .: mer. . Math. o. 44 (1922) pp. 254-2 0.
2 Dc son, . .: Modern agebrac theores, hap. . hcago 192 .
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4
. ongruence.
These numbers 1 n consttute a poe of correspondng to the
characterstc root . They are defned ony up to a non-zero factor.
f d2, then ( d, 2 d, . . ., d) s a normazed poe. f
s a matr whose -th row s a normazed poe of correspondng to
the characterstc root , then s a poar matr of 4.
Theorem 3 .7. f s hermtan (symmetrc) wth dstnct characterstc
roots 1, a2, . . ., / , ts poar matr s untary (orthogona)1.
et 1,. . ., n, y1,. .., yn be any numbers of and defne
2 7 2 ft
f s hermtan,
2 f y y 2 / y 2 .
f n partcuar ( 1,. . ., n) ( p, . . ., np) s a normazed poe cor-
respondng to p and (y,,..., y ) ( ,..., t) s a normazed poe
correspondng to
fs p ,
p p - 3 / p
snce the s are rea. Then
( p ) p 0.
s
f p # , 0, and f p , p t 1. ence s
untary, and f t s rea, t s orthogona2.
oroary 3 .7. f s hermtan wth dstnct characterstc roots / ,
and f s ts poar matr , then
D , 1,..., n .
For
- hd ) o
may be wrtten - D. Then

T T D D
snce s untary.
Theorem 3 .8. The eementary dvsors of the characterstc matr
of every hermtan matr are smpe3.
Ths foows mmedatey from Theorem 18. .
f a matr s of order n and sgnature a, ts characterstc s
(r a ). oewy.
1 aur nt, .: ouv. nn. o. 1 (1897) pp. 149 1 8.
2 uchhem, .: Mess. Math. o. 14 (1885) pp. 143 144.
3 hrstoffe, . .: . rene angew. Math. o. 3 (18 4) pp. 255 272.
utonne, .: u. oc. Math. France o. 31 (1903) pp. 2 8 271. a er, . F.:
Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 35 (1903) pp. 379 384.
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. ongruence. 5
Theorem 3 .9. f and are hermtan wth d ( ) 4 0, and f
s the characterstc of , then
where 2s s the sum of the e ponents of the eementary dvsors of
whch vansh for magnary vaues of , h vares over the e ponens of
those eementary dvsors whch vansh for rea non-zero vaues of o, and
h vares over those whch vansh for 0. sgnfes the greatest nteger
n .1
The proof s too ong for ncuson here. T. . . romwch2
gave a proof for the rea case, and e tended the theorem to ncude
the cases d ( ) 0 and d ( ) 0.
oroary 3 .91. f and are hermtan, non-snguar of sgnature
a, then d( ) 0 has at east a rea roots3.
For oewy s ne uaty gves n r 2g 2 s or n 2 s o .
oroary 3 .92. f and are hermtan, postve defnte, then
d(g ) 0 has ony rea roots .
Ths s a speca case of en s .theorem. oroary 18.31 s n turn
a speca case of the ast coroary.
t had been shown by yvester5 that the number of rea roots
of d ( ) 0 was the sgnature of every matr of the famy,
and symmetrc.
37. utomorphs. f P T P , then P s a con unctve automorph
of a. untary matr may be consdered as an automorph of . f
PT P , P s a cogredent automorph o . , Ps orthogona.
. utonne caed orenzan any rea automorph of a non-snguar
rea symmetrc matr . Prevousy aue7 and . r8 had caed
a matr orenzan f t was a cogredent automorph of the dagona
matr 1, 1, 1, 1 .
Theorem 37.1. f s symmetrc and non-snguar wth eements
n a fed and f s an arbtrary s ew matr such that d( ) ( )
t en P n - )
1 oewy, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 122 (1900) pp. 53 72 achr.
Ges. ss. Gottngen 1900 pp. 298 302.
2 romwch, T. . .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 32 (1900) pp. 321 to
352.
3 en, F.: Dssertaton. onn 18 8 Math. nn o.23 (1884) pp. 539
to 578.
1 hrstoffe, . .: . rene angew. Math. o. 3 (18 4) pp. 255 272.
5 yvester: Phos. Mag. o. (1853) pp. 214 21 .
utonne, .. . . cad. c., Pars o. 15 (1913) pp. 858 8 0 nn.
Unv. yon o. 38 (1915) pp. 1 77.
7 aue: Das eatvtatsprnzp. eweg 1911.
8 r, .: Das eatvtatsprnzp. Teubner 1912.
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. ongruence.
s a cogredent automorph of .1 f d( - -P) 0, there are no
others1.
For PT ( - ) ( f1
( - 2T) ( T
( ) - .
That PT P now foows from Theorem .
f the e uaton defnng P be soved for , there resuts
a .
Ths e presson e sts f d ( P) 0, and s we-defned by Theorem
15. . t remans to be shown that s s ew f PT P .
T (y 5) at tt
_ - PM . _ . - P1
- T P 1 P
- .
Many attempts have been made to remove the restrcton
d( P) 4 0, whch s not trva. . Taber3 showed that such an
automorph can be represented as the product of two automorphs of
the ayey type.
. oss4 e tended the above theorem to a non-snguar not
necessary symmetrc as foows: very P such that PT P for
whch d(P r ) 0, r 1, can be un uey e pressed n the form
P ( - )( ,
where T T 0. e aso found the number of neary n-
dependent soutons of ths atter e uaton, and proved that the
number of parameters n P for non-snguar s m n where m s
the number of neary ndependent matrces such that T .
e showed ater5 that m ,u n n 1) ( ) (n )
where s of order n and ran .
. oewy showed that f d(P r ) 0, two transformatons of
the type gven by oss w generate P.
. . M. edderburn 7 used the e ponenta functon of a matr
to obtan the genera souton of TP P for P non-snguar,
the parameters enterng transcendentay.
1 ayey: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o. 148 (185 ) pp. 39 4 .
8 Taber, .: Math. nn. o. 4 (1895) pp. 5 1 583.
4 oss, : bh. bayer. ad. ss. o. 17 (1892) pp. 235 35 .
5 oss, .: bh. bayer. ad. ss. o.2 (189 ) pp. 1 23.
8 oewy, .: Math. nn. o. 48 (1897) pp. 97 110.
7 edderburn, . . M.: nn. of Math. o.23 (1921) pp. 122 134.
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. ongruence.
7
ermte1 proved that f s symmetrc and non-snguar wth
ratona ntegra eements, every automorph P wth ratona ntegra
eements s of the form
P P, ... P ,
where s fnte and the P s commutatve, and the e ponents are
postve or negatve ntegers or zero.
. Poncare2 stated wthout proof that f has ratona ntegra
eements and T where s the s ew norma form of rosch
( oroary 34.4), then s a product of eementary matrces of two
smpe types. Ths was proved by . . rahana3 and e tended to
the case where s not n norma form.
Theorem 37.2. n the compe fed a necessary and suffcent condton
that a matr P be a congruent automorph of some non-snguar matr
s that P where and are nvoutory .
t w frst be shown that there e sts a non-snguar matr
such that P P f and ony f P where and are n-
voutory. vdenty
P P 2
so the condton s suffcent. f P P , then P P P 2P
and P 2 2P, so 2 s commutatve wth P. Then Pf ( 2) / ( 2)P
for every ratona functon /. hoose / so that f( 2) ( emma 35.22)
where 2 2. Defne . nce s a poynoma n ,
. Then 2 2 -2 so that s nvoutory. Defne
P P so that P . Then 2 P P P P
P P tfpP , so aso s nvoutory.
t w be shown, secondy, that there e sts a non-snguar matr
such that P PT f and ony f there e sts a non-snguar such
that P P . nce for any M, M and MT have the same
nvarant factors, the pars (M, /1) and (/, /) are e uvaent (Theorem
30.2). Thus there e st matrces and such that
M MT, .
ence M 1 MT. Ta e M P T so that
P P P1T ,
P P1T,
P( )PT .
The converse of ths step foows smary5.
1 ermte: . rene angew. Math. o. 47 (1854) pp. 307 3 8.
2 Poncare, .: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 18 (1904) pp. 45 .
3 rahana, . .: nn. of Math. o. 24 (1923) pp. 2 5 270.
4 ac son, D.: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o.10 (1909) pp. 479 484.
5 Proof by Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1910 pp. 3 15.
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. marty.
P. F. mth1 had prevousy shown that a cogredent automorph
s a product of not more than n nvoutory matrces.
. ton2 caed uas-untary a con unctve automorph of a non-
defnte canonca hermtan matr .
. utonne gave a systematc treatment of orenzan matrces3.
necessary and suffcent condton that be orenzan s that t be
an automorph of a dagona matr whose dagona eements are 1
or 1. The most genera orenzan s of the form
FM, F u.v n-u.v,
where and M are drect sums of orthogona matrces, and
T
, T - v,
T
For : 4he obtaned r s
T and beng canonca hermtans
canonca form4:
F
0
0
n
-rf
1,
where , r g, 2.
. marty.
38. mar matrces. Two matrces and wth eements n a
prtncpa dea rng are caed smar (wrtten ) f there e tsts
a unmoduar matr P such that P P. marty s an n-
stance of e uvaence, and s determnatve, refe ve, symmetrc and
transtve ( 22). More than ths, every unmoduar matr P determnes
an automorphsm of the rng of matrces wth eements n for f
then
P, 2 P 2P,
, 2 P , 2)P, , , P P.
matr may be nterpreted as a near homogeneous transformaton
n vector space. From ths pont of vew smar matrces represent
the same transformaton referred to dfferent bases. the theorems
of ths chapter may be nterpreted from ths standpont.
1 mth, P. F.: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. (1905) pp. 1 1 .
2 ton, .: nn. of Math. o. 15 (1914) pp. 195 201.
3 utonne, .: nn. Unv. yon o. 38 (1915) pp. 1 77.
4 r: 1. c. p. 31.
Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) p. 21.
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. marty.
9
Theorem 38.1. The coeffcents of the characterstc e uaton of a
matr are smarty nvarants1.
For f P P, then - P( - )P, and d( - 7)
d( - ).
oroary 38.1. f n an agebracay cosed fed, the char-
acterstc roots of concde wth those of , and each has the same mut-
pcty for as for .
The number theory of smar matrces has receved reatvey tte
attenton as compared wth the number theory of congruent matrces.
hat has been done has been many concerned wth near trans-
formatons and groups.
. ordan2 defned a canonca form usng ntegra agebrac
numbers, and gave a necessary and suffcent condton that two such
matrces be commutatve.
. . Dc son3 generazed to Gaos feds the canonca form of
ordan. e aso gave4 an e pct form of a ra-ary near homogeneous
substtutons n GF(pn) commutatve wth a partcuar one.
39. Matrces wth eements n a fed. Theorem 39.1. necessary
and suffcent condton that two matrces and wth eements n a fed
be smar s that, n the poynoma doman ), and
have the same nvarant factors.
f P P, then evdenty P1 - )P, so that
and have the same nvarant factors (Theorem 27.2).
f, conversey, and have the same nvarant factors,
there e st two non-snguar matrces and P whose eements are
ndependent of such that
- - )P
by Theorem 30.1. ence
P, P, P P.
oroary 39.11. n an agebracay cosed fed,
/ n n-1 n- ,
where t s the ordan matr of the -th nvarant factor of .5
f. oroary 30.22.
1 Fuchs, .: . rene angew. Math. o. (18 ) pp. 121 1 0.
2 ordan, .: Trate des substtutons et des e uatons agebr ues, p. 125.
Pars 1870.
3 Dc son, . .: mer. . Math. o. 22 (1900) pp. 121 137.
4 Dc son, . .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 32 (1900) pp. 1 5 170.
5 ordan, .: Trate des substtutons et des e uatons agebr ues, p. 114.
Pars 1870.
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70
. marty.
oroary 39.12. n any fed,
n-1 ... n- ,
where s the companon matr of the -th nvarant factor of .
. oroary 30.21.
eerstrass1 noted that can be reduced to dagona form f
and ony f ts eementary dvsors are smpe.
arous methods of reducton to the ordan form have been gven
by . etto2, . ton3, and G. oghera4.
The second form was ntroduced by Frobenus5 for the compe
fed. Dervatons of the norma form (whch, however, ntroduce r-
ratonates n the dervaton) were gven by G. andsberg8, . urn-
sde7, and . ton8.
number of wrters have gven a pror proofs of oroary 3 .12
and have used ths as a startng pont n the deveopment of the entre
theory of matrces. The frst compete proof vad for a genera fed,
but restrcted to non-snguar matrces, was gven by . attes9. The
method s party geometrc, havng been suggested, the author states,
by a paper of . egre10 and a boo by . ertn11. f (ars) s
non-derogatory, t has a fnte number of poes, and , oct, ..., an
are so chosen that the hyperpane
) 1 1 1 2 2 0
does not contan a poe of . et (/ ) and set P 2 ft 1 .
1 0 ... 0
Then
P P
0
0
0
1
an an- -2
f has an nfnte number of poes .e., s derogatory the rows
of P are not ndependent. f the frst m rows are ndependent, can
be reduced to the form
0 1 ... 0

0
D

a,
m-1
1
1 eerstrass: M.. . preu . ad. ss. 18 8 pp. 310 338.
2 etto, .: cta math. o. 17 (1893) pp. 2 5-280.
3 ton, .: Mess, of Math. o. 39 (1909) pp. 24-2 .
1 oghera, G.: o. Un. Mat. ta. o. 7 (1928) pp. 32-34.
andsberg, G.: . rene angew. Math. o.11 (189 ) pp. 331 349.
7 urnsde, .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 30 (1898) pp. 180 194.
9 attes, .: nn. Fac. c. Unv. Tououse o. 28 (1914) pp. 1 84.
10 egre, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, Mem., o. 19 (1884) pp. 127 148.
11 ertn, .: ntroduzone aa geometra proettva deg parspaz. Psa 1907.
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. marty.
71
Then by a proper choce of the s can be made 0, and the reducton
contnued unt s . . .
a ... r,
each beng of the form of above, and such that dvdes
1 . The form s shown to be un ue.
G. owaews 1 s etched an aternatve treatment of the same
probem, statng that the nvestgaton had been prompted by a remar
of ophus e that such a reducton woud be desrabe. et the pont
( 1, , . . ., n) be denoted by ( ), and wrte
n the notaton ( ) ( ) . f / (co) s a poynoma of degree m, denote
( )/( ) (y) 0( ) 1( ) ... m( ) 1.
et (f) be a defnte pont. et a be such that ( ), ( ) , ( ) 2, . . .,
( -1 are neary ndependent, whe
( ) - o (f) ( ) . . . ( ) -1.
hoose ( ) so that s as arge as possbe. Then
(co) a0 tf #as- coa-1 0)a
s caed the frst characterstc poynoma of . n case , ta e
( 7) a pont not dependent upon ( ), ( ) ,..., and choose
so that
fo) 2/ 0( ) Mf) n -1
for some poynoma P, whe no such reaton hods for a smaer / .
Ta e r ) so that / s ma ma. f
(co) b0 co bp- a/-1 a/,
then
( ) ( ) ( )P( ) 0.
a a second characterstc poynoma. f / , contnue and get
(f) ( ) ft) ( ) (f)e( ) 0.
ontnue unt - -f3- -y .. . n. t s now possbe to ta e new
ponts on- ) ) ).
(r) (f) v() #), etc.
so that
( M( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) 0.
Then , ,... ow transform
( ), (0 . .... (0 -1, (f . foU. ft ) 1. ...
1 owaews , G.: er. erh. sachs. ad. epzg o. 8 (191 ) pp.325
to 335.
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72
. marty.
nto (1, 0, . . ., 0), (0, , . . ., 0), . . . respectvey. Then the transform
of s a drect sum of boc s of the type
0 0 ... 0 a0
1 0 .. . 0 1
0 0
1 a
nother treatment of the same probem was gven by . ru1
at the suggeston of . oewy. n arbtrary matr s smar to
one of the form n
t
where s the companon matr of the mnmum e uaton of .
The above matr s shown to be smar to
1 0
0 t
The process s contnued wth 2 unt t s shown that
. n
where f 0 s the mnmum e uaton of - -.
The form s shown to be un ue.
. . Dc son2 gave an ndependent deveopment whch s com-
paratvey bref. nstead of the panes used by attes, he used poy-
noma chans, and the restrcton d ) 0 s removed.
. . ennett3 dscussed the computatona aspects of the methods
of attes, owaews and Dc son.
cear presentaton and refnement of the method of owaews
was gven by . . Turnbu and . . t en 4.
very short dervaton of ths norma form usng deas and group
theory was gven by van der aerden5.
ther dervatons of the norma form have been gven by
. . Menge , . . M. edderburn7, . chreer and . per-
ner8, and M. . ngraham9.
1 ru, .: t)ber egetmatrzen und ementarteertheore. Freburg 1921.
2 Dc son, . .: Modern agebrac theores, hap. . hcago 192 .
3 ennett, . .: mer. Math. Monthy o. 38 (1931) pp. 377-383.
4 Turnbu, . ., and . . t en: n ntroducton to the theory of
canonca matrces, hap. . ondon 1932.
5 van der aerden : Moderne gebra o.11 p. 135. ern 1931.
Menge, . .: onstructon of canonca forms for a near transformaton.
Unv. of Mchgan dssertaton 1931.
7 edderburn, . . M.: otes on the theory of matrces. Prnceton Unv. 1931.
8 chreer, ., and . perner : oresungen ber Matrzen, p. 91. epzg 1932.
ngraham, M. .: bstr. u. mer. Math. oc. o. 38 (1932) p. 814.
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. marty.
73
The reaton between the ratona and rratona canonca forms
n the case of a matr havng dstnct characterstc roots was ceary
ndcated by . chur1. f has the dstnct characterstc roots
1, t) . , n and ne characterstc e uaton
( ) n c1 -1 c2 n- 2
c c2 cn -1 cn
and f

0
0
0
0 0 ... 1
then P (f where
P
-cn 0,
0 ...
g2
0
0 0

1
n-2
2n
t
n
n
1 1 ... 1
The transformng matr whch corresponds to when s genera
was gven e pcty by Turnbu and t en2.
40. eyr s characterstc. et be a matr wth eements n
an agebracay cosed fed and havng the characterstc roots
, 2, . . ., . f s of mutpcty , et
be the nutes ( 8) of the succesve powers
-h, ( -h)2, .... M-
respectvey, where p s the frst nteger gvng the ma mum nuty .
The set of numbers , . . ., oce s caed the eyr characterstc of 4
reatve to f.3
f the eementary dvsors of v4 are ( )e ( 1, . . ., ), then 4
s smar to a drect sum of matrces
h 1 0 ... 0
7 0 h ... 0
0 0 0...
( oroary 39.11) where s of order rte u where
7, (d ) and ( r 1,t). Then
/,, ,
( tdr 1,tdt ,,) ( 5r 2, )
1 chur, .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 10 (1909) pp. 159 175.
2 Turnbu and t en: anonca matrces, hap. . ondon 1932.
3 eyr, .: . . cad. c., Pars o. 100 (1 85) pp. 9 -9 9 - Mh. Math.
Phys. o. 1 (1890) pp. 1 3 23 .
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74
. marty.
whch s of nuty v( f) 2. nd n genera
v( ) h. (h , 2 /)
ne may ca the dempotent and the npotent matr correspondng
to the eementary dvsor ( .1
Theorem 40.1. The eyr characterstc and the egre characterstc
( 29) o/ 4 reatve to the characterstc root t of mutpcty re con-
ugate partsons of .2
uppose the egre characterstc of reatve to t to be wrtten
as the rows of a Ferrers dagram .
For nstance f (en, e2, e3, eu) (5, 4, 2, 2,) we wrte
The drop n ran (or ncrease n nuty) n the successve powers of
s evdenty the number of dots n the successve coumns
of the dagram, for every boc correspondng to an eementary dvsor
drops one n ran wth successvey ncreasng e ponents unt 0 s
reached, after whch no change occurs.
oroary 40.1. The eyr characterstcs of a matr consttute
a compete set of nvarants of structure. ( f. 29.)
n other words, two matrces are smar f and ony f they have
the same characterstc roots and the same eyr characterstc4.
postons of eyr s theory have been gven by . . Metzer ,
. ense8, and . esten7.
. . Menge8 proved that f h ) of degree dt s the t-th nvarant
factor of , then h ) has the mnmum ran of a matrces
f( ) where f( ) s a poynoma n of degree d
. utonne9 proved that a necessary and suffcent condton n
order that 1 s that and have the same ran s for t 1,
2,..., n.
. ru10 e tended eyr s theory to a genera fed.
1 dderburn, . . M.: nn. of Math. o. 23 (1921) p. 123.
Turnbu and t en: anonca matrces, p. 80. ondon 1932.
8 Macmahon, P. .: ombnatory anayss o. p. 3. ambrdge Unv.
Press 191 .
eyr, .: 1. c.
Metzer, . .: mer. . Math. o. 14 (1892) pp. 32 -377.
ense, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 127 (1904) pp. 11 1 .
7 esten, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 1 3 (1930) pp. 1 182.
Menge, . .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 38 (1932) pp. 88-94.
9 utonne, .: ouv. nn. Math. o. 12 (1912) pp. 118 127.
10 ru, .: Uber egetmatrzen und ementarteertheore. Freburg 1921.
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. marty.
75
41. Untary and orthogona e uvaence. f there e sts a untary
matr ( 18) U such that
U U ,
then 4 s both con unctve wth and smar to . e sha wrte
to mean that s con unctve wth by a untary transformaton.
f a the matrces are rea so that U s an orthogona matr , we say
that s congruent wth by an orthogona transformaton, and wrte
. Many propertes of the reaton are mped by the cor-
respondng propertes of the reaton .
Theorem 41.1. f and are hermtan n the compe fed ( ,
a necessary and suffcent condton n order that s that
- M - .
y Theorem 3 .5 the condton mpes the
e stence of a non-snguar matr P such that
P T P , P T P .
The frst e uaton ndcates that P s untary. Then, from the second,
M. .
onversey, f , there e sts a untary matr U (U T U )
such that U T U . Then by Theorem 3 .5, M. .
oroary 41.1. f and are n the rea fed 9 , a neces-
sary and suffcent condton n order that s tha .
Theorem 41.2. f s hermtan,
, t ..., n ,
where , 2, . . ., n are the characterstc roots of .
y Theorem 3 .8 the eementary dvsors of are smpe, so the
cogredent norma form s the dagona matr z, 2, ..., .
Drect proofs of ths theorem for rea and symmetrc and U
orthogona were gven by . tc eburger1 and, usng nfntesma
transformatons, by . . yvester2.
Theorem 41.3. f s any matr wth compe eements, then ,
where 11 , 0 0 ... 0
b2 2 0 ... 0
h1 h z ... 0
h1 h.2 b 3 ..
et 1 be a characterstc root of , and ( , t, , n) the cor-
respondng poe, so that
2 y (/ , 2,..., )

1 tc eburger, .: Progr. der edgen. poyt. chue. urch 1877.
yvester, . .: Mess, of Math. o. 19 (1890) pp. 1 5.
3 chur, .: Math. nn. o. (1909) pp. 488-510.
rgebnsse der Mathemat . MacDuffee.
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7
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The sum 2 2 s postve. et n . Then
t s possbe to determne 2, . . ., n so that (gv ) s untary.
Then s of the form
2, 0 0 ... 0
21 2 22 2 23
ontnue wth the ast n 1 r ws and coumns. nce the product
of untary matrces s untary, we have the theorem.
Theorem 41.1 aso appears as a coroary to ths theorem. For f
s hermtan, so s , so that s dagona.
matr s caed norma f T .1
vdenty s norma f T s e ua to a ratona functon of ,
so norma matrces ncude hermtan, s ew hermtan, untary, ortho-
gona, symmetrc and s ew matrces as speca nstances.
Theorem 41.4.1. necessary and suffcent condton n order that
D where D s dagona s that be norma2.
The property of beng norma s a untary nvarant, for f f- U,
then T Uctb ctU cT U T T U.
f T T , then T T .
y Theorem 41.3 we may ta e
0
0

0
bs1
2

The eement n the (1, mposton n T s f, the correspondng
eement n T s 12 b21b21- -b31b31- -. ence b21 b31 0.
omparson of eements n the (2, 2)-poston now shows that b32 b2
. . . 0, etc. ence f s norma, t can be reduced to dagona
form. nce two dagona matrces are commutatve, the converse s
obvous.
Theorem 41.4.2. f s postve sem-defnte hermtan, and m s
any postve nteger, there e sts a un ue postve sem-defnte hermtan
matr such that . t s of the same ran as .3
y Theorem 41.4 there e sts a untary matr U such that
UcT U 1, 2, ..., n , .
1 Toeptz, .: Math. . o.2 (1918) pp. 187-197.
2 Toeptz, .: 1. c.
3 utonne: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 1 (1902) pp. 104 128 u.
oc. Math. France o. 31 (1903) pp. 140 155.
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77
et
m
et P UMU T. Then Pm .
uppose that s another sem-defnte hermtan matr such
that m . Then m where U U T. y Theorem 1 .1
the characterstc roots of are the w-th powers of the roots of , and
snce the atter are a 0, they are the f s. ence by Theorem 41.2
there e sts a untary matr such that
nce m Mm , s commutatve wth . uppose that the Ts
are grouped nto sets of dstnct roots so that
t foows from that vf 0 f . s0 that
4- ,
where F s of order , 2o order / , etc. vdenty each F s untary.
Thcn Ft01/ . / 1 7, T //r F2 M.
ence U T U U TMU P, and P s un ue.
oroary 41.4. f s postve sem-defnte hermtan, there e sts
a un ue postve sem-defnte hermtan matr P of the same ran as
such that P TP.1
Theorem 41.5. very non-snguar matr s un uey e pressbe
as a product of a untary matr by a postve defnte hermtan matr 2.
For 4 T 4 s postve defnte hermtan and hence by oroary 41.4
e uas T , where s postve defnte hermtan. Then U
s untary, snce U TU , and U . f where s
untary, then T cT . f s postve defnte hermtan,
by oroary 41.4.
very norma matr can be represented as a product of a sem-
defnte symmetrc matr P and an orthogona matr , and conversey,
every such product s norma3.
. etzenboc 4 gave two methods for sovng the e uaton
T for symmetrc and non-snguar.
1 utonne, .: u. oc. Math. France o. 31 (1903) pp. 140 155.
2 utonne, .: u. oc. Math. France o 30 (1902) pp. 121 134.
ntner, ., and F. D. Murnaghan: Proc. at. cad. c. U. . . o. 17 (1931)
pp. 7 - 7 8.
3 Murnaghan, F. D., and . ntner: Proc. at. cad. c. U. . . o. 17
(1931) pp. 417-420.
4 etzenboc , .: ad. etensch. msterdam, Proc. o.35 (1932)
pp. 328-330.
TM .
2 h
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78
. marty.
Theorem 41. . f s non-snguar, there e st two untary matrces U
and such that
U , ftt, / ,
where fa, ft,. .., fn are the postve s uare roots of the characterstc
roots of 011.1
nce cT s postve sem-defnte hermtan, there e sts a untary
matr such that
ct ct 1,t , .
et so that T . et
y, r, wr,n,, T f,
where M f/ , U2. . fn . Then
2 r U r st r Ms .
so that s untary. et / . Then U M.
Ths theorem was frst proved for the rea case, U and beng
orthogona, by . etram2 and . ordan3. t was treated agan
by . . yvester4.
oroary 41. . f U and are untary matrces such that U M
s dagona and rea, then
cT cT M2 U T / T.
For
M M T cT TUcT,
and
M2 vctactUctuav y T .
chaf dscussed the reducton of an orthogona matr by a
smarty transformaton.
. ton7 showed that an orthogona matr can be transformed
by orthogona matrces nto a drect rum of orthogona matrces each
of whch has a characterstc matr wth eementary dvsors (1) ( a)r
and - a)r, a t 0, or (2) ( )r or ( )r, r odd, or (3) ( 1)f
and ( )r, r even.
42. The structure of untary and orthogona matrces. untary
matr s both a con unctve automorph and a smarty automorph
of the dentty matr /. n orthogona matr s a rea untary matr .
1 utonne, .: nn. Unv. yon o. 38 (1915) pp. 1 77.
2 etram, .: Gorn. Mat. attagn o. 11 (1873) pp. 98 10 .
3 ordan, .: . Math, pures app. o. 19 (1874) pp. 35 54.
4 yvester, . .: . . cad. c., Pars o.108 (1889) pp. 51 53
Mess, of Math. o. 19 (1890) pp. 42 4 .
5 osserat, .: nn. Fac. c. Unv. Tououse o. 3 (1889) M. 1 12.
chaf: . rene angew. Math. o. 5 (18 ) pp. 185 187.
7 ton, .: Mess, of Math. o.41 (1912) pp. 14 154.
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79
The terature of orthogona matrces and ther determnants s
e tensve. ather compete bbographes are gven by . Pasca1
and T. Mu 2.
Theorem 42.1. f s a s ew-hermtan matr , then
U ( f( - )
s untary. There are no other untary matrces U havng d( U) 0.
Ths s a speca case of Theorem 3 7.1. The hypothess of the atter
that d( ) 0 and d( ) 4 0 s automatcay fufed, snce
( oroary 18.32) the s ew-hermtan has ony purey magnary
characterstc roots.
The e ceptona case d( U) 0 ma es consderabe dffcuty,
and as the characterstc roots of a untary matr have absoute vaue
unty, t s not very e ceptona. nce ayey4 frst proved the above
theorem for orthogona matrces of order 4 by ong cacuaton, many
ways of avodng the dffcuty have been suggested5.
. oewy showed that every untary matr s of the form
U ( ) - ),
where s s ew-hermtan and s a root of unty.
The representaton of an orthogona matr as a product of orthogona
matrces of smpe type was dscussed geometrcay by . oss7 and
. Goursat8, and agebracay by . ronec er9.
Defnng an nverson to be a rea orthogona matr such that
d( ) -1, d - ) ( - ) -1 ( 1), . utonne10 proved
that every rea orthogona matr s a product of nversons.
G. ta11 showed that a rea orthogona matr s a product of
rotatons n a space of n 2 dmensons, and a refecton f ts deter-
mnant s 1.
1 Pasca, .: De Determnanten, pp. 157 175. Teubner 1900.
2 Mur, T.: Proc. oy. oc. dnburgh o.47 (192 1927) pp. 252 282.
3 oewy, .: . . cad. c., Pars o.123 (189 ) pp. 1 8 171.
utonne, .: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 1 (1902) pp. 104 128.
4 ayey: . rene angew. Math. o. 32 (184 ) pp. 119 123.
Metzer, . .: mer. . Math. o. 15 (1892) pp. 274 282. Prym, F.:
bh. Ges. ss. Gottngen o. 38 (1892) pp. 1 42. Taber, .: Proc. ondon
Math. oc. o.24 (1892) pp. 290 30 Proc. mer. cad. rts c. o.28
(1892 1893) pp. 212-221 mer. . Math. o.1 (1893) pp. 123-130.
oewy, .: ova cta. bh. der aser. eop.- aro. ad. o. 71 o. 8
pp. 379 44 achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen o. 3 (1900) pp. 298 303.
oss, .: Math. nn. o. 13 (1878) pp. 320-374.
8 Goursat, .: nn. fcoe norm. o. (1889) pp. 1 102.
9 ronec er, .: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1890 pp. 525 541, 01 07,
91 99, 873 885, and 10 3-1080.
10 utonne, .: . . cad. c., Pars o.13 (1903) pp. 1185 118
nn. Unv. yon o. 12 (1903) pp. 1 124.
ta, G: o. Un. Mat. ta. o. 7 (1928) pp. 1 7.
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80
. marty.
T. . tet es1 showed that f and are thrd order orthogona
matrces of determnant 1, then s never of ran 2. . etto2
e tended ths to show that f (ars) and (brs) are orthogona,
er can be chosen 1 or 1 so that d(ars erbrs) vanshes for n even
ony f every eement s 0, and for odd ony f a mnors of order 2
vansh.
. oewy3 showed that tet es theorem s a conse uence of
the foowng theorem of Frobenus1: The eementary dvsors of the
characterstc matr of an orthogona matr vansh for recproca
vaues e cept that and 1 may occur wth odd e ponents.
. Toscano estabshed for nvoutory matrces a theorem anaogous
to that of tet es for orthogona matrces.
. oss proved that every non-snguar matr may be represented
as a product of two symmetrc matrces n nfntey many ways.
Frobenus7 proved that every matr may be represented as a product
of two symmetrc matrces, one of whch ts non-snguar.
. ton8 proved the above theorem of Frobenus, and aso
proved that a matr can be represented as a product of two s ew
matrces f and ony f the eementary dvsors of ts characterstc matr
occur n pars ( a)r, ( a)r and as a product of a symmetrc matr
and a s ew matr f and ony f the eementary dvsors occur n pars
( a)r, ( a)r. Ths same concuson was reached by . tenze9.
0. Toeptz10 proved that, f s hermtan, there e sts a matr P
wth 0 s above the man dagona such that PP0 .
. chmdt11 showed that for every there s a wth 0 s above
the man dagona such that s untary. Ths s e uvaent to
Toeptz theorem.
Frobenus12 defned the span ( pannung) of to bes( ) t( cT).
f U s untary, s(U ) s( ) s( U), and s( - U) s( - U ).
. adon13 determned the ma mum number v(n) of matrces such
that 1 r r s orthogona for a s. f n 2 n , n
odd, /3 0,1, 2, 3, ths vaue s v 2f 8oc.
1 tet es, T. .: cta math. o. (1885) pp. 319-320.
2 etto, .: cta math. o.9 (1887) pp. 295 300.
3 oewy, .: . Pasca s epertorum der hoheren Mathemat o. hap. .
Teubner 1910.
4 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) p. 48.
Toscano, .: end. oy. nst. ombardo a o. 1 (1928) pp. 187 195.
oss, .: Math. nn. o. 13 (1878) pp. 320-374.
tenze, .: Math. . o. 15 (1922) pp. 1 25.
10 Toeptz, .: achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 1907 pp. 101 109.
11 chmdt, .: Math. nn. o. 3 (1907) pp. 433 47 .
13 adon, .: bh. math. emn. amburg. Unv. o. 1 (1921) pp. 1 14.
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. omposton of matrces.
81
F. D. Murnaghan1 found that a matr of order n has 2 ( )2
ndependent functons of ts eements whch are nvarant under untary
transformaton.
43. Drect sum and drect product. The present chapter s con-
cerned wth the set of a matrces of fnte order wth eements n a
rng or fed. The operatons of addton and mutpcaton can be
apped ony to matrces of the same order, but other operatons w
be defned accordng to whch matrces of dfferent orders may be
combned. so nvarant matrc functons T( ) w be defned, where
T( ) s not necessary of the same order as , whch have the property
that T ) T )T( ).
bref treatment of ths topc wth many references to orgna
sources s gven by . oewy n Pasca s epertorum der hdheren
Mathemat o. pp. 138 153. Teubner 1910.
et (ars) of order and (brs) of order / be two matrces
wth eements n a rng 9 . The drect sum (cf. 29) of and s defned
0
0
to be

t s of order / .
Theorem 43.1. The foowng denttes hod:
(a) ( ) ( ),
(b) 1 t) 1 t) ( 1 ) ( 2 2),
(c) 1 ) ( 2 2) 2 1 2,
(d) ( )T T,
(e) ( )1 -f 1,
(f) d ) d( )d( ),
(g) t( ) t( ) t( ).
The proofs foow drecty from the defnton of drect sum. f
course (e) hods ony when 1 and 1 e st.
The eft drect product s defned as
b1 ... b1f
.
bp1 ... bpp
The rght drect product .. s defned smary and has smar
propertes. The order of each drect product s vdenty .
and have eements n a commutatve rng.
1 Murnaghan, F. D.: Proc. at. cad. c. U. . . o. 18 (1932) pp. 185 189.
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The concept of drect product of matrces arses naturay from the
concept of drect product n group theory1.
Theorem 43.2. The foowng denttes hod:
(a) ( . ). . ( . ),
(b) ( ,). 1. 2. ,
(c) ( . )T T. T.
(d) t( . ) t( )t( ).
These are a evdent from the defnton of drect product.
Theorem 43.3. f s of order oc and s of order f, and f .
(c ), then
cr, ar, , br, ,,
where
r 1 (rt 1) r1 , 0 r oc,
s (s2 1 1, 0 1 oc.
Ths aso foows drecty from the defnton.
Theorem 43.4. f 9 s commutatve2,
, 2 . 1 t ( 1 . . ).
For by Theorem 43.3
( , . ( t . 4) ( r, r, ,) ( 2r 2r 8 )
( har,h1 r, , #2 ,s, 2 ,s
, 1 r. , 2 s, . , 1 r, , 2 , s.)
/M . 1 ,,
where t s understood that
1 ( 2 1) 1, 1 .
oroary 43.4. f of order oc and of order f3 have eements n a
fed, then
(a) . ( . f )( . ),
(b) d( ) d( )f d( ) ,
(c) ( . )1 1,
where s the dentty matr of order oc.
Property (b) was proved by . ense3, . etto4, and . D.
von ternec 5.
1 oder, : Math. nn. o.43 (1893) p. 305. urnsde, .: Theory
of groups of fnte order, p. 40. ambrdge 1911.
2 tephanos, .: . Math, pures app. o. (1900) pp. 73 128. t-
en, . .: Proc. dnburgh Math. oc. o. 1 (1927) pp. 135 138.
3 ense, .: cta math. o. 14 (1891) pp. 317 319.
4 etto, .: cta math. o. 17 (1893) pp. 199 204.
5 ternec , . D. von: Mh. Math. Phys. o. (1895) pp. 205 207.
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Property (c), orgnay gven by tephanos1, was proved n tensor
notaton by . . ce2.
Theorem 43.5. f P P1 , and 1 , where each matr
has eements n a commutatve rng, then
(a) (P )( )(P1 1 1.
(b) (P. )( . )(P. . 1.
The proof of (a) foows from Theorem 43.1 c, and that of (b) foows
from Theorem 43.4.
oroary 43.5. n a prncpa dea rng
( ) ( ) ( ) ,
( . ) o( ) ( ) ,
where ( ) denotes the ran of .
For, by Theorem 2 .2, 1 and 1 may be chosen n the form
,,..., h ,0, ...,0 .
Theorem 43. . f and are symmetrc wth eements n an ordered
fed wth characterstc 2,
o( ) o( ) o( ),
o( . ) a( )a( ),
where a ( ) denotes the sgnature of .
For t may be assumed that and are n dagona form wth p1
and p2 postve eements, and t and n2 negatve eements, respectvey.
Then a( ) p p-n1-n2 o( ) a( ).
nce . s dagona, and snce ts dagona eements are the /
products of the dagona eements of by those of ,
o( . ) (p1 p2 1 n2) (p1 n2 p2 n
(P1-n (p2-n2) o( ) o( ).
n the rest of ths secton we sha understand that a matrces
have eements n an agebracay cosed fed .
Theorem 43.7. The characterstc roots of - - are the characterstc
roots of together wth those of .
Ths s obvous from the defnton of drect sum.
et (p( ,r ) f rf be a poynoma n f and r , and defne
p( ) c . .
Theorem 43.8. The characterstc roots of p( ) are the /3 functons
p (ap, b ) where the a s are the characterstc roots of and the b s are those
of .s
1 tephanos: 1. c.
2 ce, . .: . Math. Physcs, Massachusetts nst. Techno. o.5 (1925)
pp. 55- 4.
3 tephanos, .: . Math, pures app. o. (1900) pp. 73 128.
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Determne P and so that P P1 1 and 1 have s
above the man dagona ( oroary 39.1) and ther characterstc roots
n the man dagona. Ths form s mantaned under addton, mut-
pcaton, scaar mutpcaton, and drect mutpcaton. f the char-
acterstc roots of 1 are a, . . ., aa and those of 1 are b1, . . ., bp, those
of c . are cfa . nce
, . , (P . ) ( . )(P - )1,
the characterstc roots of . are the same as those of . 1.
oroary 43.81. The characterstc roots of . are the f products
atb of a characterstc root of by one of .
The above coroary was apped by tephanos1 to fnd the e uaton
whose f) roots are the oc( vaues of the functon p( ,y) where and y
are determned by
f( ) a1 a 0,
g(y) y b1yv-1 ... b, 0.
et have the characterstc e uaton / ( ) 0, and the characterstc
e uaton g(y) 0. The souton of the probem s the e uaton
p( ) - Uaf 0.
Ths theorem yeds a proof of the theorem that every poynoma
wth ratona coeffcents n two agebrac numbers s tsef a agebrac
number. f p has ratona ntegra coeffcents, and f and y are ntegra
agebrac numbers (so that and have ratona ntegra eements),
then p( ,y) s ntegra.
oroary 43.82. The resutant of f( ) 0 and g( ) 0 s
. f- 0,
where f( ) 0 s the characterstc e uaton of and g( ) 0 s the
characterstc e uaton of .
Ths s the speca case of Theorem 43.8 where p(t.,r ) f n).
nother method of composng two matrces was gven by yvester 2
and tephanos3, and caed by the atter baternate composton. et
and be each of order n, and et (r1, r2) be the r-h par of ntegers
n the se uence
(1,2), (1,3), (1, ), (2,3), 2,n), (n-2,n-), .... (n-, )
and ( 1, s2) the s-th par. Then by defnton the baternate product
of and s
. (
where
f s ( r a 8s r , a r, . . r )
1 tephanos: 1. c.
2 yvester: . rene angew. Math. o.88 (1880) pp. 49 7.
3 tephanos: 1. c.
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t was shown by tephanos that
, ( 1 2). 1. 2. ,
and, f be wrtten 2, that
( 2 .
aternate composton cannot be assocatve, for s of order
n(n 1), and composton s defned ony for matrces of the same
order.
44. Product-matrces and power-matrces. f and , of orders oc
and (8 respectvey, are the matrces of the transformatons
2 a , yt 2 b y ,
and f the s and y s are ndependent varabes, the products
1y1, 2y1, y1, 1y , yz, yp
are the varabes of a transformaton whose matr s . , caed
the product transformaton of the two gven transformatons.
y Theorem 43.2 a,
Dm( ) . ....
to m factors s we-defned, and s caed the m-th .product-matr of .
Theorem 44.1.
Dm( ) Dm( )Dm( ).
Ths foows from Theorem 43.4.
ow et the two transformatons be dentca, and consder the
) dstnct products
, 1 , 2 2 3
They defne a transformaton whose matr P2( ) s caed the second
ower-matr of . That s, oc , are near homogeneous
functons of whose coeffcents are poynomas n the
eements of . uch a system 2,... of poynomas was caed a
transformabe system by . Deruyts1. The m-th power-matr Pm( )
s smary defned.
Theorem 44.2.
Pm( ) Pm( )Pm ).
onsder the correspondng transformabe system
t, ts f... a m.
et be the matr by whch the s are gven n terms of the s,
and the matr by whch the s are gven n terms of the s. Then
s the matr by whch the s are gven n terms of the s. The
matr by whch the s are gven n terms of the s s Pm( ),
1 Deruyts, .: u. cad. c. eg ue o. 32 (189 ) p. 82.
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and the matr by whch the s are gven n terms of the s s Pm( ).
The matr by whch the s are gven n terms of the s may be
obtaned as Pm( )Pm( ) by emnatng the s from the nduced
transformatons, or as Pm( ) by cacuatng the transformaton n-
duced on the s by the product transformaton .
Theorem 44.3. f s of order ,
dPm( ) d( ) , (m -).
et the eements of be ndetermnates. The power transformaton
has an nverse f and ony f d( ) 0. ence dPm( ) vanshes when
and ony when d( ) 0, and snce d( ) s rreducbe (Theorem 10.1),
dPm( ) cd( ) , where c 0. hen , the power transformaton
becomes the dentty, so c 1. f s of order , then Pm( ) s of
order 1 , and each eement s of degree m n the eements
of . ence s the product of ths order by m o.
Ths theorem was gven for oc 4 and m 2 by . unyady1.
The fact that dPm( ) s some power of d( ) was proved by . ge
The theorem as stated was proved by G. von scherch3.
Theorem 44.4. The characterstc roots of Pm( ) are the 1
products of the m-th degree of the characterstc roots of .4
y Theorem 41.3 t s possbe to determne a untary matr U
such that U T U has 0 s above the man dagona and ts char-
acterstc roots n the man dagona. y Theorem 44.2,
Pm(U )Pm( )Pm(U) Pm( ).
nce the eements f1... of the transformabe system correspondng
to Pm( ) are arranged n the e acographc order, Pm( ) aso has 0 s
above the man dagona. f the con ugate-transpose of the trans-
formaton on the s s e ua to the nverse, the same s true of the trans-
formaton nduced on the products 1. . . . ence
Pm( 7 T) pm(f/) T pm( 7).
Thus the characterstc roots of Pm( ) are the same as those of Pm( ),
namey the products /1. . .
45. d ugates. et be a matr of order n, and et ts r-rowed
mnor determnants be represented by . The matr of order
m whose eements are the numbers a fr n the e acographc
1 unyady, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 89 (1880) pp. 47 9.
2 ge, .: Mh. Math. Phys. o. 3 (1892) pp. 55 7.
3 scherch, G. von: Mh. Math. Phys. o. 3 (1892) pp. 8 80.
4 Fran n, F.: mer. . Math. o. 1 (1894) pp. 205 20 . chur, .:
ber ene asse von Matrzen, de sch ener gegebenen Matr zuordnen assen,
p. 17. Dssertaton. ern 1901.
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order s caed the r-th ad ugate r( ) of . The frst ad ugate of
s tsef. The (n mth ad ugate dffers from ony by a permutaton
of the rows and coumns. The n-th ad ugate of s d( ).
Theorem 45.1.
dcr( ) d( ) , ft ( : ).
Theorem 45.2.
r( ) r( ) r( ).
The proofs of these theorems can be made smary to those of
Theorems 44.3 and 44.2 by usng as the transformabe system the
r-rowed mnor determnants of the matr
(11 (2) v ( )
whose coumns are n ndependent sets of varabes whch are trans-
formed cogredenty by the transformaton2
2 4) (ar,).
n fact, Theorem 45.2 s but a restatement of Theorem 7.9.
Theorem 45.3. The characterstc roots of r( ) are the f products
of the characterstc roots of ta en r at a tme3.
The proof can be made smary to that of Theorem 44.4.
0. ccoett4 proved that f s of ran r, then r ) s
of ran .
. urnsde5 gave another proof of Theorem 45.3.
. amson proved that f has the characterstc roots ,.., aa,
and f s a matr composed of m2 boc s frs( ), then the characterstc
roots of are the ma characterstc roots of the oc wt-rowed matrces
(/r )).
The foowng comments were made by . ense7: There are
assocated wth the rng 1 , ,... of a n-th order matrces, n derved
rngs 3 (4), ( ),... , m t( ), t( ), ... , ...
whch are somorphc wth 9 under mutpcaton, and of whch the
ast s dentca wth the determnants of the matrces , ,...
1 Fran e, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 1 (18 3) pp. 350 35 .
2 chur, .: 1. c. hap. .
3 Metzer, . .: mer. . Math. o. 1 (1893) pp. 131 150. ados, G.:
Math. nn. o.48 (1897) pp. 417-424.
4 ccoett, .: tt ccad. c. Torno o. 37 (1901 1902) pp. 55 59.
urnsde, .: uart. . Math. o. 33 (1902) pp. 80 84.
amson, .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 37 (1931) pp. 585 590.
7 ense, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 159 (1928) pp. 24 254.
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propertes of the matrces of d , ,. . . n so far as they reate ony
to ther combnaton and decomposton by mutpcaton . . . have
un ue counterparts n each of the derved rngs. Thus f s a dvsor
of zero, so are ( ), 3( ), . .. f s a dvsor of one, so are. 2( ),
9( ),. .. To every e uvaence reaton under mutpcaton, and to
every dvson nto casses n 9 based on such a reaton, correspond
the same e uvaence reaton and the same cass dvson n each derved
rng. ... n order to fnd the compete system of nvarant casses for
a cass dvson n ( , ,.. .), t s suffcent n very many cases
to see out the most trva nvarants for the same cass dvson for
a derved rngs. For these ta en together furnsh the compete system
of nvarants for .
. amson1 defned ess s matr to be a matr of order
whose eements n any row are the determnants of the matrces ob-
taned by repacng a sets of r coumns of T by a defnte set of r
coumns of T, and whose eements n any coumn are the determnants
of the matrces obtaned by repacng one set of r coumns of T by the
sets of r coumns of T n turn. e nvestgated the characterstc

roots of ths matr .
. chur2 made an e haustve nvestgaton of nvarant matrces.
f and have ndependent eements, and f the eements of T( )
are ratona ntegra functons of the eements of , and f T( ) T( )
T( ), then T( ) s an nvarant matrc functon of . Product-
matrces (Theorem 44.1), power-matrces (Theorem 44.2), and ad ugates
(Theorem 45.2) are nstances of nvarant matrc functons. chur
caed a matr rreducbe f t s not smar to a drect sum of matrces
of ower order, and proved that every nvarant matrc functon T( )
can be un uey e pressed smar to a drect sum of rreducbe nvarant
matrc functons each of whch s homogeneous n the eements of .
Two nvarant matrces T( ) and T2( ) are smar f and ony f
they have e ua traces. f T( ) s of degree m n the eements of ,
the characterstc roots of T( ) are the products m at a tme of the
characterstc roots of . f has near eementary dvsors, the same
s true of T( ).
The theory of nvarant matrces has had consderabe deveopment
n connecton wth the theory of group characterstcs, where t s of
prme mportance3.
1 amson, .: Proc. dnburgh Math. oc. o. 2 (1929) pp. 240
to 251.
2 chur, .: Dssertaton. ern 1901.
3 ey, .: Gruppentheore und uantenmechan , p. 100. epzg 1928.
ee aso the forthcomng number of ths rgebnsse entted ,,Gruppentheore
by . . van der aerden.
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89
. Matrc e uatons.
4 .The genera near e uaton. f , 2,..., h, , 2,..., h,
are matrces of order wth eements n a fed g, the genera near
e uaton s of the form
(4 .1) 1 1 t ... h h ,
where s a matr of order n, wth eements n to be found. y
repacng by 0 we obtan the correspondng au ary e uaton. t
s evdent that f 1 and 2 are soutons of (4 .1), ther dfference s
a souton of the au ary e uaton. ence the sum of a partcuar
souton of (4 .1) and the genera souton of the correspondng au ary
e uaton gves the genera souton of (4 .1).
uaton (4 .1) may be consdered as a system of n2 e uatons for
the n2 eements rs of . The matr of ths system of e uatons, f
the rs are arranged n the proper order, s
(4 .2) . t. a - T
The theory of systems of near e uatons now gves
Theorem 4 .1. necessary and suffcent condton n order that
(4 .1) have a souton 0 s that the ran of (4 .2), be the same as the
ran of the n2 (n2 1) array obtaned by borderng (4 .2) wth the eements
of . The genera souton of (4 .1) s then of the form
0 .. / n,-e n -e,
where ( , . . ., n,-e) s a fundamenta system of soutons of the au ary
e uaton, and f1, . . . vary ndependenty over
Ths e uaton was frst studed by yvester1. The matr (4 .2)
was caed by hm the nveateur, athough he dd not recognze t as
a sum of drect products.
. . M. edderburn 2 gave a method of souton by nfnte seres.
F. . tchcoc 3 apped Gbbs dyadcs to obtan the coeffcents of
the characterstc e uaton of (4 .2), and thus to sove (4 .1).
n the speca case
(4 .3)
there s the un ue souton f d( ) 0. nce (4 .3) s e uvaent
to the n systems of n near e uatons each
ar , , (r,s 1,2, ..., )
1 yvester: . . cad. c., Pars o.99 (1884) pp. 117 118, 409 412,
432-43 and 527-529.
edderburn, . . M.: Proc. dnburgh Math. oc. o.22 (1904) pp.49
to 53.
3 tchcoc , F. .: Proc. at. cad. c. U. . . o.8 (1922) pp. 78-83.
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90
. Matrc e uatons.
t has a souton f and ony f the 2n array ( , ) has the same
ran as .1
necessary condton that and D have a common
souton s that D , for D. f ether or
s non-snguar, the condton s aso suffcent2.
The e uaton
(4 .4)
was frst dscussed (merey for uaternons) by ayey3. necessary
and suffcent condton that t have a non-snguar souton s that
and have the same nvarant factors (Theorem 39.1).
n the other hand, 0 s aways a souton. y Theorem 4 .1 the
nveateur s . - . ,
whose determnant s, by oroary 43.82, the resutant of the characters-
tc e uatons of and . Thus:
Theorem 4 .2. The e uaton has a non-zero souton f
and ony f and have a characterstc root n common .
The foowng mportant theorem, whch generazes the precedng
theorem and gves a compete souton of (4 .4), seems to have been
dscovered ndependenty by econ5 and Frobenus8. The foowng
proof s adapted from that of Frobenus.
Theorem 4 .3. The number of neary ndependent soutons of the
e uaton s Tef where . s the degree of the greatest common
dvsor of the nvarant factor at of and the nvarant factor b
of - .
et - , - t.
et 1, 2, M , M2 be unmoduar matrces, at present undetermned.
et
1 1M1 1, 2 2M21 2.
et P and be any two matrces whose eements are poynomas n
such that
(4 .5) P t .
Then P( M ) ( 2 2M ) , ( P 2 (M2 M .
1 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) p. 8. utonne, .:
nn. Unv. yon o. 25 (1909) pp. 1 79.
2 econ, F.: nn. cuoa norm, super. Psa o. 11 (1909) pp. 1 140.
3 ayey: Mess. Math. o. 14 (1885) pp. 108 112.
1 yvester: . . cad. c., Pars o. 99 (1884) pp. 7-71 and 115 11 .
econ: nn. cuoa norm, super. Psa o. 11 (1909) pp. 1 40.
5 econ: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 181 (1909) pp. 5 571.
Frobenus: .- . preu . ad. ss. 1910 pp. 3 15.
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91
nce the coeffcents of the hghest powers of n , and 2 are non-
snguar, we can by Theorem 29.1 determne un ue matrces U, U2,
,, such that .
1 2 P 1 2U2 t,
M2 M1 U1 1 ,
where 2 and have eements free from /. Then
( 2 U2 2) 1 5,(1715, ,
2(U2 U1) 1 2 2 2 1.
f U2 / were not 0, the eft sde woud be of at east the second
degree n / and the rght sde of at most the frst degree. ence U2 U1
and ( - ) 1 t( - ).
nce , , 1, 2 are ndependent of /,
1 2 , .
From every par of matrces P and whch satsfy (4 .5) there arse,
f and M are f ed, a un ue constant matr satsfyng (4 .4).
f, conversey, s any matr such that , then 1 2 .
et U be an arbtrary matr whose eements are poynomas n ,
andset P 2( 2U ) ,
M(U 1 )M1,
or
2P 1 tU , M2 M1 U .
Th n ( fP M M ,
P( 1 1M1 ) ( 2 2M2 )g,
and hence P 1 2 .
To the matr correspond nfntey many pars P, . f P,
s a defnte par obtaned by means of the matr U, and f P P0,
0 are any others obtaned by means of U U0, then
P. , 2U0 ( tM2) U ,
M M, 70 1 U .M,),
or f we set M2U0 T,
P0 2T, 0 T 1.
f therefore T s an arbtrary matr ,
P- 2T, -T 1
s the most genera par of matrces whch corresponds to the constant
matr such that 1 2 .
rgebnsse der Mathemat . MacDuffec. 7
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92
. Matrc e uatons.
ow et 1 ( r,), 2 ( 2r ) be the norma forms of 1 and 2
respectvey. Then ars drsbr, a2r, drsar where ar and br are the
nvarant factors of and respectvey ( 27). The condton
P 2 gves
Prs bs ar r,, P (/ ,,), ( r.)
or
The eements of P 42T and ( are therefore
Pr r tr, y ( , ) , ( ) .
y a sutabe choce of trs, the degree of rs bstrs can be made ess
than the degree of bs. Then trs and 7rg brtrs are un uey determned.
et er, be the degree of the greatest common dvsor drs of ar and ,.
n order to obtan the most genera pr, ar trs whch s a poynoma,
t s necessary and suffcent that rs bstrs be the product of bs drs
by an arbtrary poynoma of degree er, 1 that s, a poynoma
wth ers arbtrary coeffcents. ence there are e acty ers neary
ndependent matrces P (and for each P a un ue ), each of whch
corresponds to a un ue . ence the number of neary ndependent
matrces satsfyng (4 .4) s ers.
The souton of the e uaton has been dscussed by
G. andsberg1, . son2, and . . Turnbu and . . t en3.
oroary 4 .31. n a fed contanng the eements of , and ,
the e uaton . , _
5
has no souton uness the ran of s the same as the ran of ths
matr augmented wth the eements of . f these ran s are the same, every
souton s of the form v . v
where 0 s a partcuar souton of the gven e uaton, the are ers
neary ndependent soutons of the au ary e uaton 0,
the are arbtrary n , and ers s the degree of the g.c.d. of the nvarant
factor ar of and the nvarant factor bs of .
Ths e uaton has been dscussed by econ4, D. . utherford5,
and . etzenboc .
1 andsberg, G.: . rene angew. Math. o. 11 (189 ) pp. 331 349.
2 son, .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 30 (1930) pp. 359-3 o. 33
(1932) pp. 517-524.
3 Turnbu, . .,and . . t en: anonca matrces, hap. . ondon 1932.
1 econ: nn. cuoa norm, super. Psa o. 11 (1909) pp. 1 40.
utherford, D. .: ad. etensch. msterdam, Proc. o.35 (1932)
pp. 54-59.
etzenboc , .: ad. etensch. msterdam, Proc. o. 35 (1932) pp. 0
to 1.
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93
oroary 4 .32. The number of neary ndependent soutons of the
e uaton s
n 2(m1 .
where m s the degree of the g.c.d. d of the -rowed mnor determnants
of - .
et er be the degree of the nvarant factor ar of . et ers
be the degree of the g.c.d. of ar and as. Then
err et, ets esr es, r s.
ence
2 er, e1 e2 . en 2 1 (e e2) (e1 e2 e3)
(e1 e en- )
n 2(w1 m,.,)
by Theorem 27.1.
Ths theorem was stated by Frobenus1 and proved by Maurer2,
. oss3, G. andsberg4, . ense5, F. econ8, and U. mad7.
. . fford8 attempted to prove that every matr commutatve
wth s a poynoma n . yvester9 showed that ths s not so.
. aurent10 gave a fase proof that f , then both
and are poynomas n the same matr . n e ampe to show that
ths s not aways so was gven by . . Phps11.
. Peme 13 proved that f certan matrces t are commutatve
n pars, a matr T e sts such that T T are smutaneousy e ua
to a drect sum of matrces havng e ua characterstc roots.
.Taber14 wrote out e pcty the most genera matr commutatve
wth n terms of ts characterstc roots, and ater15 proved the
Maurer: ur Theore der nearen ubsttutonen. Dssertaton. tra -
burg 1887.
3 oss, .: .- . ayer. ad. ss. o. 19 (1889) pp. 283 300.
4 andsberg, G.: . rene angew. Math. o. 11 (189 ) pp. 331 349.
5 ense, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 127 (1904) pp. 11 1 .
econ, F.: nn. cuoa norm, super. Psa o. 11 (1909) pp. 1 140.
7 mad, U.: 1st. ombardo, end. o.45 (1912) pp. 433 445.
9 fford, . .: Fragment on matrces. oected Papers, p. 337. 1875.
yvester: ohn op ns rc. o. 3 (1884) pp. 33, 34, 57.
10 aurent, .: . Math, pures app. o. 4 (1898) pp. 75 119.
11 Phps, . .: mer. . Math. o.41 (1919) pp. 25 278.
oss, .: .- . ayer. ad. ss. o. 17 (1892) pp. 235-35 .
13 Peme , .: Mh. Math. Phys. o. 12 (1901) pp. 82 9 .
14 Taber, .: Proc. mer. cad. rts c. o. 2 (1890 1891) pp. 4 .
1 Taber, .: Proc. mer. cad. rts c. o. 27 (1891 1892) pp. 4 -5 .
7
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94
. Matrc e uatons.
surmse of yvester1 that f s not derogatory ( 15) the ony
matrces commutatve wth are poynoma functons of . n
e uvaent theorem had, however, been prevousy gven by Frobenus2,
namey that f the frst mnors of the characterstc determnant of
are reatvey prme, the ony matrces commutatve wth are poy-
nomas n . ( ee Theorem 15.1.)
pct soutons of were gven by . res3 and
. utonne4. umerca e ampes of commutatve matrces were gven
by . ton 5.
M. rawtchou found the number of neary ndependent matrces
n a commutatve group of matrces.
. chur7 proved that the order of a commutatve group of -th
order matrces s 2/4 1 .
. anum8 found necessary and suffcent condtons that a snguar
matr beong to a group.
47. caar e uatons. et
(47.1) p( ) p9 ft 1 ... pm 0
be an e uaton of degree m wth coeffcents n a fed , where s
an -th order matr to be determned. f 1 s a souton wth eements
n f5, so s 2 P1 1P where P s an arbtrary non-snguar matr
wth eements n ence a soutons are determned by those n
canonca form.
f satsfes p ) 0, the mnmum e uaton of dvdes p ))
and conversey (Theorem 13.1). uaton (47.1) s competey soved,
then, by fndng the factors of p( ) whch are rreducbe n and
settng up those matrces 2,..., n canonca form ( oroary
39.12) whose mnmum e uatons dvde p(). The number of dssmar
soutons s fnte.
yvester9 dscussed the e uatons m and m 0. There
e sts an nteger m such that m f and ony f the characterstc
roots of are roots of unty10, n whch event the eementary dvsors
of are smpe ( 2 )u.
necessary and suffcent condton that there e st an nteger
m 1 such that m , whether be snguar or not, s that the
1 yvester: . . cad. c., Pars o.98 (1884) p. 471.
2 Frobenus: . rene angew. Math. o.84 (1878) pp. 1 3 Theorem .
3 res, .: ontrbuton a a theore des systemes neares. urch 190 .
4 utonne, .: . coe poytechn. o. 14 (1910) pp. 83 131.
ton, .: Mess. Math. o.41 (1911) pp. 110 118.
rawtchou , M.: end. rc. mat. Paermo o.51 (1927) pp. 12 130.
7 chur, .: . rene angew. Math. o.130 (1905) pp. 7 .
anum, .: mer. . Math. o. 31 (1909) pp. 18 41.
yvester: . . cad. c., Pars o. 94 (1882) pp. 39 -399.
10 pschtz: cta math. o. 10 (1887) pp. 137 144.
11 a er, . F.: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 35 (1903) pp. 379 384.
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95
characterstc roots of be 0 or roots of unty, and that the eementary
dvsors of be smpe1.
. . Turnbu2 found that f
. - - : ).
then 3 ( rs 3 7. v
. adyanathaswamy3 proved that f r 2mp1e. . . p f where the
p s are dstnct odd prmes, a necessary and suffcent condton for
the e stence of an ntegra matr of order n and perod r s that
(p 2m) (p(p ) h w P ) r n, m ,
p(P1,) ... p(P ) .n, 0, 1,
where p s the totent.
48. The unatera e uaton. e now consder the e uaton
(48.1) F( ) 0 1 -1 ... m 1 m 0,
where the are -th order matrces wth eements n . et F( )
denote the matr
m 1 1 . m-1 m ,
where s ndetermnate. Then by the theorem of Phps (Theorem
14.2), satsfes the scaar e uaton
(48.2) /( ) F( ) 0
whch, uness t vansh dentcay, s of degree nm.
et , y ..., be the soutons of (48.2) determned as n
47. Then every souton of (48.1) s of the form P P where
P must be non-snguar. th ths substtuton (48.1) becomes
oP( r r-1 P mP( 0,
whch s a near e uaton of the form (4 .1) wth 0 for the matr Pt.
n case f( ) 0, there are more than a fnte number of dssmar
soutons4.
ayey frst dscussed the e uaton 2 for matrces of orders 2
and 3.5 yvester showed that every characterstc root of a souton
of P 2 0, where a matrces are of the second order,
s a root of P 2 0. e made severa attempts to
determne the number of soutons of the e uaton (48.1) for speca cases7.
1 anum, .: mer. . Math. o.31 (1909) pp. 18 41.
2 Turnbu, . .: . ondon Math. oc. o. 2 (1927) pp. 242 244.
3 adyanathaswamy, .: . ondon Math. oc. o. 3 (1928) pp. 2 8 272.
4 oth, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 32 (1929) pp. 1 80.
5 ayey: Phos. Trans. oy. oc. ondon o. 148 (1858) pp. 39 4 .
8 yvester: . . cad. c., Pars o. 99 (1884) pp. 555 558 and 21 31.
7 yvester: ohns op ns rc. o. 3 (1884) p. 122 Phos. Mag. o. 18
(1884) pp. 454-458 - uart. . Math. o.20 (1885) pp. 305-312 - . .
cad. c., Pars o. 99 (1884) pp. 13 15.
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9
. Matrc e uatons.
. uchhem1 proved n genera that f satsfes (48.1), each of
ts characterstc roots satsfes (48.2).
Frobenus2 found a soutons of 2 n the compe fed,
when d ) 0, whch are e pressbe as poynomas n (see emma
35.22). The same method was e tended by . F. 3and . .Dc -
son4 to fnd a soutons of m n the compe fed whch are
poynomas n .
. res5 treated the e uaton p( ) where p( ) s a poynoma
wth compe coeffcents, d( ) 0, and obtaned soutons whch are
poynomas n . ater he found necessary and suffcent condtons
for the sovabty of ths e uaton when d( ) 0.
. . oth7 proved that a necessary and suffcent condton that
the e uaton p ( ) have a souton n the compe fed e pressbe
as a poynoma n s that the e uaton p( ) d have at east one
smpe root for each characterstc root of correspondng to a non-
near eementary dvsor. The number of dstnct soutons of p ( )
whch are e pressbe as poynomas n s -1 where s s the
number of dstnct roots of the mnmum e uaton m ( ) 0 of ,
and f s the number of dstnct roots of p ( ) af 0 when s a
smpe root of m (/) 0, and s the number of smpe roots of p ( ) a
0 when . s a mutpe root of m ( ) 0.
method for fndng the soutons of p ( ) whch are not
poynomas n was gven by P. Fran n8.
D. . utherford9 gave a more e pct form of souton. et
Un ( -1) t e a matr of order n. et a1, a2, . . . be the char-
acterstc roots of . Then 1 - - a - - ... - - e where
h (h(ah) ah (h Useh .
f for any arrangement of the s there s for every h a 0 -fod repeated
root bh of p( ) ah, then a souton
f.( 1) ... te(be)
of p( ) e sts. omparng ths wth oth s resut ndcates that
the souton s a poynoma n f and ony f h .
1 uchhem, .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 1 (1884) pp. 3 82.
3 a er, . F.: Proc. ambrdge Phos. oc. o.23 (1925) pp. 22 27.
4 Dc son, . .: Modern agebrac theores, p. 120. hcago 192 .
5 res, .: ontrbuton a a theore des systemes neares. urch 190 .
res, .: schr. naturforsch. Ges. urch o. 53 (1908) pp. 3 37 .
7 oth, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 30 (1928) pp. 579 59 .
8 Fran n, P.: . Math. Physcs, Massachusetts nst. Techno. o. 10 (1932)
pp. 289-314.
utherford, D. .: Proc. dnburgh Math. oc. o. 3 (1932) pp. 135
to 143.
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. Functons of Matrces.
97
. etzenboc 1 showed that the method of Frobenus may be
e tended so as to yed a soutons of m .
. . oth2 consdered the genera unatera e uaton (48.1) where
the are m n arrays and ann d matr wth eements n the
compe fed. ecessary condtons for a souton are gven, and t
s ndcated how a souton, f t e sts, can be computed. evera
e ampes are gven, as we as a ute compete bbography.
. urwtz3 found the most genera system of ft matrces, each
of order n, whch satsfy the condtons
h2 , h - h, h ,
and the number of dssmar systems.
. . ddngton4 proved that f , 2,..., p are four-rowed
matrces such that
2 -/, h - h, h,
then ft 5. f the eements of each matr are a rea or a magnary,
then there are 2 rea and 3 magnary matrces n every set of 5.
M. . . ewman5 generazed ddngton s resut and smpfed
the proof. f 1, t,. .., p are a set of w-rowed matrces, n 2 r,
r odd, and f
- , h - h, h,
then ft 2 1 and the ma mum s attaned. f n a ma ma
set there are wth rea eements and the remanng a wth purey
magnary eements, then a or 7. e e tended these con-
sderatons to hermtan matrces.
oo
49. Power seres n matrces. et P( ) be an ordnary
0
power seres wth compe coeffcents n the compe varabe . f
for a matr of order n wth compe eements every eement of
m
0
approaches a fnte mt as m- oo, the matr
P( ) 2
0
1 etzenboc , .: ad. etensch. msterdam, Proc. o. 35 (1932) pp. 157
to 1 1.
2 oth, . .: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 32 (1930) pp. 1 80.
3 urwtz, .: Math. nn. o. 88 (1923) pp. 1 25.
ddngton, . .: . ondon Math. oc. o. 7 (1932) pp. 58 8.
5 ewman, M. . .: . ondon Math. oc. o. 7 (1932) pp. 93 99.
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98
s sad to e st and to be e ua to the matr of these mtng
vaues.
Theorem 49. The power seres P( ) converges f and ony f every
characterstc root of es nsde or on the crce of convergence of P ( ),
and for every v-fod characterstc root whch es on the crce of con-
vergence, the (v )-th dervatve P -1)( ) converges.
Ths theorem and proof are due to . ense1. . eyr2 had
prevousy proved the theorem for the case where no characterstc
root es on the crce of convergence.
et us wrte
1 - - 2 4- . ,
where
t
1
0 .
.. 0
0

1 .
.. 0
0
0
0 .
.
s of order v ( oroary 39. ). Then
P( ) P( 1) P(
so that P( ) converges f and ony f every P( ) converges.
rte v for v, and et
- U, 17 1 4 o, U 0.
Then for
m
Pm( ) a Uy
m
0 h 0
ence
v-1
v-1
where P( denotes the h-th dervatve
P M ,
h 0
1 ense, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 155 (192 ) pp. 107 110.
2 eyr, .: u. c. math. o. 11 (1887) pp. 205-215.
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vdenty P( converges f and ony f
a converge. f s outsde the crce of convergence of P ( ), P ( )
dverges, whe f s nsde ths crce, a dervatves converge. f
s on the crce, a these dervatves converge f and ony f Pr-1 (fa)
converges.
G. Peano1 and . arvao2 dscussed the functon e , and the
former dscussed the Tayor seres n matrces.
. Taber3 defned trgonometrc functons of a matr . e aso
proved4 that every rea proper orthogona matr can be represented
n the form e where s s ew.
. . Metzer5 consdered transcendenta functons of a matr .
The foowng resuts are due to . . Phps8. f , ,..., P are
commutatve matrces whose characterstc roots a, , . . p are
ordered as n Theorem 1 .1, and f f(a,b,...,p) s an nfnte seres,
then f( , , . . ., P) converges f the seres /(a, b, . . ., p and ther
parta dervatves of proper orders converge. The Tayor seres
/ ( ) / ( ) f ( )( - ) ... / ) ( ) .
s vad for a matr commutatve wth f each characterstc root
of es wthn a crce wth center at the correspondng root of n
whch f(z) s anaytc, z beng an ordnary compe varabe.
50. Functons of matrces. That the defnton of anaytc functon
of a matr as a power seres n that matr wth scaar coeffcents s
too restrctve can be seen at once from the e ampe
2 - :

2 .
3 -2 r
urey s an anaytc functon of /, yet every power seres n s
scaar.
The frst attempt to defne an anaytc functon of a matr
havng dstnct characterstc roots was made by yvester7 by means
of the nterpoaton formua
U - ( - , )( - , ) ...( -U) fn.
1 Peano, G.: Math. nn. o.32 (1888) pp. 450-45 .
2 arvao, .: Mh. Math. Phys. o. 2 (1891) pp. 177 21 , 225 2 and
311 330.
8 Taber, .: mer. . Math. o.12 (1890) pp. 337-39 o.13 (1891)
pp. 159 172.
4 Taber, .: Proc. mer. cad. rts c. o. 27 (1891 1892) pp. 1 3 1 5.
5 Metzer, . .: mer. . Math. o. 14 (1892) pp. 32 -377.
Phps, . .: mer. . Math. o. 41 (1919) pp. 2 278.
7 yvester: Phos. Mag. o. 1 (1883) pp. 2 7 2 9.
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100
summed over a characterstc roots. The case where the roots are not
dstnct was consdered by . uchhem1. vdenty ths defnton
yeds ony poynomas n .
P. . M. Drac2 proposed to defne as an anaytc functon of
any matr whch s commutatve wth a matrces whch are commu-
tatve wth . Ths agan yeds ony poynomas n .3
. Fantappe4 suggested that a satsfactory defnton of anaytc
functon of a matr must satsfy the foowng condtons. f f( ) and
g( ) are functons of a functon fed (rea or compe ) and f f( ) and
g( ) are anaytc functons of a matr , there must e st a corre-
spondance co such that, f f( ) f( ) and g( ) g( ), then
1. ) g( ) of( ) g( ),
2. f( )g( ) f( )g( ),
3. f( ) 00 and f( ) ,
4. f f ) s anaytc n a parameter t, and f f( ,t) 00 f( , t), then
the eements of f( , t) depend anaytcay upon /.
e then proved that the eements frs of f( ) are the sums: of the
D. t)
resdues of
D(t)
f(t) at the characterstc roots of . ere Dsr(t)
s the cofactor of fsr, and D(t) d( ). f / s a characterstc root
of of mutpcty v, the eements frs of f( ) may be e pressed as
near combnatons of the vaues at the ponts / of the functon
/ ( ) and ts dervatves up to order vt 1 at most. The coeffcents
depend ony upon .
G. Gorg5 suggested the foowng defnton. f
P 1 ... )P,
where
1
0
0
1
0
0
then
f( ) P f 1) ..
e aso stated that the defnton
0 m rw
0 0 m
f( ) P.
d
had been suggested to hm n a etter by art an. The formua means
that the eement n the (r, s)-poston n f( ) s the ntegra ar of the
1 uchhem, .: Phos. Mag. o.22 (188 ) pp. 173-174.
Drac, P. . M.: Proc. ambrdge Phos. oc. o. 23 (192 ) pp. 412-
3 Turnbu and t en: anonca matrces, p. 150. ondon 1932.
1 Fantappe, .: . . cad. c., Pars o. 18 (1928) pp. 19 21.
5 Gorg, G.: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o.8 (1928) pp. 3-8.
418.
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101
eement n the (r, s)-poston n the matr f( )( )1 around a
cosed path ncosng the characterstc roots.
ether of these defntons ta es care of the e ampe gven at the
begnnng of ths secton.
hat seems to be the most satsfactory defnton so far proposed
for a mutpe-vaued anaytc functon of a matr s the one gven
by M. poa1. t s an e tenson of the defnton of Gorg, and
dffers from t ony n the respect that dfferent determnatons for /
may be used n the matrces f( ), . . ., f( ), and P must range over
a matrces such that P1 ( - - ) P hods. f the same deter-
mnaton for / s used throughout, a .prncpa vaue of f( ) resuts.
Ths defnton and ths ony s suffcenty broad to ncude as functons
of / a soutons of the matrc e uaton 2 .
pct resuts n certan speca cases have been obtaned. Thus
M. otasso2 found n e pcty when the mnmum e uaton of
s uadratc.
. Marts- ddau3 gave an e pct form of n where s of the
second order accordng to Fantappe s defnton of functon. ater4
she treated et for of the second order by Gorg s defnton, and5
the functon n where s of the thrd order.
. Porcu-Tortrn gave f( ) e pcty for of the second order
accordng to Gorg s defnton of functon.
. mante7 used Fantappe s resuts to sove f( ) 0 where f z)
s compe functon.
51. Matrces whose eements are functons of compe varabes.
To consder ths topc n deta woud ta e us nto the theory of dffe-
renta e uatons. ny a few resuts of nterest n pure matrc theory
w be gven.
. . M. edderburn8 consdered matrc functons .e., matrces
whose eements are anaytc functons of a snge compe varabe.
s prncpa resut (the anaog of Theorem 2 .2) s that f ( ) s such
a matrc functon of ran r whch s hoomorphc n a regon 91, there
1 poa, M.: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 5 (1932) pp. 144 154.
2 otasso, M.: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 35 (1913) pp. 1 4 .
3 Marts- ddau, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 8 (1928) pp. 130
to 133.
to 280.
to 213.
Porcu-Tortrn, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 7 (1928) pp. 20
to 208.
7 mante, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 12 (1930) p. 290.
8 edderburn, . . M.: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o.1 (1915) pp.328
to 332.
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102
e st two matr functons P( ) and (ty, whch are hoomorphc and
non-snguar n 9ft, and are such that
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t( ) ... r( ) 0,
where 1( ), . . ., r ( ) are functons of whch are hoomorphc n 9ft
and are such that s s a factor of t when s t.
G. D. r hoff1 gave the foowng theorem. et rs( ) be
a matr of functons whch are snge-vaued and anaytc for
(but not necessary at oo), and such that d( ) t 0 for .
Then there s a matr ar, ( ) 11 of functons anaytc at oo
reducng to at oo, and a matr of entre functons
of determnant nowhere 0n the fnte pane such that . ers( )
where the s are ntegers.
r hoff2 consdered nfnte products of anaytc matrces. f
every eement of ( ) and ( ) are anaytc near 0 but perhaps
not at 0, and f M ( ) has eements anaytc at 0, and f
( ) M ( ) ( ), then ( ) s eft-e uvaent to ( ) at 0.
The reaton of eft-e uvaence s determnatve, refe ve, symmetrc
and transtve. matr U ) s eementary f t s the dentty matr
wth the -th coumn repaced by c, c2, . . ., c , 0, c 1, . . ., c .
The foowng e uvaence probem s consdered. Gven poynoma
matrces, each havng ts ony fnte snguar pont at (these beng
assumed dstnct), to construct a poynoma matr P( ) e uvaent
to these matrces at and havng no other fnte snguar pont. The
most genera souton s
Pt U Ut ) ... Un( ),
where U ) s an eementary matr wth a snguar pont at r
and P0( ) s any poynoma matr of order 0.
The absoute vaue of a matr whose eements are compe numbers
or functons was defned by . . M. edderburn3 to be
( ap ap ) (ars).
The foowng ne uates were obtaned, beng scaar.
, 1 ,
. . , - U .
52. Dervatves and ntegras of matrces. These concepts were
frst consdered by . oterra4. et ( ) be a matr of order whose
1 r hoff, G. D.: Math. nn o. 74 (1913) pp. 122 133.
2 r hoff: Trans. mer. Math. oc. o. 17 (191 ) pp. 38 404.
3 edderburn, . . M.: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 31 (1925) pp. 304.
to 308.
oterra, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 31 (887)pp. 393 39 .
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103
eements are fnte contnuous functons of the rea or compe varabe .
ssume d ( ) e)e 0. f the two mts
m ( ) ( ) - Um ) ( ) -
e st, they are caed the rght and eft dervatves of ( ), respectvey.
t s to be noted, however, that snce ( ) ( ) ( ) 1( ),
the rght and eft dervatves are merey ( ) ( ) and D ( ) 1 ( ),
respectvey, where D( ) s obtaned from ( ) by repacng each
eement by ts dervatve.
et T ( ) be a matr of order n whose eements are fnte contnuous
functons of the rea varabe on the range a b. et the nterva
of defnton be dvded nto n segments h1,h, . . ., hn, and consder
the matrces T, T2,..., Tn, each Tt correspondng to a vaue of
contaned n the nterva . et 7 htTt . Then f the mts
m 1 r 2 ... n, m - ... 1
e st, they are caed the rght and eft emann ntegras, respectvey,
of T( ).
oterra further showed that f dfferentaton and ntegraton are
both rght, or both eft,
T( )d T(u),
a
and that f M s non-snguar wth eements free from , then
( ) M ( ) M mpes
( ) M1 . T( ) M, fs( )d M T( )d M.
The constant of ntegraton s mutpcatve nstead of addtve. That
s, f dfferentaton s on the rght,
4 ( ) - ( ),
d v d w
where s a matr wth constant eements and f, conversey,
-T( ) ),
d w d w
then there e sts a non-snguar constant matr such tha
T ( ) ( ). f dfferentaton s on the eft, the constant matr
s a rght factor.
oterra1 generazed the theorem of auchy to matrces by
provng that f s s a cosed path nsde whch each eement of T(z)
s hoomorphc, then T(z)dz

e e tended ths theorem to emann surfaces.
1 oterra: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 2 (1888) pp. 9 75.
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104
. Matrces of nfnte order.
. chesnger1 defned the ntegra

( rs) (ar,d 8r,)
p p
so that every row satsfes the system of dfferenta e uatons
n

ater2 he used edderburn s defnton of absoute vaue ( 51) to
defne an -ntegrabe matr . e showed that the -ntegra of
has a dervatve amost everywhere, and that ths concdes amost
everywhere wth .
. . Turnbu3 nvestgated the propertes of the operator
apped to matrces whose eements are functons of the rs.
. oewy4 defned a new reaton between two matrces whose
eements are functons of a varabe . et P (frs), PD ( ).
Then we may wrte ( s smar to n the sense of oewy)
f there e sts a matr P whose eements are functons of and whose
determnant does not vansh dentcay such that
-PuP P P1.
t may be shown that ths reatonshp s determnatve, refe ve,
symmetrc and transtve. The author uses t n the factorzaton theory
of dfferenta e pressons.
53. nfnte determnants. The concept of nfnte determnant was
ntroduced by G. . 5 n connecton wth the souton of dfferenta
e uatons. f
at
13

21
atst
31
32
33
s a douby nfnte array, and f
#n, 4 2
2a
31 32 33
then f m n e sts, t s caed the determnant d( )
13
1 chesnger, .: . rene angew. Math. o. 128 (1904) pp. 2 3 297.
2 chesnger, .: Math. . o. 33 (1931) pp. 33 1.
3 Turnbu, . .: Proc. dnburgh Math. oc. o. 1 (1927) pp. 111 128.
oewy, .: Math. nn. o. 78 (1918) pp. 1-51, 343-358 and 359-3 8
achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 1917 pp. 255 2 3.
5 , G. .: cta math. o. 8 (188 ) pp. 1 3 .
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105
The procedure of was paced upon a rgorous foundaton by
Poncare1, who consdered ony arrays whose dagona eements are
s. e proved the e stence of s mt under the assumpton
oo
that 2 ap converges.
p, 1
. von och2 gave an e tended and systematc treatment of
nfnte determnants. f n s of order n, set n (brs) n n.
Then (Theorem 14.3)
h h
n 1 h
determnant of nfnte order s sad to be absoutey convergent f n

and each of the terms n the above e panson converge as n - . oo.
t. br3 proved that a necessary and suffcent condton that
oo
be absoutey convergent s that au converge absoutey, and that

there e st an nteger f 2 such that
oo oo

converges. smpfed proof of ths theorem was gven by . . ohen 4.
ystems of near e uatons n nfntey many varabes have been
dscussed by severa wrters snce , for e ampe, . chmdt5,
Toeptz , ntner7 and . . ohen4.
ppcaton of nfnte determnants n the theory of contnued
fractons was made by T. . tet es8 and by von och9.
ummares of resuts up to the date of pubcaton are gven by
. Pasca10, owaews 11, F. esz12, and enger and Toeptz13.
The atter has practcay compete references to the terature.
1 Poncare: u. oc. Math. France o. 14 (188 ) pp. 77 90.
2 och, . von: cta math. o. 15 (1891) pp. 53- 3 o. 1 (1892-1893)
pp. 217 295 . . cad. c., Pars o. 11 (1893) pp. 91 93 end. rc.
mat. Paermo o. 28 (1909) pp. 255 2 .
3 br, t.: Math. . o. 10 (1921) pp. 1 11.
4 ohen, . .: u. mer. Math. oc. o. 3 (1930) pp. 5 3 572.
5 chmdt, .: end. rc. mat. Paermo o.25 (1908) pp. 53 77.
Toeptz: end. rc. mat. Paermo o. 28 (1909) pp. 88 9 .
7 ntner: Math. . o.24 (1925) p. 2 .
8 tet es, T. .: nn. Fac. c. Unv. Tououse o. 8 (1894) 1 22.
9 von och: . . cad. c., Pars o. 120 (1895) pp. 144 147.
10 Pasca, .: De Determnanten, trans, by etzmann. Teubner 1900.
11 owaews : nfhrung n de Determnantentheore, hap. 17. epzg
1909.
12 esz, F.: es systemes d e uatons neares a une nfnte d nconnues.
Pars 1913.
13 enger and Toeptz: nzy . der math. ss. 13 17 (1927).
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10
More recent papers on nfnte determnants are by D. .Gespe1
and . . haw2.
54. nfnte matrces. The modern theory of matrces of nfnte
order s amost entrey an out-growth of the theory of ntegra e uatons.
Ths theory had ts ncepton n a seres of s papers by Davd bert3
pubshed n the Gottnger achrchten under the tte Grundzge
ener agemenen Theore der nearen ntegragechungen . Ths was
ater ssued n boo form4. ubse uent papers by bert, Fredhom,
enger, Toeptz, . chmdt, ntner, von eumann and
others have greaty e tended the theory.
n spte of the e tent and mportance of ths theory, t w be very
brefy treated here because t beongs so fundamentay to the theory
of ntegra e uatons, and aso because t has been so thoroughy e -
pounded n recent years by enger and Toeptz and by . nt-
ner8. oth boo s have e tended references to the terature.
The purpose of our bref remar s on the sub ect of nfnte matrces
s to pont out a few anaoges wth the theory of matrces of fnte
order, and aso a few ways n whch they are fundamentay dfferent.
55. matrc agebra of nfnte order. f s the rea or compe
fed, denote by n an array (ar ) of n rows and coumns, and by
an array wth a denumerabe nfnty of rows and coumns. f mut-
pcaton of arrays s defned accordng to the dentty
(m arb ,
n-voo /
t s at once evdent that cosure s not usuay obtaned. ence t s
not possbe to defne the tota matrc agebra of order n over for
n nfnte as was done for n fnte.
e sha ca a matrc agebra of nfnte order a system of arrays,
wth eements n a fed f f. whch satsfes the foowng postuates7:
1. The system s cosed under addton.
2. For every two arrays ( ), ( rs), the nfnte seres
oo
(54.1)

1 Gespe, D. .: u. mer. Math. oc. o.33 (1927) pp. 54- 55, ab-
stract ony.
2 haw, . .: mer. Math. Monthy o. 38 (1931) PP. 188 194.
3 bert, Davd: achr. Ges. ss. G ttngen 1904 pp. 49 91, 213 259
1905 pp. 307-338 190 pp. 157-227, 439 480 1910 355-417.
bert, Davd: epzg 1912.
enger and Toeptz: nzy . der math. ss. 3 o. 9 (1927).
ntner, .: pe tratheore der unendchen Matrzen. epzg: rze
1929.
7 enger and Toeptz: achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 190 pp. 351 355.
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107
converges absoutey, and the product matr ( arbs) s m
the system.
For some purposes t s convenent to add
3. The system s ma ma.
e sha defne a matr of nfnte order as a member of a matrc
agebra of nfnte order.
There can be more than one ma ma system.
Theorem 55.1. Mutpcaton s assocatve, and dstrbutve wth
respect to addton.
oth of these resuts foow from the assumpton that the seres
(54.1) s absoutey convergent, and hence
00 00 00
s s
Theorem 55.2. f has both a rght and a eft nverse, they are e ua
and un ue.
et , .
Then ( ) ( ) .
For a matr of fnte order the e stence of a eft nverse mpes
the e stence of a rght nverse and vce versa. That ths s not neces-
sary so for matrces of nfnte order may be seen from the foowng
e ampe1:

0 10 0
0 0 10
0 0 0 1

2 3
0 0
1 0
4
0
0
These matrces beong to a matrc agebra of nfnte order to be defned
n the ne t paragraph. vdenty , whe for every ,
has ony 0 s n ts frst coumn. t s to be noted that the rght nverse
of s not un ue, for the s are arbtrary.
Theorem 55.3. f has a un ue rght nverse, ths rght nverse s
aso a eft nverse2.
uppose . Then
, - ,
- ) .
f the rght nverse s un ue,
- , .
1 eanger and Toeptz: Math. nn. o. 9 (1910) pp. 289 330.
enger and Toeptz: 1. c.
rgebnsse der Mathemat . /5. MacDuffee.
8
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108
matr of nfnte order s sad to be non-snguar f t has both
a eft and a rght nverse, .e., f t has a un ue nverse.
The faure for nfnte matrces of the fundamenta theorem of the
frst chapter ( oroary 7.9), namey that the determnant of the product
of two matrces s e ua to the product of ther determnants, s part-
cuary to be noted. n the e ampe gven above wth each e ua to
zero, we have /, whe by the defnton of determnant due to
,
d ) 0, d( ) 0, d( ) .
y von och s defnton, d( ) does not e st.
5 . ounded matrces. et g be the rea fed, and consder a
matrces (ars) of nfnte order such that there e sts a postve
number m ndependent of n so that for
12 nss . y12 y22 y 2ss ,
t s true that
2 ap py
, 9 1
. m.
uch matrces are caed bounded .
bert proved that the product of two bounded matrces e sts
and s bounded, and that the assocatve aw hods for bounded matrces.
ounded matrces consttute a matrc agebra of nfnte order2.

et y c 1 be a power seres convergent for z a. e may consder
o
, z, z2, . . . to consttute a bass for an agebra of nfnte order, the
constants of mutpcaton beng c d . ( f. 2.) ence
s fr , ). That s,
1 0
0 1
0 0
s1
0 0
0 0
0 0
The matr correspondng to 2.cs s
0
s n 2, these matrces of nfnte order are somorphc under addton
and mutpcaton wth the seres to whch they correspond. ence
the set of a such matrces correspondng to seres convergent for
1 bert: achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 190 pp. 157 227.
2 encer and Toeptz: achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 190 pp. 351 355.
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109
z a consttute a matrc agebra, and are commutatve, assocatve
and dstrbutve.
n fact, f the radus of convergence s a , these matrces are
bounded1.
The theory of bounded matrces consttutes the ma or porton of
the nown theory of nfnte matrces. n partcuar, a untary nfnte
matrces are bounded.
Many of the theorems for bnear and uadratc forms carry over
to forms of nfnte order wth the understandng that a non-snguar
matr s one wth a un ue nverse2.
Toeptz3 gave a method for reducng a bounded uadratc form
to canonca form.
. ahn4 gave a necessary and suffcent condton that two bounded
uadratc forms n nfntey many varabes be e uvaent by orthogona
transformatons. F. . Murray5 gave a method for reducng such a
form to canonca form by orthogona transformatons.
. ysop gave an e tenson of eerstrass theorem on pars
of uadratc forms.
. chur7 proved that f s bounded sem-defnte hermtan,
there e sts a P wth 0 s above the man dagona such that PP T.
. ntner8 proved that f s non-snguar and bounded, there
e sts e acty one postve defnte matr P and e acty one untary
matr U such that PU.
The theory of nfnte orthogona matrces was deveoped by
M. . Martn9.
oo
ven f ar2( converges, need not be bounded. T. areman10
s 1
showed how the study of such matrces may be brought under the
theory of bounded matrces.
. von eumann11 consdered matrces whch are not bounded.
uppose that s a gven matr , and that there e sts a matr P
such that P P /. Ths condton s never satsfed by matrces
of fnte order (snce the trace of the eft member s 0), but s satsfed
1 Toeptz: Math. nn. o. 70 (1910) pp. 351 37 .
2 enger and Toeptz: Math. nn. o. 9 (1910) pp. 289 330.
3 Toeptz: achr. Ges. ss. Gottngen 1907 pp. 101 109.
4 ahn, .: Mh. Math. Phys. o. 23 (1912) pp. 1 1 224.
5 Murray, F. .: nn. of Math. o.29 (1928) pp. 133 139.
ysop, .: Proc. ondon Math. oc. o. 24 (192 ) pp. 2 4 304.
7 chur, .: Math. . o. (1918) pp. 184 207.
8 ntner, .: mer. . Math. o. 54 (1932) pp. 145 149.
9 Martn, M. .: rae. . Math. o. 54 (1932) pp. 579 31.
10 areman, T.: ur es e uatons ntegrates sngueres a noyau ree et
symetr ue. Uppsaa 1923.
11 eumann, . von: . rene angew. Math. o. 1 1 (1929) pp. 208 23
Math. nn. o. 102 (1929) pp. .49 131.
8
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110
by an mportant cass of nfnte matrces used n uantum mechancs.
f s another matr , then P P s caed the dervatve
d d of wth respect to . From ths defnton the more mportant
propertes of the dervatve may be shown to hod for .1
57. Matrces wth a non-denumerabe number of rows and coums.
ach eement ar, of may be consdered as a functon of the two
varabes r and s. From ths pont of vew, every functon of two
ndependent varabes s a matr 2.
matrc agebra of non-denumeraby nfnte order s, then, com-
posed of a set of functons a ( , y), b ( , y),.. . whch s
cosed under addton, and under mutpcaton , or composton of
the type
fa( ,t)b(t,y)dt
a
t s ready seen that mutpcaton s assocatve and dstrbutve,
but usuay not commutatve4.
ppcaton of such matrces to physcs was made by P. . M. Drac5.
. D. Mcha consdered the e uvaence of uadratc forms of
the type b b b
ffg( ,f )y(oc)y(P)d dp / y( ) 2rf
a a a
under Fredhom transformatons
b
y ( ) y ( ) (oc, ) y ( ) d ot.
a
of non-vanshng Fredhom determnant. t s here assumed that y (a)
and (o, ft) are contnuous rea functons of oc and ft over the nterva
(a, b), and that emann ntegraton s used.
1 Drac, P. .M.: Proc. ambrdge Ph. oc. o.23 (192 ) pp. 412 418.
2 Moore, . .: ermtan Matrces of Postve Type. ectures at the Un-
versty of hcago 1920.
3 oterra, .: tt ccad. naz. nce, end. o. 19 (1910) pp. 1 9 180.
4 ee enger and Toeptz: nzy .der math. ss. 13 p. 1487.
Drac, P. .M.: Proc. oy. oc. ondon o.113 (192 1927) pp. 21
to 41.
Mcha, . D.: mer. . Math. o. 50 (1928) pp. 473-517.
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T F
T T F M T
y F. . G TM
Transated from the ussan, wth further rev-
sons by the uthor.
Ths treatse by one of ussa s eadng mathe-
matcans gves, n easy accessbe form, a co-
herent account of matr theory wth a vew to
appcatons n mathematcs, theoretca physcs,
statstcs, eectrca engneerng, etc. The nd-
vdua chapters have been ept as far as possbe
ndependent of each other, so that the reader ac-
uanted wth the contents of hapter can pro-
ceed mmedatey to the chapters that especay
nterest hm. Much of the matera has been ava-
abe unt now ony n the perodca terature.
Parta ontents. . o. ne. . Matrces and
Matr peratons. . The gorthm of Gauss
and ppcatons. . near perators n an
n-Dmensona ector pace. . haracterstc
Poynoma and Mnma Poynoma of a Matr
(Generazed ezout Theorem, Method of Faddeev
for mutaneous omputaton of oeffcents of
haracterstc Poynoma and d ont Matr ,
. . . ). . Functons of Matrces ( arous Forms
of the Defnton, omponents, ppcaton to n-
tegraton of ystem of near Dfferenta ns,
tabty of Moton, . . .). . uvaent Trans-
formatons of Poynoma Matrces naytc The-
ory of ementary Dvsors. . The tructure
of a near perator n an n-Dmensona pace
(Mnma Poynoma, ongruence, Factor pace,
ordan Form, ryov s Method of Transformng
ecuar n, . . .). . Matr uatons (Ma-
tr Poynoma ns, oots and ogarthm of
Matrces, . . .). . near perators n a Untary
pace. . uadratc and ermtan Forms.
oume Two. . ompe ymmetrc, ew-
symmetrc, and rthogona Matrces. . ngu-
ar Pencs of Matrces. . Matrces wth on-
egatve ements (Genera Propertes, pectra
Propertes, educbe Matrces, Prmtve and
mprmtve Matrces, tochastc Matrces, mt-
ng Probabtes for omogeneous Mar ov han,
Totay on- egatve Matrces, scatory Ma-
trces . . .). . ppcatons of the Theory of
Matrces to the nvestgaton of ystems of near
Dfferenta uat ons ( ystems wth arabe
oeffcents, yapunov Transformatons, educ-
be ystems, rugn s Theorem, Mutpcatve
ntegra, oterra s acuus, Dfferenta ys-
tems n ompe Doman, naytc Functons of
evera Matrces, The esearch of appo-
Danevs , . .). . The Probem of outh-
urwtz and eated uestons ( outh s go-
rthm, yapunov s Theorem, Method of uadratc
Forms, nfnte an e Matrces of Fnte an ,
tabty, Mar ov Parameters, Probem of Mo-
ments. Theorems of Mar ov and hebyshev.
Generazed outh- urwtz Probem, . . .). b-
ography.
o. . 9 0, 374 pp. 9.
o. . 19 0. 277 pp. 9.
131 .00
1133 .00
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T F
M U D T G
y . T t D
bout 3 0 pp. Transated from the German. n prep.
U G U FU T
y . T D
Ths great cassc s at once a boo for the begn-
ner, a reference wor for the advanced schoar and
a source of nspraton for the research wor er.
2nd, atest compete, ed. 728 pp. z 2. rg. pub. at
11. 0. 33 8.00
T U T T and the
P T U U
y . .
rgorous and ogca e poston and treatment
of the eavsde operatona cacuus and ts ap-
pcatons to eectrca probems ... w be en oyed
and studed by mathematcans, engneers and
scentsts. ectrca ord.
2nd ed. 20 pp. 5 / 8. 92 oth 3.95
114 Paper 1.88
T T F G
y G. T
The usefuness, both as a te tboo and as a wor
of reference, of ths charmng cassc s attested
to by the number of edtons t has run through
the present beng the s th. ts rchness of content
can be ony apprecated by an e amnaton of the
tweve-hundred-page boo tsef. Thousands of
vauabe e ercses (wth soutons).
th ed. 2 os. 1235 pages. 5 8. 84 ach voume 2.95
G TP M U D
UM D U G
y . T
Part presents an nterestng and vauabe co-
ecton of P T PP T .
Part deas wth the M T M T
T .
Part ta es up varous methods of UM -
UT of boundary vaue probems.
Thes s ncude step-by-step appro matons, graph-
ca ntegraton, the ayegh- tz method and
methods dependng on fnte dfferences. ere, as
throughout the boo , the theory s ept n cose
touch wth practce by numerous specfc e ampes.
Mathematca evews.
1945. 350 pp. 5 /2 8/2. rg. pub. at 8.80. 41 4.95
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T F
G
y M. D U G
( rgeb. der Moth.) 1935. v M3 pp. 5 /2 8 . rg. pub.
ot . 0. 150 3.95
T F T T F UM
y t. . D
monumenta wor . . . Dc son aways has n
mnd the needs of the nvestgator . . . The author
has often e pressed n a nut-she the man re-
suts of a ong and nvoved paper n a much
cearer way than the wrter of the artce dd hm-
sef. The abty to reduce compcated mathemat-
ca arguments to smpe and eementary terms s
hghy deveoped n Dc son. uetn of . M. .
o. (Dvsbty and Prmaty) -f. 48 pp. o.
(Dophantne nayss) v 803 pp. o. ( uadratc and
gher Forms) v 313 pp. 18 Three vo. set 19.95
TUD T T F UM
y . . D
systematc e poston, startng from frst prn-
cpes, of the arthmetc of uadratc forms, chefy
(but not entrey) ternary forms, ncudng numer-
ous orgna nvestgatons and correct proofs of a
number of cassca resuts that have been stated
or proved erroneousy n the terature.
1930. v 230 pp. 5 8. 151 n prep.
T T G U U
y . . D D
esurey, mmensey detaed, te tboo of over
1,900 pages, rch n ustratve e ampes and ma-
npuatve techn ues and contanng much nter-
estng matera that must of necessty be omtted
from ess comprehensve wor s.
There are forty arge chapters n a. The earer
cover a esurey and a more-than-usuay-detaed
treatment of a the eementary standard topcs.
ater chapters ncude: acoban ptc Func-
tons, eerstrassan ptc Functons, vau-
aton of Defnte ntegras, armonc nayss,
acuus of aratons, etc. very chapter contans
many e ercses (wth soutons).
2 vos. 1,922 pp. 5 8. rgnay pubshed at 31.50 the set.
102 , 1051 ach voume 7.50
UT M P FU T
y . . F D
omprehensve . . . remar aby cear and e -
pct. uetn of the . M. .
2nd ed. ( or. repr.) 333 pp. 5 8. 85 4.95
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T F
MPT T
y . . F D
Two voumes one: tudes on Dvergent eres
and ummabty and The symptotc Deveop-
ments of Functons Defned by Mac aurn eres.
Parta ontents: . Mac aurn um-Formua
ntroducton to tudy of symptotc eres. .
Determnaton of symptotc Deveopment of a
Gven Functon. . symptotc outons of
near Dfferenta uatons.... . ummabty,
etc. /. Frst Genera Theorem. . . . ///. Mac aurn
eres whose Genera oeffcent s gebrac. . . .
. Functons of esse Type. . symptotc
ehavor of outon of Dfferenta uatons of
Fuchsan Type. bography.
191 193 - 0. 341 pp. 9. 143 Two vos, n one.
T U U F T
y . G. F D
Parta ontents: . Pane Geometry. . Geometry
n pace. . ppcatons to Pro ectve Geometry.
. . . . ppcatons to ystems of near ua-
tons and Determnants. . rented rce and
ystems of rces. . The Genera Theory of
Matrces . . . . gebrac Products.
1941- 0. v 490 pp. 5 8. 135 4.95
U M T M T G P
y G. . F T
bbography of ussan Mathematcs oo s for
the past uarter century. uppements may be
ssued. dded sub ect nde .
195 . 10 pp. 5 8. 3.95
U T G
y P. F T
Ths much- uoted and charmng treatse gves a
very readabe treatment of a topc that can ony
be touched upon brefy n courses on naytc
Geometry. Teachers w fnd t nvauabe as sup-
pementary readng for ther more nterested
students and for reference. The acuus s not
used.
eventeen pates, contanng over 200 fgures,
ustrate the dscusson n the te t.
5th (unatered) ed. 19 0. 210 pp. 17 fod-out pates.
5 8. 140 3.50
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T F
T M T U T U U G
y . F. G U
The German transaton of hs Ds ustones
rthmetcae.
epr. of 1st German ed. 8 0 pp. 5 8. 150 n prtp.
T F P T
y . . G D
Transated from the second ussan edton, wth
addtons and revsons by Prof. Gneden o.
Parta ontents: . The oncept of Probabty
(Dfferent approaches to the defnton. Fed of
events. Geometrca Probabty. tatstca defn-
ton. omatc constructon . . .). . e uences
of ndependent Tras. . Mar ov hans. .
andom arabes and Dstrbuton Functons
( ontnuous and dscrete dstrbutons. Mut-
dmensona d. functons. Functons of random
varabes. tet es ntegra). . umerca har-
acterstcs of andom arabes (Mathematca
e pectaton. arance . . . Moments). . aw of
arge umbers (Mass phenomena. Tchebychev s
form of aw. trong aw of arge numbers . . .).
. haracterstc Functons (Propertes. nver-
son formua and un ueness theorem. ey s
theorems. mt theorems. har, functs. for mut-
dmensona random varabes . . .). . assca
mt Theorem ( apunov s theorem. oca mt
theorem). . Theory of nfntey Dvsbe Ds-
trbuton aws. . Theory of tochastc Processes
(Generazed Mar ov e uaton. ontnuous .
processes. Purey dscontnuous . processes. o-
mogorov-Feer e uatons. omogeneous . proc-
sses wth ndependent ncrements. tatonary .
process. tochastc ntegra. pectra theorem of
. processes. r hoff- hnchne ergodc theorem).
. ements of tatstcs ( ome probems. ara-
tona seres and emprca dstrbuton functons.
Gven o s theorem and omogorov s compat-
bty crteron. Two-sampe probem. rtca
regon. omparson of two statstca hypotheses
. . . onfdence mts), tabes, bbography.
eady, 19 1-19 2. bout 400 pp. 9. 132
T G D T T et eurs pp-
catons au Probemes de a Phys ue Mathe-
mat ue
y . GU T
1932. 498 pp. 5y2 8. 3 5.95
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T F
Grundzuge ner gemenen Theore der
T G G U G
y 0. U T
30 pp. 5 /2 8 /4. 91 4.50
P P F M T M T G
y D. U T and . M
The famous Grundge der Theoretschen og
transated nto ngsh, wth added notes and re-
vsons by Prof. . . uce.
The best te tboo n a estern uropean
anguage for a student wshng a fary thorough
treatment. uetn of the . M. .
1950-59. 172 pp. 9. 9 .7
G M T D T M G T
y D. U T and . -
The theme of ths boo s nsght. ot merey
proofs, but proofs that offer nsght ntutve
understandng nto why they are true. ot
merey propertes of the hyperbood or of Pasca s
he agon, but nsght nto why they have these
propertes. n ths wde-rangng survey, one of the
word s greatest and most orgna mathematcans
uses nsght as both hs techn ue and hs am.
oth the begnner and the mature mathematcan
w earn much from ths fascnatng treatse.
Transated from the German by P. emeny.
hapter eadngs: . The mpest urves and
surfaces. . eguar ystems of Ponts. . Pro-
ectve onfguratons. . Dfferenta Geometry.
. nematcs. . Topoogy.
mathematca cassc . . . The purpose s to
ma e the reader see and fee the proofs. cence.
fascnatng tour of the 20th-century mathe-
matca zoo. centfc mercan.
tudents . . . w e perence the sensaton of
beng ta en nto the f rendy confdence of a great
mathematcan and beng shown the rea sgnf-
cance of thngs. cence Progress.
gance down the nde (twenty-fve coumns
of t) revea the breadth of range:
nnuus tomc structure utomorphc func-
tons ubbe, soap austc urve oor probem
Densty of pac ng, of crces Four-dmensona
space Gears, hyperbooda Graphte attces
Mappng Mon ey adde Tabe sat nc.
These are but a few of the topcs . . . The tte
evo es the magnaton and the te t must surey
capture t. Math. Gazette.
1952. 358 pp. 9. 87 .00
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T F
D T
y . U
( rgeb. der Math.) 1935. 159 pp. 51/2 81/2. rg. pub.
(paper bound) at 7.00. 48 oth, 3.95
G UP T
y . U
Transated from the second ussan edton and
wth added notes by Prof. . . rsch.
compete rewrtng of the frst, and aready
famous, ussan edton.
Parta ontents: Part one: The ements of
Group Theory. hap. . Defnton. . ubgroups
( ystems, ycc Groups, scendng e uences of
Groups). . orma ubgroups. . ndomor-
phsms and utomorphsms. Groups wth pera-
tors. . eres of ubgroups. Drect Products.
Defnng eatons, etc. Part two : bean Groups.
. Foundatons of the Theory of bean Groups
(Fnte bean Groups, ngs of ndomorphsms,
bean Groups wth perators). . Prmary
and M ed bean Groups. . Torson-Free
bean Groups. dtor s otes. bography.
o. . Part Three: Group-Theoretca on-
structons. . Free Products and Free Groups
(Free Products wth magamated ubgroup,
Fuy nvarant ubgroups). . Fntey Genera-
ted Groups. . Drect Products. attces (Modu-
ar, ompete Moduar, etc.). . tensons of
Groups (of bean Groups, of on-commutatve
Groups, ohomoogy Groups). Part Four: ov-
abe and potent Groups. . Fnteness on-
dtons, yow ubgroups, etc. . ovabe
Groups ( ovabe and Generazed ovabe Groups,
oca Theorems). . potent Groups (Genera-
zed, ompete, ocay potent Torson-Free,
etc.). dtor s otes. bography.
o. . 2nd ed. 1959. 271 pp. 9. 107 4.95
o. . 2nd ed. 19 0. 308 pp. 9. 109 4.95
D FF T D T G U U
y . D U
andau s spar ng nfhrung n ngsh trans-
aton. ompetey rgorous, competey sef-
contaned, borrowng not even the fundamenta
theorem of agebra (of whch t gves a rgorous
eementary proof), t deveops the entre cacuus
ncudng Fourer seres, startng ony wth the
propertes of the number system. masterpece of
rgor and carty.
2nd ed. 9 0. 372 pp. 9. 78 .00
M T T
y . D U
nterest s ensted at once and sustaned by the
accuracy, s , and enthusasm wth whch andau
marshas . . . facts and smpfes . . . detas.
G. D. r hoff, uetn of the . M. .
1927. v 180 v pp. 5 /2 8/4. 2 3.50
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T F
U G U T
y . D U
The varous sectons of ths mportant wor
( ddtve, naytc, Geometrc, and gebrac
umber Theory) can be read ndependenty of one
another.
o. Pt. 2. ( ddtve umber Theory) 180 pp. o.
. ( naytca umber Theory and Geometrca umber Theory)
v 308 pp. o. . ( gebrac umber Theory and Fermat s
ast Theorem) v 341 pp. 8 /4. ( o. , Pt. s ssued
as ementary umber Theory.) rgnay pub. at 2 .40
32 Three vos, n one 14.00
M T UM T
y . D U
The present wor s a transaton of Prof. an-
dau s famous ementare ahentheore, wth
added e ercses by Prof. Pau T. ateman.
Part ne. Foundatons of umber Theory. .
Dvsors. . Prme umbers, Prme Factorza-
ton. . D. . umber-theoretc Func-
tons. . ongruences. . uadratc esdues.
. Pe s uaton. Part Two. run s Theorem
and Drchet s Theorem. Part Three. Decompo-
ston nto Two, Three, and Four uares. .
Farey Fractons. . Dec. nto 2 uares. . Dec.
nto 4 uares. . Dec. nto 3 uares. Part
Four. ass umbers of nary uadratc Forms.
. asses of Forms. . Fnteness of ass
umber. . Prmary epresentaton ... .
Gaussan ums ... . Fna Formuas for ass
umber.
ercses for Parts ne, Two, and Three.
1958. 25 pp. 9. 125 4.95
FU U G D M T U D
T T D
G U D D D
y . D U
2nd ed. v 147 pp. 5 /2 8. 2 2.95
G U D G D
y . D U
The student who wshes to study mathematca
German w fnd andau s famous Grundagen der
nayss deay suted to hs needs.
ny a few score of German words w enabe
hm to read the entre boo wth ony an occasona
gance at the ocabuary ompete German-
ngsh vocabuary, prepared wth the novce
especay n mnd, has been appended to the boo .
3rd ed. 19 0. 173 pp. 5 8. 24 oth 3. 0
141 Paper 1.95
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T F
F U D T F
y . D U
ertany no cearer treatment of the foundatons
of the number system can be offered. . . . ne can
ony be than fu to the author for ths fundamenta
pece of e poston, whch s ave wth hs vtaty
and genus. . F. tt, mer. Math. Monthy.
2nd ed. 9 0. 9. 79 3.50
D U D D
T U G D P M
y . D U
To andau s monumenta wor on prme-number
theory there has been added, n ths edton, two of
andau s papers and an up-to-date gude to the
wor : an ppend by Prof. Pau T. ateman.
2nd ed.. 1953. 1,028 pp. 5 8 . 9 13.95
U
y . D U, . M , and .
ee: ey- andau- emann.
M M U T D T M
D U T D FF T
, os. , ,
y . . PP -D f
Three voumes n one.
ome of the chapter ttes are: Genera theory of
functons of matrces naytc theory of matrces
Probem of Poncare ystems of e uatons n
neghborhood of a poe naytc contnuaton n-
tegra e uatons and ther appcaton to the theory
of near dfferenta e uatons emann s prob-
em etc.
The theory of systems of near dfferenta
e uatons s treated wth eegance and generaty
by the author, and hs contrbutons consttute an
mportant addton to the fed of dfferenta e ua-
tons. pped Mechancs evews.
3 voumes bound as one. 89 pp. 51/4 81/4. 94 10.00
T P G
y . F T
T T : . ementary ombnatora
Theory of ompe es. . Topoogca nvarance
of omoogy haracters. . Manfods and ther
Duaty Theorems. . ntersectons of hans
on a Manfod. . Product ompe es. . Trans-
formatons of Manfods, ther oncdences, F ed
Ponts. . nfnte ompe es. . ppca-
tons to naytca and gebrac aretes..
2nd ed. ( orr. repr. of 1st ed ). 410 pp. 51/4 81/4.
11 4.95
G
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T F
FU T F
FU T F MP
y . F. G D
T UM .
e-organzed courses, systematc, ucd, fun-
damenta, wth many bref sets of approprate
e ercses, and occasona suggestons for more e -
tensve readng. The technca terms have been
ept to a mnmum, and have been ceary e -
paned. The am has been to deveop the student s
power and to furnsh hm wth a substanta body
of cassc theorems, whose proofs ustrate the
methods and whose resuts provde e upment for
further progress. uetn of . M.
7 pp. 5 8. 2 vos, n 1. 124 4.95
D D TT U
y . P
oth the rthmetc Theory and the ntfytc
Theory are treated fuy.
n ndspensabe wor . . . Perron remans the
best gude for the novce. The stye s smpe and
precse and presents no dffcutes.
Mathematca Gazette.
2nd ed. 53 pp. 51/4 8. 73 5.95
T
y . P
Methods of ntroducng rratona numbers
( auchy, ozano, eerstrass, Dede nd, antor,
Meray, achman, etc.) ystematc fractons, con-
tnued fractons, antor s seres and agorthm,
roth s and nge s seres, antor s products.
ppro matons, ronec er theorem, gebrac
ana transcendenta numbers (ncudng transcen-
dency proofs for e and t ouve numbers, etc.)
2nd cd. 1939. 207 pp. 51/4 8 /4. 147 oth 3.25
3 Paper 1.50
G T-P T F
T G M T FU T
y . P T
th an append on the computaton to twenty
decma paces.
ppro . 950 pp. 8 11. 1541 n prep.
U M FU T
y T. D
( rgeb. der Math.) 1937. v 5 pp. 5/2 8/2. 0 2.00
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#
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T F
T G M T F
T D M
y G. M
rch and detaed treatment by the author of
onc ectons, gher Pane urves, etc.
eventh edton. ( . 1). 49 pp. 5 8. 1 22 4.95
T DU T T M D G
D M T T
y . and . P
n ngsh transaton of the revoutonary wor ,
nfuhrung n de naytsche Geometre und
gebra. hapter eadngs: . ffne pace. near
uatons. ( ector paces). . ucdean pace.
Theory of Determnants. . The Theory of Feds.
Fundamenta Theorem of gebra. . ements
of Group Theory. . Matrces and near Trans-
formatons. The treatment of matrces s especay
e tensve.
utstandng . . . good ntroducton . . . we
suted for use as a te t. .. ef-contaned and each
topc s pansta ngy deveoped.
Mathematcs Teacher.
econd ed. 1959. v 378 pp. 80 .00
P T G M T F n D M
y . and . P
Transated from the German by avn . ogers.
te tboo on the anaytc pro ectve geometry
of n dmensons whose carty and e pctness of
presentaton can hardy be surpassed.
utabe for a one-semester course on the senor
undergraduate or frst-year graduate eve. The
bac ground re ured s mnma: The defnton
and smpest propertes of vector spaces and the
eements of matr theory. For the reader ac ng
ths bac ground, sutabe reference s made to the
uthors companon voume ntroducton to Mod-
ern gebra and Matr Theory.
There are e ercses at the end of each chapter
to enabe the student to test hs mastery of the
matera.
hapter eadngs : . 7-Dmensona Pro ectve
pace. . Genera Pro ectve oordnates. .
yperpane oordnates. The Duaty Prncpe.
. The ross ato. . Pro ectvtes. . near
Pro ectvtes of P onto tsef. . orreatons.
. ypersurfaces of the econd rder. .
Pro ectve assfcaton of ypersurfaces of the
econd rder. . Pro ectve Propertes of yper-
surfaces of the econd rder. . The ffne
assfcaton of ypersurfaces of the econd r-
der. . The Metrc assfcaton of yper-
surfaces of the econd rder.
19 1. 208 pp. 9.
12 4.95
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T F
TU T G T F
T G FU T
y G.
1923 208 pp. 5 8. 5 3.50
G UPP
T F M T
y . D D
( rgeb. der Moth. 1935. 94 pp. 8 / . 45 2.50
U D G
y .
The bbe of cassca agebra, st unsurpassed for
ts carty and competeness. Much of the matera
on eptc functons s not avaabe esewhere n
connected form.
Parta ontents: . . hap. . atona
Functons. . Determnants. . oots of ge-
brac uatons. . ymmetrc Functons. .
near Transformatons. nvarants. . Tchrn-
haus Transformaton. . eaty of oots. .
turm s Theorem. . mts on oots. . ppro -
mate omputaton of oots. . ontnued Frac-
tons. . oots of Unty. . Gaos Theory.
. ppcatons of Permutaton Group to
uatons. . ycc uatons. . reste-
ung. . gebrac outon of uatons.
. oots of Metacycc uatons.
. . haps. .- . Group Theory. .- .
Theory of near Groups. .- . ppcatons
of Group Theory (Genera uaton of Ffth De-
gree. The Group Gm and uatons of eventh
Degree . . .). .- . gebrac umbers.
. Transcendenta umbers.
. . hap. . ptc ntegra. . Theta
Functons. . Transformaton of Theta Functons.
. ptc Functons. . Moduar Functon. .
Mutpcaton of ptc Functons. Dvson. .
uatons of Transformaton. . Groups of the
Transformaton uatons and the uaton of
Ffth Degree... .- . uadratc Feds. .
ptc Functons and uadratc Forms. .
Gaos Group of ass uaton. . omputa-
ton of ass nvarant. . . . ayey s Deveop-
ment of Moduar Functon. . ass Feds.
.- . gebrac Functons. . ge-
brac and bean Dfferentas.
eady, Fa, 1. 3rd ed. ( . repr. of 2nd ed.. 2,345 pp. 5 8.
144 Three vo. set. Probaby 19.50
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2 3
.M32
.
MacDuffee
The theory of matrces
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Thoery of Matrices Mac Duffee

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G

. Matrces, rrays and Determnants.

y the apace deveopment, the determnant of ths matr s seen

may be wrtten - D. Then

. chesnger1 defned the ntegra

determnant of nfnte order s sad to be absoutey convergent f n

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