Newford Bronze Age Cremation Pyre and Burnt Mound

N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site E2437, a
Bronze Age cremation pyre and burnt mound in the townland of
Newford, Co. Galway

Date: March 2008
Client: Galway County Council
Project code: NGB05
By: Brendon Wilkins
Ministerial Direction no.: A024/2
Excavation no.: E2437
Director: Brendon Wilkins
Chainage: 14810 – 14840 & 15120 ‐ 15140
NGR: 149078/226736 (Area A) & 149255/226484 (Area B)

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N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site E2437, a
Bronze Age cremation pyre and burnt mound in the townland of
Newford, Co. Galway

Date: March 2008
Client: Galway County Council
Project code: NGB05
By: Brendon Wilkins
Ministerial Direction no.: A024/2
Excavation no.: E2437
Director: Brendon Wilkins
Chainage: 14810 – 14840 & 15120 ‐ 15140
NGR: 149078/226736 (Area A) & 149255/226484 (Area B)

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CONTENTS PAGE

1 Summary 4

2 Introduction 5

3 Site description and location 5

4 Aims and methodology 5

5 Results 6
Area A 6
Area B 10
Site Natural Soil Profile 11

6 Discussion Area A 12
Area B 15
7 Archive 16

List of Tables

Table 1. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Leinster showing number of burials, minimum
number of individuals and average burial weight in grams
Table 2. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Carlow Bypass project, also excavated by
Headland Archaeology Ltd. showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals and
average burial weight in grams
Table 3. Pyre site from Newford (excluding pyre feature) showing number of burials, minimum
number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Site location
Figure 2 Register of Monuments and Places extract
Figure 3 Area A: Overall site plan
Figure 4 Area A: Plan of pyre (1004)
Figure 5 Area A: Sections of pyre (1004)
Figure 6 Area A: Plan & section of post‐hole (1058)
Figure 7 Area A: South facing section of marker post‐hole (1103)
Figure 8 Area B: Overall site plan
Figure 9 Area B: Plan & section of trough (2005)
Figure 10 Area A: Prehistoric pottery

List of Plates

Plate 1 Area A: Working shot with (1005) in foreground and (1004) behind
Plate 2 Area A: Post‐excavation with (1004) to the left and (1005) on the right
Plate 3 Area A: South‐facing section of post‐hole (1018)
Plate 4 Area A: North‐west facing section of post‐hole (1024)
Plate 5 Area A: South‐east facing section of post‐hole (1033)
Plate 6 Area A: East‐facing section of post‐hole (1058)
Plate 7 Area A: South‐facing section of marker post‐hole (1103)
Plate 8 Area A: South‐facing section of marker post‐hole (1137)
Plate 9 Area A: Post‐excavation of marker post‐hole (1103)
Plate 10 Area A: Post‐excavation of marker post‐hole (1137)
Plate 11 Area A: North‐facing section of pyre (1004)
Plate 12 Area A: East‐facing section of pyre (1004)
Plate 13 Area A: Detail of pyre (1004) showing cremated bone in (1104)
Plate 14 Area A: Post‐excavation of pyre (1004)
Plate 15 Area A: South‐east facing section of pit (1005)
Plate 16 Area A: North‐east facing section of pit (1111)
Plate 17 Area B: West‐facing section of trough (2005)
Plate 18 Area B: Pre‐excavation of burnt mound (2004)

Appendices

Appendix 1 Context register
Appendix 2 Sample register
Appendix 3 Finds register
Appendix 4 Photograph register
Appendix 5 Drawing register
Appendix 6 Lithics report by Torben Bjarke Ballin
Appendix 7 Faunal remains report by Auli Tourunen
Appendix 8 Soil sample assessment by Susan Lyons
Appendix 9 Human remains report by Carmelita Troy
Appendix 10 Pottery report by Eoin Grogan and Helen Roche
Appendix 10 Site matrix

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1 Summary

This report presents the results of archaeological investigations carried out on behalf of Galway
County Council as part of Contract 2 archaeological investigations prior to the commencement of
construction on the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme. The work was undertaken under
ministerial direction number A024/2, in the townland of Newford, Co. Galway. The Minister for
the Environment, Heritage & Local Government, following consultation with the National
Museum of Ireland, directed that Brendon Wilkins of Headland Archaeology Ltd should proceed
with Phase II full manual investigation.

Contract 2 pre‐construction testing under ministerial direction number A024/2 on this site in 2005
identified two separate areas of archaeological potential on the basis of negative cut features and
associated in situ burning visible in the base of test trenches. Limited investigation of these
features confirmed their status as archaeological, and these separate areas were subsequently
designated Area A and Area B with recommendations for full excavation of all features to
ascertain the character, significance and extent of archaeological deposits.

Full archaeological investigation was conducted on this site in February 2006. This revealed a
Bronze Age funerary pyre with possible cremation cemetery and associated structural and
marker post‐holes in Area A. In Area B a Bronze Age burnt mound and associated trough were
revealed.

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2 Introduction

Works are being carried out along the route of the proposed N6 Galway to East of Ballinasloe
national road scheme, between the townlands of Doughiska in County Galway and Beagh in
County Roscommon. The proposed road will consist of approximately 56 km of dual
carriageway, a 7 km link road from Carrowkeel to Loughrea and approximately 23 km of side
roads. There will be four grade‐separated junctions, 36 bridges and a toll plaza located at
Cappataggle.

The area of proposed archaeological investigations was divided into four contracts, based on four
sectors of approximately equal extent. The work described here was undertaken under
Archaeological Investigations Contract 2. Contract 2 covered a stretch of road development of
approximately 13.2 km length of dual carriageway and 7km of single carriageway, and passed to
the south of Athenry and Kiltullagh in a generally east‐west direction. The project was funded by
the Irish Government and the European Union under the National Development Plan 2000‐2006.
Headland Archaeology Ltd. was commissioned by Galway County Council to undertake the
works. RPS compiled an Environmental Impact Survey of the route in 2005, and an aerial survey
was also undertaken. A Geophysical survey was conducted by Archaeophysica in 2004. On the
basis of findings from this work Contract 2 Investigations commenced in September 2005.

3 Site description and location

Site E2437 was located approximately 1.5 km south‐west of Athenry. It was located within the
lands previously occupied by Newford House (Ref: GA‐46‐M‐494267 in the National Inventory of
Architectural Heritage). Area A was situated on a relatively flat, well drained elevated area of
land surrounded by gently undulating farmland under permanent pasture. To the south was the
Graigabbey/Lavally river becoming the Clarin river further west. Its position would have been
visible from much of the surrounding undulating landscape. This combination of flat land and
prominence in the landscape may have been highly significant if some of the excavated funerary
features can also be interpreted as monumental features.

Area B was situated within the valley of the river and excavation was complicated by a series of
small springs. Area A was located at NGR 149078/226736 and Area B at NGR 149255/226484.
They were between chainage 14790 and 15150.

4 Aims and methodology

The objective of the work was to preserve by record any archaeological features or deposits in
advance of the proposed road’s construction. Topsoil stripping of the site was conducted using a
360° tracked machine fitted with a 1.9 m wide ditching (toothless) bucket under archaeological
supervision. A total area of 400 sq m was exposed in Area A and 600 sq m in Area B. The
resulting surface was cleaned and all potential features investigated by hand. Archaeological
contexts were recorded by photograph and on record sheets. Plans and sections were drawn at an
appropriate scale. Registers are provided as appendices. Ordnance Datum levels and feature
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locations were recorded using Penmap and an EDM. Environmental samples were taken on any
deposits suitable for analysis or dating.

5 Results

A complex arrangement of features was excavated in Area A, interpreted as a late Bronze Age
funerary site with associated post‐holes and a pyre. A burnt mound was excavated in Area B
adjacent to the fast‐flowing Graigabbey/Lavally River. An exceptionally large trough was
encountered with a shallow layer of upcast burnt stone, but no other associated features were
recorded. Both areas are described below in more detail.

AREA A

The deposit sequence was reasonably homogenous across the entire area with a slight variation
recorded in the unmodified natural subsoil. The site was covered by a well humidified mid
brown topsoil extending to an average depth of 0.3 m. This deposit overlay a glacially derived till
consisting of fine mid yellow clay and a band of white sandy clay which extended across the site
in a north‐west/south‐east direction.

The total number of recorded features in Area A amounted to 73 including the pyre, five pits
(four with burnt bone), 62 post‐holes/stake holes (10 of which contained burnt bone). There were
also two exceptionally large post‐holes and three natural features. In addition to human bone
recovered from cremation pits and post‐holes, a small piece of shell ‐tempered prehistoric pottery
was found as well as six pieces of struck chert. The majority of the features on the site were
discrete and few intercutting relationships could be discerned to assist in site phasing. A large
number of radiocarbon dating estimates were returned from features but these all broadly fell
within the same later Bronze Age date range and could not be used to phase the site at a finer
resolution. As a result of this lack of stratigraphic interpretation features were grouped by
similarity and proximity and are discussed as ‘clusters’ below, based on the assumption that this
also reflects discrete areas of activity.

Radiocarbon dating estimations indicate that all features fell broadly within the same date range,
although the pyre appeared to be the latest, rather than the earliest feature on the site. This
confirmed the pyre as a short‐lived feature represented by a single event, where as the post‐
holes/cremation pits were a complex of features with no structural integrity in plan, but a
structured nature to their construction and deposition nonetheless.

The first cluster was represented by post‐holes and the second by 14 pits/post‐holes containing
very small quantities of burnt bone (burnt bone was observed in one other pit but not in
sufficient quantities to sample). The third cluster was represented by two extremely large marker
posts, and the fourth feature cluster identified was a pyre. A final cluster of undated and
probably natural features was also identified. The pyre was only used once, and cremated human
bone and material from the collapsed superstructure were left in situ in a subsoil pit below,
possibly constructed to aid updraft. The pyre returned second sigma date ranges of (UB‐7484) 729
± 177 cal BC and (UB‐7406) 669 ± 129 cal BC, and second sigma date ranges from cremation pits of
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(UB‐7399) 1054 ± 133 cal BC, (UB‐7401) 1114 ± 196 cal BC and (UB‐7402) 1010 ± 102 cal BC. The
pyre was a short‐lived feature and represented a single event.

Post‐holes

Sixty‐two post‐/ stake‐holes were located on site. These varied in size from 0.11 m to 0.75 m,
although the widest of these had probably been disturbed, making the measurements
misleading. The average diameter was 0.28 m, as was the average depth. Depth otherwise varied
between 0.08 m to 0.5 m with one unusually deep post‐hole measuring 0.9 m (1172). The fills
varied but were generally fine or silty and often had charcoal inclusions and burnt stone. Ten
post‐hole features (1024), (1039), (1058), (1087), (1090), (1098) (1100), (1121), (1133) and (1161) all
contained burnt bone, but not in large enough quantities to be clearly identified as definitely
being human. Two post‐hole features (1039) and (1064) also contained small amounts of cereal
grain, and feature (1100) contained carbonised hazelnut shell recovered during environmental
processing. One piece of chert was found in post‐hole (1121), identified as a secondary
indeterminate flake of black chert of which the platform edge had been trimmed (Ballin 2006). A
single rim sherd of shell‐tempered ware pottery was recovered from post‐hole feature (1006). A
radiocarbon date of (UB7399) 1187‐921 cal BC was also recovered from this context. Charcoal
originating from oak in the fill of post‐hole (1058) was dated to (UB‐7401) 1114‐918 cal BC and a
further sample recovered from post‐hole (1161) dated to (UB‐7403) 1121‐925 cal BC. A second
sigma radiocarbon date of (UB‐7400) 1132‐971 cal BC for was also obtained for post‐hole feature
(1009).

A southwest/northeast orientation of post‐holes to the south of the site suggested a possible
structure comprising post‐hole features (1021), (1018), (1021), (1030) and (1035). A second
structure may have been located in the centre of the site consisting of post‐hole features (1062),
(1064), (1085), (1092), (1096), (1105) and (1119). The dimensions of these post‐holes and the
composition of all fills are detailed in Appendix 1.

Marker posts

Two exceptionally large post‐holes were prominent on the site, both in excess of 1.5 m in
diameter and over 1 metre in depth. The posts seemed to have been removed in antiquity and a
shallow burnt deposit containing animal bone placed in the void. Sub‐circular post‐hole feature
(1103) had a gradual break of slope at the top and a flat base. It was 1.7 m wide, 1.6 m deep and
contained a packing deposit (1110) with frequent small and medium sized stones and silty sand.
A secondary fill (1109) had formed above this and a further deposit (1108) had formed in the
space created by the removal of an exceptionally large post and comprised a mixed deposit of
packing stones and silt. The final deposit was (1107) which contained a piece of animal bone.

Sub‐oval post‐hole feature (1137) was 1.8 m wide and 1.33 m deep and it contained four separate
fills. The primary deposit (1142) consisted of small and large stones with some mid grey‐brown
sand intended to act as packing material. A brown‐black fine silt (1141) appeared to have settled
into the void impression of a removed post. A further deposit (1140) was between 0.08 and 0.15 m
deep and associated with the removal of this post was a grey black silt with frequent small stone
inclusions. A fine grey‐black silt deposit (1139) was 0.12 m deep and appeared to be a
deliberately placed deposit once the main post had been removed.
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Pits

Three pits were located within Area A, including large pit feature (1050) which contained burnt
bone, 1.2 m long east‐west, 0.6 m wide and between 0.08 and 0.28 m deep. It was filled by a, black
charcoal rich deposit (1051) comprising loose silty sand which contained pieces of charcoal, three
burnt stones, and several pieces of a red burnt material, possibly clay or daub, and a very small
fragment of burnt bone that disintegrated on recovery.

An oval shallow feature (1068) was no more than 0.15 m deep but 3.5 m long and 2 m wide. It
was filled by a mid brown sandy silt deposit (1068) with occasional small stone inclusions and
extended to a depth of 0.15 m. The secondary deposit (1069) was dark brown‐black charcoal rich
sandy silt. It contained pieces of charcoal, an animal tooth and burnt bone. A radiocarbon date
recovered from this context produced a two sigma range at (UB‐7402) 1089‐908 cal BC.

A shallow pit feature (1177) was identified to the north of pit large pit feature (1005). It was 1 m
long, 0.75 m wide and no more than 0.80 m deep. It contained a black charcoal deposit (1180)
with no inclusions, and a red‐black, loose silty sand (1179) no more than 0.4 m deep containing
some charcoal, occasional burnt stones and bone.

Pyre

A large sub‐rectangular pyre pit (1004) was located within the centre of the site, dug into the
yellow sand natural (1003). The pyre had slightly irregular vertical sides and a flat but slightly
irregular base sloping towards the south‐west. It was 2.6 m in length NW‐SE, 2 m in width and
0.75 m deep. An area of iron pan and spilling of the fill was located to the west and the iron pan
was also incorporated throughout the fills. It is likely to have formed after the abandonment and
filling of the feature although it may explain invisible changes in the contexts. The pyre truncated
a post‐hole, (1131) that may have marked the location of the intended pyre.

A dark grey silty sand of loose compaction with occasional stones (1155) was the uppermost
deposit of the pyre. It was a maximum of 0.13m thick and extended approximately 2m by 2.1m in
width. The main fill (1156) contained much iron panning and a grey to mid brown or dark grey
colour depending on its position in relation to the iron panning; the grey‐brown colour was
immediately related to the streaks of iron pan. It was a silty sand and varied from being of loose
to moderate compactions. It contained frequent stones particularly towards the base and
occasional burnt bone close to the cremation deposit (1104) but also occasional animal bone
throughout. It was 0.45 m to 0.6 m thick. The faunal remains were mostly unidentifiable but did
contain pig tibia, red deer antler and sheep or goat teeth, all of which are consistent with recovery
from cremation deposits (Tourunen 2007). Cremated bone from deposit (1156) produced a date
range at two sigma of (UB‐7406) 694‐540 cal BC.

A deposit observed to contain cremated bone (1104) was a lens within deposit (1156). It was a
dark black‐grey silty sand of loose compaction with frequent burnt bone concentrated within an
area to the eastern edge of the pyre and was 0.04 m to 0.17 m thick. Cremated bone from this lens
was radiocarbon dated to (UB‐7484) 814‐748 cal BC.
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The lower fill of the pyre was a mid grey silty sand of loose compaction (1157) and contained
frequent charcoal and occasional burnt bone. It was a maximum of 0.1m thick and may be the
result of burning in situ due to the frequent charcoal. The faunal remains were unidentifiable
(Tourunen 2007). This fill also contained metallic material identified during environmental
processing but its origin could not be determined (Lyons 2007).

Hollows within the base of the pyre were filled by mid brown silty sand (1158) of loose
compaction with frequent charcoal. It was 0.05 m to 0.14 m thick and was very similar to (1157),
likely to formed as a direct result of burning. It contained carbonised hazelnut shell recovered
from the environmental processing (Lyons 2007). This fill was also concentrated around the area
where the post‐hole (1131) was truncated by the pyre. The edge of the pyre was lined by burnt
soil (1159). It was a light red to brown silt of moderate compaction with frequent charcoal. It was
0.01 m to 0.02 m thick but in some places faded out. It was clearly burning in situ but may have
been ‘cleaned out’ in some areas. A further fill of light grey‐brown silty sand of loose compaction
(1160) was associated with the post‐hole (1131). It was 0.09 m thick and could simply be
disturbed natural affected by leaching from the pyre fills. To the west of the pyre was a white
grey silty sand (1181). It was 0.04 m to 0.13 m thick and was within the iron panning to the west
of pyre. It was possibly the result of chemical processes connected to the iron panning or burning
within the pyre. An oval post‐hole (1172) was associated with the iron panning to the west of the
pyre with near vertical sides and a concave base. It was 0.12 m by 0.11 m in width and 0.09 m
deep filled by mid grey silty sand (1173) with very occasional charcoal.

A post hole (1131) was truncated by the pyre to the north‐western end of the pyre and was
partially preserved in its full depth at the edge of it. It was sub‐circular with near vertical sides
and a concave base. It was approximately 0.45 m in diameter and 0.47 m deep with the majority
of the post‐hole survived to 0.18 m in depth below the base of the pyre. The single fill of post‐
hole (1131) was a dark yellow to light brown silty sand (1132) with occasional charcoal flecks.

Natural features

An irregularly shaped pit feature (1005) was 2 m wide and 4 m long. The sides and base were
irregular due to bioturbation, probably a result of burrowing animals. This feature contained
seven fills (listed sequentially from (1143) to (1149)), of which the uppermost was a mid yellow‐
brown silty sand 0.2 m thick. It contained some oyster shell, anthracite and burnt animal bone.
None of the fills contained any finds or charcoal. All details regarding dimensions and
compaction of fills are listed in Appendix 1.

A sub‐circular pit (1164) also truncated pit (1005). It had sharp breaks of slope at the surface,
gradual sides and a concave base. It was 1.7 m in diameter and 0.5 m deep and contained mid
yellow‐brown loose silty sand (1166) and (1165) with occasional small stones and some finds of
chert. A possible tree bole (1167) also truncated pit feature (1005). The pit had a vertical side and
a concave base and had two fills. The basal fill (1169) contained one chert flake and upper fill and
(1168) contained many pieces of charcoal but no evidence of burning in situ. A further three pits
contained nothing of archaeological significance. Pit feature (1111) contained four deposits;
(1118), (1117), (1116) and (1115), a dark brown black loose, charcoal rich material but no finds. Pit
feature (1150) abutted pit feature (1005) and contained four deposits, namely (1154), (1153), (1152)
and (1151). Pit feature (1176) was located on the north‐west side of natural feature (1005) and it
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contained fills (1174) and (1175). The dimensions and compositions of all these features and fills
are listed in Appendix 1.

AREA B

Area B was located close to the Graigabbey/Lavally River on the western bank of a sweeping
meandering curve. The site was set within a slight depression in the natural subsoil and was
likely to have been severely truncated. Alluvial sediment (2001) comprised much of the deposit
profile to a depth of 0.50 m with fine silty topsoil (2000) formed above this to a depth of 0.80 m.
The natural grey clay (2002) contained a series of three small springs encountered during
excavation of a trough (2005). A small burnt mound extending to a maximum depth of 0.3 m was
excavated in this area. It was associated with a very deep trough but no other features were
found. The dimensions were approximately 12 m NE/SW by 5 m NW/SE. The mound was oval in
plan and comprised black silty gritty sand of loose compaction and 80% heat‐shattered stones.
The burnt mound was excavated in quadrants to leave a cruciform baulk to aid recording. This
revealed a trough in the south‐west quadrant which measured 4 m x 4 m and was 1.35 m deep. A
small shallow pit (2017) filled with burnt mound material was excavated in the eastern corner of
the excavation. Its function is unknown; no finds were recovered from this feature or the rest of
the site.

Burnt mound

A small burnt mound (2004) extended to a maximum depth of 0.30 m, it was concentrated within
a depression of the natural and it is likely that its height had been severely truncated. It had also
been extended into a series of holes due to subsequent root activity making it up to 0.60 m deep
occasionally. It was an oval shape in plan, approximately 12 m NE/SW by 5 m. The material of
the burnt mound was a black silty gritty sand of loose compaction with frequent charcoal. It was
comprised of about 80% burnt heat‐shattered stones. A trough (2005) was revealed in the SW
quadrant.

Trough

The trough measured approximately 4 m in width by 4 m in length and was excavated to a depth
of 1.35 m. It was sub‐rectangular in plan although the south‐western corner bulged outwards and
the north‐west corner was slightly irregular. At least three fast‐flowing springs fed a continual
supply of water to the trough once the fill had been excavated to a depth of about 1 m. The south‐
western portion had near vertical sides with a stepped north‐western corner and a boulder may
have been used to aid access.

The basal fill of the trough (2006) may have functioned as a form of clay lining. It was present in
the base of the trough and extended up the sides. It included two pieces of burnt animal bone
identified as large mammal vertebrae, one of which possibly came from a red deer (Tourunen
2007). Large fragments of charcoal up to 0.03 m in size were localised around these animal bones.
In other places this deposit was disturbed and mixed with the natural subsoil, which is likely to
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have been a result of natural springs in the base of the trough. A bright orange‐red gritty sand
(2012) was above this deposit. It was 0.30 m deep and did not contain charcoal, the colour of the
fill most likely a result of iron pan. A shallow white gritty sand layer (2013) was recorded above
this. It contained no inclusions and may represent an abandonment of the trough with sediment
accumulating as a result of spring action before the burnt mound material slumped into the
trough. A burnt stone deposit filled the trough and was black silty gritty sand (2004) rich in
charcoal with large amounts of burnt heat‐shattered stones. This represents a collapse of the
burnt mound material into the trough rather than the final use of the trough. A radiocarbon date
was recovered from a carbonised hazelnut shell, Corylus Avellana, and returned a date of (UB‐
7404) 3630‐3380 cal BC. Above this deposit a compacted layer of grey red sand (2011) was
identified with large concentrations of metallic material recovered from environmental sampling.
This was interpreted as iron panning debris and this correlates with the on‐site interpretation of
the context (Lyons 2007). A thin white gritty sand layer (2012) was above and had no finds or
inclusions. Directly above this was a red silty gritty sand (2009) which contained plenty of heat
affected stones. A white gritty sand layer (2008) overlay this layer, and the uppermost fill (2007)
was similar. It was similar to the alluvial silts covering much of the lower parts of the site and
probably accumulated in the depression remaining of the trough.

Other features

A small pit (2017) filled by burnt mound material was an outlying feature in the eastern part of
the site, indicating that activity on the site was not just localised to one area. This would seem to
suggest that the burnt mound once occupied a much larger area. A grey‐black silt of moderate
compaction with frequent charcoal and 10% stones (2018) filled the pit. The purpose of the pit
was not clear and it is likely that the fill slumped in from the burnt mound. The environmental
sampling of this fill revealed metallic material likely to be iron panning debris (Lyons 2007).

Site natural soil profile

The topsoil extended to a depth of 0.20 m and was grey brown silty clay (1000). The subsoil was
light grey brown sandy silt (1001) and extended to 0.46 m below the surface. The unmodified
natural subsoil comprised a glacially derived grey, gravel subsoil layer (1002), with an additional
band of yellow, sandy natural subsoil (1003) running west‐east across Area A (the variation may
not have been noticeable from above the surface unless this also affected vegetation). Natural pit
feature (1005) was located on the boundary of the two variations in natural and it is likely that
this had an impact on the morphology of what was probably a water‐filled feature.

On the basis of radiocarbon dating estimations, both the cremation cemetery and funerary pyre at
Newford have been attributed to the final stages of the late Bronze Age or the ‘Urnfield period’.

6. Discussion

Area A

Prior to this period, mortuary archaeology in many parts of Europe was characterised by the
deposition of individual skeletal remains in pits and cists, either below mounds of earth and
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stone or in flat cemeteries. Although the evidence is far from homogenous and regional trends
proliferate, the general change in burial practice is considered to reflect changes in attitudes and
belief as well as wider social and political changes relating to the role of the individual (Bruck
1995, 260). The rites associated with funerary practice gradually altered in emphasis from the
mode and place of burial to the event of the funeral itself. This trend began in the middle Bronze
Age, where objects once deposited as grave goods with the dead began to be deposited in watery
locations as an alternative strategy of demonstrating status and control of wealth (Bradley 1990,
197).

The complex arrangement of features excavated at Newford represented a pyre and a series of
structural post‐holes, some of which contained burnt bone that may have been deliberately
deposited as part of final burial rites. Pyre sites are rarely found adjacent to prehistoric cremation
burials, and very few have been identified from Bronze Age Irish contexts in general (McKinley
1994b; Waddell 1990). Of the 73 recorded features relating to the cemetery phase, there were:

• five pits (four with burnt bone)
• forty‐four post‐holes/stake‐holes (seven of which contained burnt bone)
• eighteen post‐holes/stake holes with multiple fills (three of which contained burnt bone).

The small quantity of cremated bone recovered from 14 of these features amounted to just 3% of
the overall cremated bone recovered from the site. If these deposits of bone were deliberate, they
were likely to have been token burials, placed into pits or post‐holes. Alternatively, the miniscule
quantities of bone recovered from post‐holes may have been a secondary deposition of wind
blown burnt material from the later pyre, although the composition of charcoal‐rich primary fills
argues against this interpretation.

The small samples of human remains recovered from Newford may be a general factor of
contemporary burial practice. The Irish funerary sequence is well represented in the early and
middle Bronze Age, but formal burial sites from the late Bronze Age are far less common and
difficult to identify (Cooney and Grogan 1999, 145). When these traditions came to an end the
archaeological visibility of funerary remains diminished and other less detectable means of
disposal were adopted, with the possibility that only a small number of the population were
afforded formal burial. The known burials in the late Bronze Age were predominantly
cremations, often representing only a token deposit of cremated bone and pyre debris placed into
a small pit. The lack of material remains could indicate that portions of the cremated bone were
used in an extended ceremonial mortuary ritual with only a small quantity finally placed in the
grave (Waddell 2000, 161). While this can account for the composition of charcoal rich fills from
all bone bearing post‐holes, deposits that were potentially derived from pyre debris, the lack of
burnt bone compared with similarly dated cemeteries remains to be explained. The tables below
contrast amounts of burnt bone recovered from similarly dated cremation cemeteries with
quantities recovered from Newford.

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Site No Burials MNI Average Burial Weight (g)
Brownstown, Co. Kildare 2 2 1375
Graney West, Co. Kildare 1 1 1202
Oldtown, Co. Kildare 1 1 408
Strawhall, Co. Carlow 3 3 1088
Edmonstown, Co. Dublin 13 16 392
Keenogue, Co. Meath 5 5 438
Total 24 28 553

Table 1. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Leinster showing number of burials,
minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

Ballyhade, Co. Kildare 5 5 360
Busherstown (4.17b), Co. Carlow 6 4 181
Busherstown (4.18), Co. Carlow 1 1 691
Moyle Big, Co. Carlow 2 2 345
Ballybannon, Co. Carlow 7 5 150
Ballybar Lower (4.56), Co. Carlow 1 1 54
Total 31 23 293

Table 2. Bronze Age cremation cemeteries from Carlow Bypass project also excavated by
Headland Archaeology Ltd. showing number of burials, minimum number of individuals
and average burial weight in grams

Newford, Co. Galway 6 0 2

Table 3. Pyre site from Newford (excluding pyre feature) showing number of
burials, minimum number of individuals and average burial weight in grams

In addition to the lack of burnt bone recovered from the post‐hole features, further interpretive
issues are presented by the radiocarbon date estimations of these features. The dating framework
for Newford indicates that median date estimations for the pyre phase post‐dated the post‐hole
phase, although date ranges for both phases approximately overlap. This could be a taphonomic
issue, as bone material was dated from the pyre and charcoal from the post‐holes, undermining
direct comparison.

If burnt bone material in post‐holes was residual, it would still make sense of the evidence in
terms of what may be expected from the separate locations of late Bronze Age funerary rites.
Although failure to identify funerary pyres archaeologically may be a factor of preservation, the
practice of cremation and disposal in separate locations is supported ethnographically.
Cremation cemeteries are often discovered with no evidence of associated pyre, and when
funerary pyres are identified they are rarely located near cemeteries.

13
Archaeologists have developed models to understand the diversity of funerary remains using
concepts developed in social anthropology, such as liminality, transition and transformation
(Parker Pearson 1999, 21). The material remains of the dead are often all that survives
archaeologically, but the funerary rites themselves extended beyond the single event when
mortal remains were deposited in the ground, and these rites would have had a powerful effect
in organising the society of the living (Parker Pearson 1999, 22).

Arnold van Gennep (1960) was concerned with rituals relating to the transition from one social or
physical state to another, including marriage, initiation, pregnancy, childbirth and death (ibid).
He developed a tripartite, universalist theory of these ‘rites of passage’, in which the structure of
all were characterised by preliminal rites (rites of separation), liminal rites (transitional stage),
and post‐liminal rites (ceremonies of incorporation into the new state or world). Turner extended
the concept of liminality, suggesting that it was not necessarily fixed to a tripartite ritual
structure, and developing its use as a tool to explain diverse social phenomena from clowns to
patrilineal systems (Turner 1960, 94).

Hertz developed his anthropology of mortuary ritual using evidence from Borneo, Indonesia,
following Durkheim’s special case methodology to comprehend societies that do not see death as
instantaneous (1907; 1960). His analysis followed van Gennep’s tripartite scheme, but
concentrated on death rituals and specifically the intermediary, transitional period. In Borneo the
mortal individual is conceived as neither alive nor dead during this period, and the body has to
undergo more than one rite before the ‘great feast’ that signifies the soul can be incorporated into
the new state.

During the intermediary period the dead body is left to decay, then recovered prior to the feast,
ritually processed, then moved to another location. Hertz interpreted the fate of the body as
reflecting what was conceived as the fate of the soul. Just as the decaying corpse cannot enter the
world of the living, the soul of the dead person cannot enter the society of the dead and is
condemned during the intermediary period to the edge of human habitation. As death destroys
the physical being, it also ruptures the fabric of social relations, and the disembodied spirit
wreaking potential vengeance on the living can be seen as a metaphor for the readjustment that
needs to take place in the community of mourners (Parker Pearson 1999, 22). This framework has
been broadly attributed to other ethnographic funerary practice as a universal scheme, but a
critique of this work has found that while the outward form of ritual maintains similarities,
specific cultural values must be comprehended to grasp the conceptual vitality of each ritual
(Metcalf & Huntington 1991, 111).

The lack of associated settlement evidence indicates that the purpose of the Newrath post‐holes
was primarily funerary, although the relative lack of bone means that characterisation as a
cemetery is problematic. Working with the anthropological model outlined above, different
features may be evidence for both primary and secondary burial rites. A possible function
discussed on site was that they represented structural platforms, and that excarnation may have
been practised. The osteological analysis of the cremated bone has discounted this hypothesis by
demonstrating characteristic dehydration such as horizontal, longitudinal and ‘U’‐shaped
fissuring. This indicates that the body was burnt when there was still flesh and fat attached to the
bone, as opposed to the burning of de‐fleshed, excarnated bones. In a modern crematorium,
14
when the body reaches a temperature of 800°C the fat in the body burns so fiercely that the gas
jets may be switched off (Mays 1998; McKinley 1994; also see Troy 2007).

The two posts (1103 & 1137) were much more substantial than the other post‐holes identified on
site and were interpreted as high standing marker posts. They were 1.5 m in diameter, 1 metre in
depth and positioned 4 metres apart. The stratigraphic sequence indicated that they did not
decay in‐situ, but were removed in antiquity and a shallow burnt deposit containing animal bone
placed in the void. One of the pieces of bone from (1107) recovered from the re‐cut associated
with the marker post (1103) was identified as cattle astragalus. The marker posts at Newford
could have been enlarged versions of the smaller posts at Newford. They were constructed to be
visible from a great distance, which may have also been a reason why they were also deliberately
removed. Fixing the dead in the landscape is a social and political act that can ensure rights to
access and natural resources. In the absence of written records, people began to formulate a sense
of their pasts through oral tradition and encounters with material culture. Marker posts could be
ignored, destroyed or augmented, but whatever choice was made their significance would need
to be interpreted (Bradley 2002, 122). This decision to remove these posts could have been a
deliberate sleight, a co‐option of ancestral power by physically transplanting these imposing
objects to another meaningful place (Pearson 1999,142).

Area B

The burnt mound at Area B was not visible as an upstanding earthwork prior to stripping, but
was situated in a classic position for this type of monument in a meander curve adjacent to the
Graigabbey/Lavally River. It is widely accepted that burnt mounds required a substantial amount
of water and they were invariably located near springs, streams or in marshy areas. The burnt
mound at Newford was no exception. A series of small springs were encountered during
excavation of the trough, which would have continually filled during use. The considerable
depth of the trough, extending to 1.35 m deep, 4 m wide and 4 m long, may also indicate
function.

While it has been established that the function of burnt mound troughs was to boil water
(Waddell 1998, 177), how this water was subsequently used is difficult to ascertain. No specific
artefactual evidence has been identified from this excavation to indicate definitively how the hot
water was used, but the depth of the trough and presence of springs would have made cooking
and washing viable alternatives. Two animal vertebrae recovered from the primary fill of the
trough, one of which was identified as belonging to red dear, indicates that cooking may be the
best interpretation of use. A radiocarbon date was recovered from a carbonised hazelnut shell
from the burnt mound deposit and returned a date of 3639‐3501 cal BC (UB‐7404). This date fits
into the Middle Bronze Age and as such is entirely consistent with dates obtained for other burnt
mounds in Ireland (Brindley & Lanting 1990).

The burnt mound at Area B was moderately small in comparison to the trough and there was
evidence that the trough was modified during the use of the monument to reduce its carrying
capacity for water. The limited extent of upcast stone may also be a factor of the limestone used.
Generally at burnt mound sites the stones would have been used repeatedly but limestone has
been found to be reduced to a situation whereby it can no longer be used after only six episodes
of heating and quenching (Buckley 1990).
15
7 Archive

The site archive is comprised of the following materials:
Item Quantity Quantity

A B Total
Context sheets 202 12 214
Plans 65 2 67
Sections 79 7 86
Photographs 175 19 194
Registers 22 5 27
Notebooks 1

The archive material is contained within one box.

Storage of the archive in a suitable format and location is required in order to provide for any
future archaeological research. The archive is currently stored in the offices of Headland
Archaeology, Unit 1, IDA Industrial Estate, Wallingstown, Little Island, Co. Cork. It is proposed
that following completion of post‐excavation work the archive is deposited with Galway County
Council Archives.

16
References

Ballin, T. 2007. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Report on the lithic assemblage from Site A024/1, A Bronze age cemetery and pyre in the townland of
Newford, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway
County Council.

Bradley, R. 1990. The passage of arms: an archaeological analysis of prehistoric hoards and votive deposits.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bradley, R. 2002. The Past In Prehistoric Societies. London: Routledge.

Bruck, J. 1995. A place for the dead: the role of human remains in Late Bronze Age Britain.
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 61: 245‐277.

Coles, J. M. and Harding, A. F. 1979. The Bronze Age in Europe. London: Thames and Hudson.

Cooney, G and Grogan, E. 1994. Irish Prehistory: a social perspective. Dublin: Wordwell.

Gevjall, N. G. 1969. Cremations. In Brothwell, D and Higgs, E (eds) Science in Archaeology, 2nd Ed.
London: Thames and Hudson.

Harding, A. F. 1994. Reformation in Barbarian Europe, 1300‐600 BC. In Cunliffe, B. (ed.)
Prehistoric Europe: An Illustrated History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hertz, R. 1907. Contribution a une etude sur la representation collective de la mort. Annee
sociologique 10: 48‐137.

Hertz, R. 1960. A Contribution to the Study of the Collective Representation of Death. In Death
and the Right Hand. Translated by R. Needham and C. Needham. New York: Free Press.

McKinley, J. I. 1993.Bone fragment size and weights of bone from modern British cremations and
their implications for the interpretation of archaeological cremations. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology 3: 283‐287.

McKinley, J.I. 1994a. Bone fragment size in British cremation burials and its implications for pyre
technology and ritual. Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 339‐342.

McKinley, J. I. 1994b. The Anglo‐Saxon cemetery at Spong Hill, North Eltham part VIII: the
cremations. East Anglian Archaeology Report 69. Dereham: Field Archaeology Division, Norfolk
Museums Service.

Metcalf, P. and Huntington, R. 1991. Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ó Baoill, R. and Murphy. E. 2000. The Early Bronze Age cist burial at Newtownstewart Castle,
Co. Tyrone. Palaeopathology Newsletter: Irish Section News. 3: 2‐3.

17
O’Kelly, M. J. 1989. Early Ireland: An Introduction to Irish Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Parker Pearson, M. 1993. The powerful dead: archaeological relationships between the living and
the dead. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3: 203‐29.

Parker Pearson, M. 1999. The Archaeology Of Death And Burial. Stroud: Sutton.

Raftery, B. 1994. Iron Age Burials in Ireland. Irish Antiquity. 173‐204

Tourunen, A. 2007. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Report on the faunal remains from Site A024/1, A Bronze age cemetery and pyre in the townland of
Newfordl, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway
County Council.

Troy, C. 2007. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Report on the human remains from Site A024/1, A Bronze age cemetery and pyre in the townland of
Newfordl, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway
County Council.

Turner, V. 1969. The Ritual Process. Chicago: Aldine.

Waddell, J. 1990. The Bronze Age Burials of Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press.

Waddell, J. 2000. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. (2nd Ed.) Bray: Wordwell.

Walker, P L, Miller, K W P, and Richman, R 2006 ‘Time, temperature, and oxygen availability: an
experimental study of the effects of environmental conditions on the colour and organic content
of cremated bone’ Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2‐15.

18
= CPO
Athenry
Contract 1 E2437
Galway
Contract 2
Reproduced from 2002 Ordnance Survey of Ireland 1:50,000 Discovery Series no 46,
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
0 125 m
Figure 1 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Location of excavation area
Reproduced from 1933 Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Second Edition, Six Inch to One Mile map, Galway Sheet 84
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
= CPO
= Excavated Area
0 250 m
Figure 2 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Location of excavation area and RMP extract
1103
1137
1111
1068
1076 1004
1074 pyre
variation in subsoil 1131
1090
1087
variation in subsoil
1119
1172
1064 iron pan
1105 1085 1060
1092
1082 1009
1066 1062 1135
1039 1123
1096
1161 1058
1098
1050
1024
1094 1170 1112

1100
1150
1177 1125
1190
1041
1197
1121 1027
1033 1205
1047
1030 1195
1187
1005 1035 1199
1044
natural pit
1010
1185
1215
1006 1207
1021 1193
1209 1213
1018 1211
1201
1016
1183
1012
1014
0 5m

Area A, Overall site plan
1004
1131
iron mottles
and staining
1087
iron mottles
and staining
0 1.25 m

Area A, Plan of pyre 1004 and intercutting features
E W
1131
1155
1156
1156 iron mottles
iron mottles
iron pan
1004
0 2m
= Location of sections
1157 (triangles point to face of section)
1004
North-facing section of 1004
S N
1001
1155
1156 iron mottles
1160
1104
1156
iron mottles
1156
Key
Charcoal
Burnt bone
1158 Stone
1157 1004
1132
1131
East-facing section of 1004 0 0.5 m

Area A, Section of pyre 1004 and cutting features
S N
1159
1058
East-facing section of 1058
1058
= Location of sections
(triangles point to face of section)
Key
N
Charcoal
Burnt bone
0 0.5 m

Area A, Plan and section of structural post-hole 1058, containing burnt bone and charcoal
W E
Animal
bone
1107
1114
1108
1109
1110
1110
1103
0 0.5 m

Area A, South-facing section of large marker post-hole 1103
natural
hollow trough
2005
pit
2017
extent of burnt
mound material
2003
0 10 m

Area B, Overall site plan
NW SE
2007
2008
2009
2010 2010
2011
2004
2013
2012
N
2005
2006
0 1.5 m 0 1m
Southwest-facing section of 2005
= Location of section
(triangles point to face of section)
2003
natural
hollow
trough
2005
extent of burnt
mound material
2003

Area B, Plan of trough 2005 and southwest-facing section of 2005
Late Bronze Age
domestic vessel
1007:001
0 5 cm

Area A, Prehistoric pottery
Plate 1 - Area A: Working shot of site with natural pit 1005 in the foreground and pyre 1004 behind
Plate 2 - Area A: Post-excavation of site with pyre 1004 to the left and natural pit 1005 on the right
Plate 3 - Area A: South-facing section of post-hole 1018
Plate 4 - Area A: Northwest-facing section of post-hole 1024

Plate 5 - Area A: Southeast-facing section of post-hole 1033
Plate 6 - Area A: East-facing section of post-hole 1058


Plate 9 - Area A: Post-excavation view of post-hole 1103
Plate 10 - Area A: Post-excavation view of post-hole 1137

Plate 11 - Area A: North-facing section of pyre 1004
Plate 12 - Area A: East-facing section of pyre 1004

Plate 13 - Area A: Detail of pyre 1004 showing burnt bone
Plate 14 - Area A: Post-excavation view of pyre 1004

Plate 15 - Area A: Southeast-facing view of pit 1005
Plate 16 - Area A: Northeast-facing section of pit 1111

Plate 17 - Area B: West-facing section of trough 2005
Plate 18 - Area B: Pre-excavation view of 2004

Appendix 1. Context Register

Context Area Type Description Interpretation
Number
1000 2.1A Deposit Topsoil, up to 0.2 m depth. Topsoil.
1001 2.1A Deposit Subsoil, up to 0.26 m depth. Subsoil.
1002 2.1A Deposit Grey silty sand with gravely limestone Natural.
rubble, moderate compaction.
1003 2.1A Deposit Yellow fine sand, soft and loose compaction. Natural.
1004 Area Cut Length (NW/SE) 2.6 m, Width (NE/SW) 2 m, Large pit, probable pyre.
A Depth 0.75 m.
2.1A Sub‐rectangular in plan, steep sides,
irregular base sloping to the south/west.
Contains cremation deposit (1104) and some
in‐situ burning. Filled by (1104), (1155),
(1156), (1157), (1158), (1159), (1160).
Truncates post‐hole (1131). Associated with
expanse of iron‐panning.
1005 2.1A Cut Diameter 2 m, Depth 1 m. Large pit. Probably
Irregular‐circular in plan, irregular sides, originally geological,
irregular base. Affected by root disturbance complicated by root activity
and iron‐panning. Filled by (1143), (1144), and water action. Possibly
(1145), (1146), (1147), (1148), (1149). non‐archaeological.
1006 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.36 m, Depth 0.29 m. Post‐hole.
Circular in plan, steep sides, pointed
concave base. Filled by (1007).
1007 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1006). Fill of post‐hole.
Mid dark brown sandy silt, 10‐15% charcoal,
12 ‘packing stones’, 1 rim sherd shell
tempered pottery, fragments of burnt bone.
Dark brown silty sand, 10% charcoal, 10%
‘packing stones’, moderate compaction.
1009 2.1A Cut Length 0.44 m, Width 0.40 m, Depth 0.25 m. Post‐hole.
Circular in plan, steep stepped sides,
pointed concave base. Filled by (1008).
Circular in plan, steep sides, slightly
Mid dark brown sandy silt, <10% charcoal,
<5% stones.
1012 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.11 m, Depth 0.11 m. Stake‐hole.
Circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base.
Filled by (1013).
19
1013 2.1A Fill Singular fill of stake‐hole (1012). Fill of stake‐hole.
Mid brown sandy silt, <5% grit, loose
compaction.
Circular in plan, steep sides, bluntly pointed
base. Filled by (1015).
compaction.
Circular in plan, steep sides, pointed base.
Filled by (1017).
compaction.
Circular in plan, vertical sides, concave
base. Filled by (1019), (1020).
1019 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1018). Secondary fill of post‐hole.
Diameter 0.10 m, Depth 0.24 m.
Yellow silty sand, no inclusions, loose
compaction.
1020 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1018). Primary fill of post‐hole.
Mid brown sandy silt, several ‘packing
stones’, loose compaction.
Sub‐oval in plan, vertical sides, slightly
concave base. Filled by (1022), (1023).
Diameter 0.15 m, D 0.15 m.
Yellow‐brown silt, no inclusions, loose
compaction.
Mid brown sandy silt, several ‘packing
1024 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.25 m. Large stake‐hole.
Circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base.
Filled by (1025), (1026).
1025 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of large stake‐hole (1024). Secondary fill of large
Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.15 m. stake‐hole. Charcoal rich.
Dark brown‐black silty sand, lumps of
charcoal <0.015 m, flake of burnt bone,
specks of red burnt soil <5%, loose
compaction.
20
1026 2.1A Fill Primary fill of large stake‐hole (1024). Primary fill of large stake‐
Diameter 0.10 m, Depth 0.10 m. hole.
Dark blue‐grey silty sand with clay, <5%
small stones, loose to moderate compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, very steep sides, flat
base. Filled by (1028), (1029).
Light brown‐orange sandy silt, no
inclusions, loose compaction.
Dark brown silt, few ‘packing stones’, loose
compaction.
1030 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.36 m, Depth 0.37 m. Post‐hole. Relationship to
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed post‐hole (1038).
base. Filled by (1031), (1032).
Replaced/cut/truncated by/contemporary
with post‐hole (1038).
1031 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of post‐hole (1030). Secondary fill of post‐hole.
Light orange‐brown sandy silt, no
inclusions, loose compaction.
Dark grey‐brown, some ‘packing stones’,
loose compaction.
1033 2.1A Cut Length (N‐S) 0.30 m, Width (W‐E) 0.27 m, Post‐hole.
Depth 0.235 m.
Sub‐circular in plan, steep slightly stepped
sides, pointed base. Filled by (1034).
Medium brown silty sand, 5% stones, 2%
charcoal flecks, moderate compaction.
Irregular‐circlular in plan, steep irregular
sides, flat base of 0.20 m diameter. Filled by
(1036), (1037).
Light orange‐brown sandy silt, no
inclusions, soft compaction.
Dark grey‐brown silt, some ‘packing
21
1038 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.28 m, Depth 0.45 m. Post‐hole. Relationship to
Sub‐circular in plan, very steep sides, post‐hole (1030)
pointed base. Filled by (1128).
Replaced/cut/truncated by/contemporary
with post‐hole (1030). 0.08m deeper than
(1030).
1039 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.33 m, Depth 0.20 m. Post‐hole. Half‐sectioned
Circular in plan, vertical south/west side, during testing.
45° north/east side, flat base of 0.05 m
diameter. Filled by (1040).
1040 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1039). Fill of post‐hole. Charcoal
Dark black‐brown sandy silt, loose rich. Half‐sectioned during
compaction. Bottom of fill includes patches testing.
of natural (1003).
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, concave
base. Filled by (1042), (1043).
Dark brown silt, no inclusions, soft
compaction.
Diameter 0.30 m, Depth 0.11m.
Dark grey‐brown sandy silt, some stones.
Sub‐oval in plan, steep sides, flat base of
0.10m diameter. Filled by (1045), (1046).
Light orange‐brown silt, no inclusions, soft
compaction.
Mid‐grey sandy silt, some ‘packing stones’,
soft compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed
base. Filled by (1048), (1049).
Mid brown silt, no inclusions, soft
compaction.
Light‐brown silt, some ‘packing stones’, soft
compaction.
22
1050 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 1.2 m, Width 0.60m, Pit / post‐hole. Probably a
Depth 0.28 m. disturbed post‐hole.
Two ovals in plan, east scoop is smaller at
diameter 0.50 m and depth 0.08 m. West pit
is length 0.70 m, width 0.60 m, depth 0.28 m.
East scoop is concave, West pit has fairly
steep sides and concave base. Filled by
(1051).
1051 2.1A Fill Singular fill of pit / post‐hole (1050). Fill of pit / post‐hole.
Black silty sand, lumps of charcoal, heat Charcoal rich.
affected/burnt stone, lumps of burnt soil,
speck of burnt bone, loose to moderate
compaction.
1052 2.1A Cancelled
1053 2.1A Cancelled
1054 2.1A Cancelled
1055 2.1A Cancelled
1056 2.1A Cancelled
1057 2.1A Cancelled
1058 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.43 m, Depth 0.44 m. Post‐hole
Circular in plan, steep sides, concave base of
0.22 m diameter. Filled by (1059).
Mid dark brown sandy silt, few stones,
fragments of burnt bone, pieces of burnt
clay or daub material, loose compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical stepped sides,
narrow concave base. Filled by (1061).
Mid dark brown silty sand, 5‐10% charcoal,
occasional stones (not ‘packing’), loose
compaction.
1062 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.21 m, Depth 0.08 m. Post‐hole. A little dubious.
Circular in plan, shallow sides, flat to
1063 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1062). Fill of dubious post‐hole.
Pale orange‐brown silty sand, occasional
charcoal, loose compaction.
1064 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.19 m, Depth 0.12 m. Post‐hole. A little dubious.
Circular in plan, fairly steep sides, flat to
moderate compaction.
23
Circular in plan, vertical stepped sides,
fairly flat base sloping to south/west of 0.19
m diameter. Filled by (1067).
occasional stones, loose compaction.
1068 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 3.5 m, Width (north‐ Shallow pit. Next to
south) 2 m, Depth 0.15 m. enormous post‐hole (1137).
Oval in plan, irregular shallow sides,
irregular concave base. Includes two small
depressions to north within cut. Filled by
(1069), (1070).
1069 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of shallow pit (1068). Secondary fill of shallow
Dark brown‐black sandy silt, charcoal rich, pit. Charcoal rich.
burnt bone, animal tooth, moderate
compaction.
1070 2.1A Fill Primary fill of shallow pit (1068). Primary fill of shallow pit.
Mid‐brown sandy silt, few stones, sterile fill, Seems sterile.
loose compaction.
1071 2.1A Deposit Grey, stony, gravel, moderate compaction. Natural.
Probably the same as (1002).
1072 2.1A Cancelled
1073 2.1A Cancelled
1074 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.14 m, Depth 0.27 m. Post‐hole. Probably driven
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed so more likely a stake‐hole.
base. Filled by (1075). Next to (1076).
1075 2.1A Fill Singular fill of driven post‐hole (1074). Fill of driven post‐hole.
Mid grey‐brown silt, soft compaction.
1076 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.21 m, Depth 0.20 m. Post‐hole. Next to (1074).
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, concave
Dark grey‐brown silt, soft compaction.
1078 2.1A Cancelled
1079 2.1A Cancelled
1080 2.1A Cancelled
1081 2.1A Cancelled
1082 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.48 m, Width (north‐ Post‐hole. Next to (1085).
south) 0.33 m, Depth 0.35 m.
Oval in plan, steep stepped sides, concave
base. Filled by (1083), (1084).
Dark brown (orange flecked) silty sand, 5%
charcoal, 1% stones, moderately compacted.
24
Medium brown (orange flecked) silty sand,
5% charcoal, some stones, moderately
compacted.
1085 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.21 m, Depth 0.05 m. Shallow post‐hole. Next to
Sub‐circular in plan, shallow sides, concave (1082).
1086 2.1A Fill Singular fill of shallow post‐hole (1085). Shallow post‐hole.
Medium brown silty sand, 20% charcoal,
some stones, lightly compacted.
1087 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.39 m, Width (north‐ Post‐hole. Associated with
south) 0.36 m, Depth 0.34 m. pit (1004).
Oval in plan, steep sides, concave base.
Filled by (1088), (1089).
Mid brown silty sand, occasional pebbles,
charcoal flakes, one burnt bone, loose
compaction. Interface of iron pan to (1089).
Mid grey silty sand, charcoal flakes, burnt
bone, loose compaction. Interface of iron
pan to (1088), this matches the iron panning
within pit (1004).
1090 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.24 m, Width (north‐ Post‐hole.
Sub‐oval in plan, vertical sides, flat base.
Filled by (1091).
Dark brown sandy silt, 20‐25% charcoal,
some stones, one burnt bone within fill, two
burnt bones next to feature, lightly
compacted.
Circular in plan, fairly steep sides, concave
Mid brown silty sand, no inclusions, loose
compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, flat base
of 0.21 m diameter. Filled by (1095), (1102).
Mid dark brown silty sand, few stones,
loose compaction.
25
1096 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.40 m, Depth 0.14 m. Post‐hole. Possible stone
Sub‐circular in plan, steep west side, socket.
shallow east side, concave base. Filled by
(1097).
1097 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole or possible stone Fill of post‐hole or possible
socket (1096). stone socket.
Mid dark brown silty sand, charcoal flecks,
loose compaction.
1098 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.23 m, Depth 0.15 m. Post‐hole. Or depression
Circular in plan, gradually sloping sides, supporting stake‐hole.
concave base. Stake‐hole driven or possible
burrowing in the base at the south/west of
this feature, 0.25 m depth. Filled by (1099).
1099 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1098). Fill of post‐hole. Also fill of
Dark grey‐black silty sand, occasional stake‐hole within feature.
stones, friable compaction.
1100 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.75 m, Depth 0.40 m. Post‐hole. Affected by
Circular in plan, irregular sloping sides, flat burrowing or root activity.
base. Affected by burrowing or root activity
on east side. Filled by (1101).
1101 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1100). Fill of post‐hole. Disturbed
Dark grey‐brown sandy silt, cremated bone, by burrowing or root
loose compaction. West side is mixed with activity.
(1003).
Grey‐brown silty sand, one large stone (0.30
m), several small stones, moderate
compaction.
1103 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.7 m, Depth 1.6 m. Enormous post‐hole. Post at
Circular in plan, steep sides, flat base. Filled least 0.40m diameter and
with (1107), (1108), (1109), (1110). Cut into 0.80m in the ground.
unstable, loose (1002) natural explaining the Similar to (1137).
need for such a large hole. Possible re‐cut
(1114) has since been cancelled.
1104 2.1A Deposit Cremation deposit on east edge of pit Cremation deposit.
(1004).
Length (west‐east) 0.68 m, Width (north‐
south) 0.59 m, Thickness 0.04 m‐0.17 m.
Dark black‐grey silty sand, frequent burnt
bone, few charcoal flakes, loose compaction.
Mid brown‐black silty sand, occasional
charcoal, loose compaction.
26
1107 2.1A Fill Final fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Fourth and final fill of
Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.18 m. enormous post‐hole.
Grey‐black silt, inclusion one animal bone,
soft compaction. Suggested that (1107) and
(1108) are much later than (1103) and are
actually in a separate cut (1114) which has
since been cancelled.
1108 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Tertiary fill of enormous
Diameter 0.38 m, Thickness of 0.06 m. post‐hole.
Grey silt, very stony, very loosely
compacted. Suggested that (1107) and (1108)
are much later than (1103) and are actually
in a separate cut (1114) which has since been
cancelled.
1109 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Secondary fill of enormous
Diameter 0.45 m, Depth 0.80 m. post‐hole.
Dark brown‐black silt, few stones, loose
compaction.
1110 2.1A Fill Primary fill of enormous post‐hole (1103). Primary fill of enormous
Diameter 1.7 m, Depth 1.06 m. post‐hole.
Stony silty sand, many ‘packing stones’,
very loose compaction.
1111 2.1A Cut Length (north‐south) 1.7 m, Width (west‐ Pit.
east) 1.29 m, Depth 0.57 m.
Sub‐oval in plan, irregular shallow sides,
pointed base. Filled by (1115), (1116), (1117),
(1118).
Mid brown‐black sandy silt, chert flake,
occasional stones, moderate compaction.
1114 2.1A Cut Cancelled, was the cut of a pit within the Cancelled re‐cut.
enormous post‐hole (1103). Filled by (1107),
(1108).
1115 2.1A Fill Upper fill of pit (1111). Fourth and final fill of pit.
Length (north‐south) 1.46 m, Width (west‐ Charcoal rich.
Dark brown‐black, charcoal rich, some
stones, iron panning, lightly compacted.
1116 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of pit (1111). Tertiary fill of pit.
Length (north‐south) 1.9 m, Width (west‐
Dark grey silty sand, occasional stones, iron
panning, lightly compacted. Possibly ash.
27
1117 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit (1111). Secondary fill of pit.
Length (north‐south) 0.70m, Width (west‐
Light grey silty sand, occasional stones, iron
panning, lightly compacted. Possibly ash.
1118 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit (1111). Primary fill of pit.
Length (north‐south) 0.60m, Width (west‐
Dark grey silty sand, iron panning, lightly
compacted. Possibly ash.
Circular in plan, vertical east side, shallow
west side, flat base. Filled by (1120).
Mid yellow‐brown silty sand, occasional
stones, charcoal at the base, moderate
compaction.
1121 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.20 m, Depth 0.33 m. Double post‐hole with
Sub‐oval and Length 0.44 m in plan as a (1133).
double post‐hole, sub‐circular otherwise,
vertical sides, pointed base. Filled by (1122).
1122 2.1A Fill Singular fill of (1121) of a double post‐hole. Fill of one of a double post‐
Dark brown silty sand, charcoal, burnt hole.
bone, loose compaction.
Circular in plan, vertical sides, concave (1136).
1124 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1123). Fill of one of a double post‐
Very dark brown silty sand, charcoal rich, hole. Charcoal rich.
loose compaction.
1125 2.1A Cut Length (west‐east) 0.34 m, Width (north‐ Post‐hole.
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, flat base.
Filled by (1126), (1127).
Dark brown silty sand, occasional charcoal,
occasional stones, iron panning, moderate
compaction.
Medium grey silty sand, occasional small
stones, iron panning, moderate compaction.
28
Post‐hole has relationship to (1030) and was
originally considered part of (1030). Brown
sandy silt, loose compaction.
1129 2.1A Cancelled
1130 2.1A Cancelled
1131 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.45 m, Depth 0.18 m‐0.47 m. Post‐hole truncated by pit
Undetermined shape in plan due to (1004).
truncation by (1004), vertical to gradually
sloping sides, irregular base sloping to
south Filled by (1132). Not neatly truncated
across the top but in half.
1132 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1131). Fill of post‐hole truncated
Dark yellow and light brown silty sand, by pit (1004).
occasional charcoal flecks, moderate
compaction. Very different from fill of
(1004).
1133 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth 0.44m. Double post‐hole with
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, narrow (1121).
concave base. Filled with (1134).
Very dark brown silty sand, occasional hole.
‘packing stones’, charcoal, burnt bone, loose
compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, concave (1123).
Very dark brown silty sand, charcoal, loose hole.
compaction.
1137 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.8 m, Depth 1.33 m. Pit or enormous post‐hole.
Sub‐oval in plan, steep sides, flat base. Similar to (1103).
Filled by (1139), (1140), (1141), (1142).
Slightly smaller than (1103) 4m away.
Possible re‐cut (1138) has since been
cancelled.
1138 2.1A Cut Cancelled, was the cut of a pit within the pit Cancelled re‐cut.
or enormous post‐hole (1137). Filled by
(1139), (1140).
1139 2.1A Fill Final fill of pit or enormous post‐hole Fourth and final fill of pit or
(1137), or secondary fill of re‐cut (1138). enormous post‐hole.
Grey‐black silt, soft compaction.
1140 2.1A Fill Tertiary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole Tertiary fill of pit or
(1137), or primary fill of re‐cut (1138). enormous post‐hole.
Diameter 0.70 m, Thickness of 0.08‐0.15 m.
Grey silt, very stony, loose compaction.
29
1141 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of pit or enormous post‐hole Secondary fill of pit or
(1137). enormous post‐hole.
Brown‐black silt, 10% stones, soft
compaction.
1142 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit or enormous post‐hole Primary fill of pit or
(1137). enormous post‐hole.
Stony mid grey‐brown sandy silt, 60‐70%
‘packing stones’, loose compaction.
1143 2.1A Fill Upper‐most fill of pit (1005). Seventh and final fill of pit.
Thickness 0.20 m.
stones, oyster shell, anthracite, bone, burnt
bone, chert flakes, loose compaction. Similar
to subsoil.
1144 2.1A Fill Sixth fill of pit (1005). Sixth fill of pit.
Thickness 0.15 m.
Mid black‐brown silty sand, occasional
stones, one large stone, loose compaction.
(1144) is often much more similar to (1143).
1145 2.1A Lens Fifth fill of pit (1005). Fifth fill of pit.
Thickness 0.10 m.
Light grey‐white silty sand, charcoal,
occasional stones, loose compaction. (1145)
is very similar to (1147) and could be the
same where not separated by (1146).
1146 2.1A Fill Fourth fill of pit (1005). Fourth of pit.
Thickness 0.10 m.
Light black‐brown silty sand, one large
stone, loose compaction. (1146) is probably a
lens because (1145) & (1147) are the same.
Thickness 0.15 m.
Light white‐grey silty sand, occasional
stones, loose compaction. (1147) may be
water washed (1003).
Thickness 0.20 m.
Mid brown‐yellow silty sand, occasional
stones, loose compaction. (1148) may be root
disturbed natural with decayed limestone.
Thickness 0.20 m.
Mid green‐brown silty sand, occasional
stones, loose compaction. (1149) may be root
disturbed natural with decayed limestone.
30
1150 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.8 m, Depth 0.40 m. Pit. Next to (1005).
Irregular in plan, irregular sides, irregular
base. Filled by (1151), (1152), (1153), (1154).
1151 2.1A Fill Upper‐most fill of pit (1150). Fourth and final fill of pit.
Thickness 0.10 m.
Light black‐brown silty sand, occasional
stones, loose compaction. Similar to (1144)
within (1005).
Thickness 0.40 m.
Light yellow‐brown silty sand, occasional
stones, loose compaction.
Thickness 0.20 m.
Mid brown‐yellow silty sand, occasional
of (1005).
Thickness 0.30 m.
Mid green‐brown silty sand, occasional
of (1005).
1155 2.1A Fill Upper‐most fill of pit (1004). Upper‐most fill of pit (1004)
Thickness 0.02 m‐0.13 m.
Dark grey silty sand, occasional stones,
loose compaction.
1156 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Fill of pit.
Mid brown to dark grey silty sand with
vertical iron panning dividing these colours,
frequent limestone, occasional sandstone,
bone, burnt bone, moderate compaction.
1157 2.1A Fill Fill of pit (1004). Fill pf pit.
Mid grey silty sand, frequent charcoal,
occasional burnt bone, loose compaction.
Mid‐brown silty sand, frequent charcoal,
loose compaction.
Light red‐brown silt, frequent charcoal,
31
Thickness 0.09 m.
Light grey‐brown silty sand, loose
compaction.
Circular in plan, vertical sides, narrow
Truncated by tree‐bole (1164).
Dark brown‐black silty sand, charcoal,
burnt bone, loose compaction.
Orange‐brown sand, burnt bone, rare
1164 2.1A Cut Diameter 1.7 m, Depth 0.5 m. Pit. Probable tree‐bole. Re‐
Irregular sub‐circular in plan, gradual cut / above (1005).
sloping sides, flat base. Filled by (1166),
(1165). Truncates post‐hole (1161).
1165 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of pit or probable tree‐bole Secondary fill of pit or
(1164) above (1005). probable tree‐bole.
Thickness 0.25 m.
1166 2.1A Fill Primary fill of pit or probable tree‐bole Primary fill of pit or
(1164) above (1005). probable tree‐bole.
Thickness 0.3 m.
Light grey‐yellow silty sand, occasional
1167 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.8 m, Depth 0.5 m. Pit. Truncated by (1005).
Irregular sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides,
Thickness 0.25 m. Charcoal rich.
Dark brown‐black sandy silt, frequent
charcoal, occasional stones, loose
compaction.
Thickness 0.4 m.
Dark green‐brown silty sand, occasional
stones, chert flake, loose compaction.
Circular in plan, vertical sides, concave
base. Filled with (1171).
32
Light brown sandy silt, little charcoal, few
1172 2.1A Cut Length 0.12 m, Width 0.11 m, Depth 0.09 m. Stake‐hole.
Oval in plan, vertical sides, concave base.
Filled by (1173).
1173 2.1A Fill Singular fill of stake‐hole. Fill of stake‐hole.
Mid grey silty sand, single charcoal flake,
loose compaction.
1174 2.1A Deposit Re‐deposited but disturbed natural (1003) Re‐deposited natural.
within (1005).
Thickness 0.15 m.
Mid yellow sand, occasional charcoal, loose
compaction. Natural influenced by bio‐
turbation.
1175 2.1A Fill Singular fill of pit (1176). Fill of pit.
Thickness 0.15 m.
Mid black‐brown sandy silt, frequent
charcoal, few stones, loose compaction.
1176 2.1A Cut Length 0.75 m, Width 0.50 m, Depth 0.15 m. Pit. Truncates (1005).
Sub‐rectangular in plan, steep sides, slightly
concave base. Filled by (1175). Probably not
a discrete pit at all but part of (1005).
1177 2.1A Cut Length 1 m, Width 0.75 m, Depth 0.07 m‐ Depression, caused by
0.08 m. burning.
Sub‐oval in plan, very shallow sides,
concave base. Filled by (1179), (1180). Above
(1182). Suggested oven.
1178 2.1A Lens Fill of pit (1005). Fill of pit.
Thickness 0.2 m.
Grey‐white silty sand, frequent charcoal,
occasional stones, loose compaction. Fills an
animal burrow within (1005), otherwise the
same as (1147).
1179 2.1A Fill Secondary fill of depression (1177). Secondary fill of
Thickness 0.04 m. depression.
Red‐black silty sand, charcoal, very little
burnt bone, occasional burnt stones, loose
compaction.
1180 2.1A Fill Primary fill of depression (1177). Primary fill of depression.
Thickness 0.02 m‐0.03 m. Pure charcoal.
Black charcoal, maybe a little sand, loose
compaction.
1181 2.1A Deposit Re‐deposited natural associated with (1004). Re‐deposited natural.
Thickness 0.04 ‐0.13 m.
Light white‐grey silty sand, frequent
pebbles, loose compaction.
33
1182 2.1A Deposit Heat affected natural below burnt Heat affected natural below
depression (1177). burnt depression.
Thickness 0.05 m.
Red‐pink silty sand, very occasional stones,
Circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed base.
Filled by (1184).
Light brown silty clay, occasional stones,
loose compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, very
pointed base. Filled by (1186). Could be
considered a stake‐hole.
Light brown silty clay, rare stones, loose
compaction.
Oval to circular in plan, vertical sides,
pointed base. Filled by (1188), (1189).
Thickness 0.20 m.
Mid brown‐orange silty sand, no inclusions,
loose compaction.
Thickness 0.35 m.
loose compaction.
Circular in plan, very steep sides, pointed
base. Filled by (1191), (1192).
Thickness 0.25 m.
Mid brown‐orange silty sand, loose
compaction.
1192 2.1A Fill. Primary fill of post‐hole (1190). Primary fill of post‐hole.
Thickness 0.35 m.
loose compaction.
1193 2.1A Cut Length 0.28 m, Width 0.189 m, Depth 0.40 Post‐hole.
m. Irregular oval in plan, vertical sides,
concave base. Filled by (1194). Possibly a
double post‐hole.
Light brown‐orange silty sand with some
clay, occasional stones, loose compaction.
34
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, pointed (1199).
base. Filled by (1196), (1204). Suggested this
post‐hole is later and slightly truncates
(1199).
1196 2.1A Fill Post‐pipe fill of post‐hole (1195). Secondary fill of one of a
Thickness 0.18 m. double post‐hole.
Mid brown‐orange silty sand, loose
compaction.
Sub‐oval in plan, vertical sides, concave
loose compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, steep sides, concave (1195).
base. Filled by (1200). Suggested this post‐
hole is the original that was replaced by
(1195).
Light brown silty clay, occasional stones, hole.
loose compaction. Similar to (1204).
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed
base. Filled by (1202), (1203).
Thickness 0.17 m.
Light brown‐orange silty sand, loose
compaction.
Thickness 0.26 m.
loose compaction.
1204 2.1A Fill Primary fill of post‐hole (1195). Primary fill of one of a
Thickness 0.33 m. double post‐hole.
loose compaction. Similar to (1200).
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, pointed
1206 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1205). Fill of a post‐hole.
loose compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, concave
35
loose compaction.
Irregular oval in plan, vertical sides,
loose compaction.
1211 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.25 m, Depth0.23 m. Post‐hole. A bit dubious.
Oval in plan, steep sides, concave base.
Filled by (1212).
1212 2.1A Fill Singular fill of post‐hole (1211). Fill of a dubious post‐hole.
loose compaction.
Sub‐circular in plan, vertical sides, flat base.
Filled by (1214).
loose compaction.
1215 2.1A Cut Diameter 0.26 m, Depth 0.22 m. Post‐hole. A bit dubious.
Irregular oval in plan, steep sides, concave
loose compaction.

Area B
Context Area Type Description Interpretation
Number
2000 2.1B Deposit Topsoil. Topsoil.
2001 2.1B Deposit Subsoil. Subsoil.
2002 2.1B Deposit Natural. Natural.
2003 2.1B “Cut” “Cut” of the burnt spread deposit (1004). “Cut” of burnt spread
Cancelled. (1004).
2004 2.1B Deposit Within the trough (2005) this is the fourth fill Burnt spread deposit.
and is 0.4 m thick. 80% white or red heat
affected shattered stones with some black,
charcoal rich, silty, gritty sand making up
the remainder. Loose, rubble like
compaction. Animal teeth and bone
inclusions. (2004) is similar outside of the
trough (2005) except it has mixed with
subsoil a little more.
36
2005 2.1B Cut Length (NW/SE) 3 m, Depth 1.4 m at least. Cut of trough.
Sub‐rectangular in plan, vertical sides, base
was not determinable due to springs.
Possible step or ledge to north. Filled by
(2004), (2006), (2007), (2008), (2009), (2010),
(2011), (2012), (2013).
2006 2.1B Fill Primary fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Thickness 0.20 m at least.
Grey fine sand, chunks of charcoal & two
burnt bones concentrated to south/west,
loose compaction. Possible lining material.
2007 2.1B Fill Upper‐most and ninth fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Grey fine silt, iron streaks, light compaction.
2008 2.1B Fill Eighth fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Thickness 0.01m‐0.06 m.
White gritty sand, no inclusions, light
compaction.
2009 2.1B Fill Seventh fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Orange‐red silty gritty sand, 80% heat
affected shattered stones, moderate
compaction.
2010 2.1B Fill Sixth fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
White gritty sand, no inclusions, light
compaction.
2011 2.1B Fill Fifth fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Thickness 0.01 m ‐0.30 m.
Grey‐red silty gritty sand, 80% heat affected
shattered stones adhered together by iron
and manganese, moderate compaction.
2012 2.1B Fill Second fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Orange‐red gritty sand, 60‐70% heat affected
shattered stones, loose compaction.
2013 2.1B Fill Third fill of trough (2005). Fill of trough.
Thickness 0.05 m.
White gritty sand, no inclusions, loose
compaction.
2014 2.1B Cancelled
2015 2.1B Cancelled
2016 2.1B Cancelled
2017 2.1B Cut Width 1.46 m, Depth 0.21 m. Pit.
Irregular sub‐circular in plan, shallow sides,
flat base. Filled by (2018).
37
2018 2.1B Fill Fill of pit (2017). Fill of pit.
Grey‐black silt, charcoal flecks, 10% small
stones, soft compaction.
2019 2.1B Cancelled
2020 2.1B Cancelled
2021 2.1B Cancelled
2022 2.1B Cancelled

38
Appendix 2. Sample Register

Area A
Sample Context Amount Description Type/Initial results
Number Number
1 1088 Burnt bone from post‐hole
2 1091 Burnt bone from post‐hole
3 1107 Animal bone
4 1007 20L Charcoal rich, mid dark brown
sandy silt, fill of post‐hole
5 1025 5L Black of very dark brown fill of
stake‐hole
6 1091 5L Charcoal rich, dark brown sandy
silt, fill of post‐hole
7 1020 5L Mid brown sandy silt, primary fill
of post‐hole
8 1059 10L Mid dark brown sandy silt, fill of
post‐hole
sandy silt, fill of post‐hole
10 1132 2L Yellow‐brown silty sand fill of pit
/ post‐hole
11 1032 5L Dark grey‐brown post‐hole fill
12 1037 5L Grey‐brown silt post‐hole fill
13 1136 4L Bone & charcoal fill of post‐hole
14 1134 15L Dark brown silty sand post‐hole
fill
15 1099 20L Dark grey‐black silty sand post‐
hole fill
16 1097 5L Mid dark brown sandy silt post‐
hole fill
17 1139 2L Grey‐black silt post‐hole fill
18 1140 3L Grey post‐hole fill
19 1008 5L Fill of post‐hole
20 1104 1L Cremation deposit and bones,
north/east spit A
21 1104 Loose bone from cremation
north/east quadrant
north/east spit B
23 1104 >0.5L Charcoal from cremation
north/east quadrant spit B
north/east spit C 1
north/east spit C 2
39
27 1109 10L Dark brown‐black silt post‐hole
fill
28 1141 10L Dark brown‐black silt post‐hole
fill
29 1107 0.5L Grey‐black silt post‐hole fill
30 1108 0.5L Primary fill of post‐hole
33 1115 5L Charcoal rich, dark brown, fill of
pit
34 1156 Animal bone from (1004)
35 1157 Burnt bone from (1004)
36 1156 Burnt bone from (1004)
37 1159 0.5L Soil from cremation pit (1004)
38 1162 20L Dark brown‐black sand post‐hole
fill
silty sand, post‐hole fill
40 1065 5L Charcoal rich post‐hole fill
41 1101 30L Cremated deposit within
suspected post‐hole
42 1088 20L Mid‐brown silty sand with
cremated material, post‐hole fill
43 1069 4L Charcoal fill of pit
44 1171 5L Post‐hole fill
45 1165 5L Fill of pit (1164)
46 1166 5L Fill of pit (1164)
47 1148 5L Fill of pit (1005)
48 1149 5L Fill of pit (1005)
49 1143 5L Fill of pit (1164)
50 1144 5L Fill of pit (1164)
51 1145 5L Charcoal rich fill of pit (1164)
52 1146 5L Fill of pit (1164)
53 1147 5L Fill of pit (1164)
54 1143 Mixed burnt and unburned bone
from (1005)
55 1069 1 piece of burnt bone from (1068)
56 1168 2L Charcoal rich, black sandy silt,
upper fill of (1167)
57 1169 2L Primary fill of (1167)
58 CANCELLED
59 1104 0.5L Cremation deposit and bones,
south/west spit A
60 1104 0.5L Cremation deposit and bones,
south/west spit B
40
61 1156 0.5L Close to cremation deposit,
contains burnt bones also,
south/west spit A
62 1174 2L Orange sand and charcoal fill of
pit (1005)
63 1175 2L Charcoal rich, dark brown‐black
sandy silt, fill of pit (1005)
64 1178 1L Light grey silty sand, fill of pit
(1005)
65 1155 2L Dark grey silty sand, upper fill of
cremation pit (1004)
66 1156 2L Mid brown silty sand, basal fill of
67 1157 1L Mid grey silty sand, basal fill of
68 1158 0.5L Mid brown silty sand, basal fill of
69 1179 0.5L Heat affected upper fill of (1177)
70 1180 0.5L Charcoal basal fill of (1177)
south/east spit A
south/east spit B
north/west pre‐excavation
north/west spit A
north/west spit B
north/west spit B

Area B
Sample Context Amount Description Type/Initial results
Number Number
1 2006 Burnt bone from trough (2005)
2 2006 Burnt bone from trough (2005)
3 2018 5L Dark grey‐brown silt, fill of pit
(2017)
41
4 2020 3L Fill of (2019), cut containing
animal skeleton
5 2020 Animal skeleton from (2019)
6 2004 10L Burnt mound material from
within the trough
7 2011 4L Stony reddish‐grey fill of trough
(2005)
8 2012 4L Stony orangey‐red fill of trough
(2005)

42
Appendix 3. Finds Register

Area A

Pottery
Excava Context Find Material Type Id Description Quantity
tion No. No.
No.
NGB 1007 1 Pot Sher Inverted rim, large piece, shell 1
05 d tempered
2.1A

Chert
Excavation Context Find Material Type Id Description Quantity
No. No. No.
NGB 05 1113 1 Chert Flake Struck 5.5cm x 2.5cm sub‐ 1
2.1A rectangular flake
NGB 05 1143 1 Chert Flake Struck 5cm x 4cm triangular flake, 1
2.1A lovely bulb
NGB 05 1143 2 Chert Flakes Struck 3 small pieces of chert 3 in 1
2.1A debitage bag
NGB 05 1165 1 Chert Flake Struck 2.5cm x 1cm sub‐rectangular 1
2.1A flake

Burnt clay
Excavation Context Find Material Type Id Description Quantity
No. No. No.
NGB 05 1143 3 Burnt One piece of burnt clay (now in 1 bag
2.1A clay many crumbs)

No finds Area B

43
Appendix 4. Photography Register

Photo Direction Description Initials/date
no facing
113 Pre‐excavation shot of burnt spread (2004) S.C. 03.02.06
New card
26 North West of burnt spread (2004) South‐facing scetion S.C. 15.02.06
27 South West of burnt spread (2004) North‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06
28 East South of burnt spread (2004) West‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06
29 West South of burnt spread (2004) East‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06
30 East North of burnt spread (2004) West‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06
31 West North of burnt spread (2004) East‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06
32 South East of burnt spread (2004) North‐facing section S.C. 15.02.06
33 Working shots of 2.1B S.C. 15.02.06
34 Working shots of 2.1B S.C. 15.02.06
35 2.1A
36 2.1A
37 Cancelled S.C. 15.02.06
38 Cancelled S.C. 15.02.06
39 North East of burnt spread (2004) south‐facing section S.C. 16.02.06
40 2.1A
41 2.1A
42 2.1A
43 East West‐facing section of trough (2005) S.C. 16.02.06
44 West Eastern cut of trough (2005) working shot S.C. 16.02.06
45 South Northern cut of trough (2005) working shot S.C. 16.02.06

44
Appendix 5. Drawing Register

Drawing Drawing Description Scale Initials/date
no type
1 Section South/west quadrant (2004) 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06
2 Section North/west quadrant (2004) 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06
3 Section North/east quadrant (2004) North‐ 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06
facing section
4 Section North/east quadrant (2004) East‐ 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06
facing section
5 Section South/east quadrant (2004) 1:20 S.O’D 15.02.06
6 Section South/west‐facing of pit (2017) 1:10 N.K. 15.02.06
7 Plan Post‐excavation plan of pit (2017) 1:20 N.K. 15.02.06
8 Section South/west‐facing of trough (2005) 1:10 L.C. 16.03.06
9 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (2004) & 1:50 N.K. 16.02.06
(2005)

45

Appendix 6. Lithics Report
Site A024/E2437, Newford, Co. Galway
The lithic assemblage
Torben Bjarke Ballin

INTRODUCTION
In 2005, Headland Archaeology Ltd. carried out pre‐construction testing on Site A024/E2437, in
the Townland of Newford, Co. Galway (Wilkins 2006). During this work, two separate areas of
archaeological potential were identified (Areas A and B). A full archaeological excavation was
subsequently carried out on the site in February 2006. This work revealed a possible Bronze Age
funerary pyre, cremation cemetery, and associated postholes in Area A, and the presence of a
Bronze Age fulachta fiadh with associated trough in Area B. Below, the site is generally referred to
as Newford.

During the investigation of the site, six pieces of worked chert were recovered, all within Area A.
One piece was found in a posthole (C. 1112), four pieces were found in a pit (C. 1005) with, inter
alia, burnt bone and oyster shell, and one piece was found in a probable tree‐throw hole (C. 1164).
The purpose of the present report is to characterise and, to the degree this is possible, date and
interpret the lithic finds. The evaluation of the lithic assemblage is based upon a detailed
catalogue of all the lithic finds from Newford, and the artefacts in this report are referred to by
their number (CAT no.) in the catalogue.

Basic Terminology
The definitions of the main lithic categories are as follows:

Chips: All flakes and indeterminate pieces the greatest dimension (GD) of which is ≤ 10 mm.
Flakes: All lithic artefacts with one identifiable ventral (positive or convex) surface, GD > 10 mm
and L < 2W (L = length; W = width).

Indeterminate pieces: Lithic artefacts which cannot be unequivocally identified as either flakes or
cores. Generally the problem of identification is due to irregular breaks, frost‐shattering or fire‐
crazing. Chunks are larger indeterminate pieces, and in, for example, the case of quartz, the
problem of identification usually originates from a piece flaking along natural planes of weakness
rather than flaking in the usual conchoidal way.

Blades and microblades: Flakes where L ≥ 2W. In the case of blades W > 8 mm, in the case of
microblades W ≤ 8 mm.

46
Cores: Artefacts with only dorsal (negative or concave) surfaces – if three or more flakes have
been detached, the piece is a core, if fewer than three flakes have been detached, the piece is a
split or flaked pebble.
Tools: Artefacts with secondary retouch (modification).

Catalogue

The assemblage includes the following six lithic objects

Context 1113 (singular fill of posthole C. 1112)
CAT 7. Secondary indeterminate flake (characterised by platform collapse), black chert (42 x 22 x
7 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake has been trimmed. SF 001.

Context 1143 (uppermost fill of pit C. 1005)
CAT 8. Secondary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (37 x 32 x 8 mm). The platform‐edge of the
flake is untrimmed. SF 001.

CAT 9. Proximal section of secondary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (27 x 22 x 5 mm). The
platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. SF 002.

CAT 10. Tertiary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (25 x 21 x 6 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake
is untrimmed. SF 002.

CAT 11. Proximal section of tertiary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (22 x 16 x 8 mm). The
platform‐edge of the flake is untrimmed. SF 002.

Context 1165 (secondary fill of probable tree‐throw hole C. 1164)
CAT 12. Right lateral fragment of primary hard‐hammer flake with edge‐retouch, black chert (27
x 14 x 7). The fracture is a so‐called ‘split‐bulb fracture’ (Accident Siret). The platform‐edge of the
flake is untrimmed. The piece has regular blunting along the entire right lateral side. SF 001.

Discussion

In total, the assemblage from Newford includes six lithic artefacts, all of which are in black chert.
This small assemblage embraces: five flakes (CAT 1‐6), and one piece with edge‐retouch (CAT 6).
The edge‐retouched piece is based on a plain primary flake.

47
Table 1. General artefact list.

Debitage
Flakes 5
Total debitage 5

Tools
Pieces w edge‐retouch 1
Total tools 1

TOTAL 6

In general, Irish black chert occurs in a number of qualities, with some being relatively fine‐
grained and some more coarse‐grained. Some cherts are homogeneous, whereas others are
riddled with intersecting planes of weakness, with the latter causing the raw material to flake in
an uncontrollable manner. The chert from the present site is generally of good quality: it is fine‐
grained, with relatively few planes of weakness, and, in the main, it has excellent flaking
properties. The Irish chert is associated with the island’s Carboniferous Limestone, explaining its
total dominance at Newford. The western part of Co. Galway has a relatively mixed geology,
consisting of a sequence of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock forms, whereas the
geology east of Lough Corrib is almost exclusively Carboniferous Limestone, with the occasional
occurrence of chert (Sevastopulo & Jackson 2001).

As mentioned in the introduction, the chert artefacts derive from three different contexts, all
within Area A. CAT 1 derives from a posthole of unknown function (C. 1112), and CAT 6 from a
pit, which is thought to be a tree throw hole (C. 1164). Both of these contexts add little to the
understanding of the site. CAT 2.5, on the other hand, are from a pit (C. 1005), which may be a
geological feature, but the fact that it contains not only most of the site’s chert objects, but also
burnt bone and oyster shell, makes it slightly more interesting. Whether the cut was formed by
human hand, or by natural agents, is uncertain, but its content links it to the funereal activities
which took place at the Newford site.

The assemblage does not include any diagnostic pieces, but the lack of blade blanks indicates that
it may be of a later prehistoric date. In Britain and Ireland blades were produced up to, and
including, the beginning of the Late Neolithic period (Pitts & Jacobi 1979; Ballin forthcoming).
After this watershed, all industries focused on the manufacture of flakes. The technological
indications are, in other words, consistent with the Bronze Age date suggested by the excavator
for the entire Newford site (Wilkins 2006).

Bibliography

Ballin, T.B. forthcoming: The British Late Neolithic ‘Levalloisian’, and other operational schemas
from the later prehistoric period. A discussion based on finds from the Stoneyhill Project,
Aberdeenshire. Proceedings of Conference held by the British Neolithic Studies Group, at the
British Museum 2005.
48
Pitts, M.W., & Jacobi, R.M. 1979: Some Aspects of Change in Flaked Stone Industries of the
Mesolithic and Neolithic in Southern Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science 6, 163‐177.
Sevastopulo, G.D., & Wyse Jackson, P.N. 2001: Carboniferous (Dinantian). In C.H. Holland (ed.):
The Geology of Ireland, 241‐288. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.
Wilkins, B. 2006: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Preliminary report on archaeological
investigations at Site A024/002, a Bronze Age cremation cemetery and burnt mound in the
Townland of Ballygaraun, South Newford, Co. Galway. Headland Archaeology Ltd.,
unpublished report.
49

Appendix 7. Faunal remains report
By Auli Tourunen

A total of 107 specimens of animal bones were recovered from site E2437, Newford, Co. Galway.
Excavation revealed a Bronze Age funerary pyre and associated post‐holes in Area A, and a
Bronze Age burnt mound with an associated trough in Area B. The bones derive from both areas.

From Area A, both burnt and unburnt bones were recovered. Bones recovered from context
(1005), interpreted as a possibly non‐archaeological large pit, included sheep or goat teeth
fragments. Both burnt and unburnt unidentifiable bone were present. Some animal bones were
recovered from other contexts, including cremated bones identified as human (report by
Carmelita Troy, Headland Archaeology Ltd). Three contexts yielded unidentified burnt animal
bone fragments (1069, 1088, 1091). Badly preserved unburnt cattle astragalus was recovered from
context 1107. A fragment of pig tibia, a piece of red deer antler and sheep or goat teeth were
identified among unburnt animal bones from pit 1004, along with some burnt animal bones
(1056, 1057). Bones from Area B included two unburnt large mammal vertebra fragments. One is
likely to be red deer. The other is only identifiable as a large mammal (red deer, cattle or horse).
These were recovered from the fill of the trough (2006).

Due to the small size of the material, no detailed analysis was possible. However, the recovered
species from Area A have been previously identified from cremation burials dating to this period
(McCormick 1985, 40). Red deer bones have been earlier identified from burnt mount deposits
(O’Drisceoil 1988, 675).

Area context cattle lm pig red deer red deer? sh/g unidentified Total
A 1005 1 14 15
A 1069 1 1
A 1088 14 14
A 1091 3 3
A 1107 1 3 4
A 1156 1 1 1 34 37
A 1157 31 31
B 2006 1 1 2
Total 1 1 1 1 1 2 100 107

Table 1. Species and anatomical representation of sample (NISP). Lm = large mammal
(cattle, red deer, horse).

References

McCormick, F 1985 ‘Faunal remains from prehistoric Irish burials’ J Irish Archaeol III, 6, 37‐48.

O’Drisceoil, D.A. 1988 ‘Burnt mounds: cooking or bathing?’ Antiquity 62: 671‐80.

50
Appendix 8. Soil Sample Assessment
By Susan Lyons

Background
Excavations at Newford (E2437) were carried out in advance of the N6 Galway – Ballinasloe Road
Scheme, on behalf of Galway County Council. The site was located Site approximately 1.5 km
south west of Athenry in the townland of Ballygarraun, South Newford, Co. Galway. Two
separate areas were identified [Areas A & B]. The excavations revealed a Bronze Age funerary
pyre, cremation cemetery and associated structural post‐holes in Area A, and a Bronze Age
fulachta fiadh with associated trough in Area B. A comprehensive sampling strategy was
employed, where a total of 76 bulk soil samples were taken representing all significant fills and
deposits.

Methodology
Fifty‐two soil samples were selected for the recovery of palaeobotanical remains and small
finds.Each sample was subjected to a system of flotation in a Siraf style flotation tank. The
floating debris (flot) was collected in a 250 μm sieve and, once dry, scanned using a binocular
microscope. Any remaining material in the flotation tank (retent) was wet‐sieved through a 1mm
mesh and air‐dried. This was then sorted by eye and any material of archaeological significance
removed. An assessment of each sample was made to determine whether it would benefit from
any more detailed analysis. The results from this are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Results

The botanical remains were preserved by charring in all cases.

Wood charcoal –All samples contained wood charcoal in low to high concentrations. A higher
concentration of wood charcoal (+++ and ++++) was recorded from many pit features, postholes
and cremation deposits. Samples identified with an asterisk (*) in Table 1 contain sufficient
quantities of charcoal for obtaining a radiocarbon date.

Carbonised hazelnut shell – Just four features contained very small fragments of carbonised
hazelnut shell; C1069 [fill of pit 1068], C1101 [fill of post‐hole 1100], C1158[fill of cremation pit
1004] and 1175 [fills of pit 1005].

Carbonised cereal grain – Six features contained evidence for cereal remains; C1040 [fill of pit],
C1065 [fill of post‐hole], C1067 [fill of post‐hole], C1134 [fill of post‐hole], C1171 [fill of post‐hole]
and C1175 [fill of pit 1005].

The cereal remains recorded, albeit low were represented primarily by their grain. The grains of
barley (Hordeum sp.) and wheat (Triticum sp.) were identified, however the preservation quality
of the grain hindered any further species identification.

Vesicular and eroded grains were identified from C1040, C1067 and C1175 and these appear in
the tables as indeterminate grain. The vesicular character could be indicative of the grain having
been charred at high temperatures, that the grain was damp when burnt or that this material had
degraded due to redeposition and exposure.
51

Burnt bone –Thirteen samples contained burnt bone (see Osteoarchaeological Report).

Unburnt bone – Unburnt bone was recovered from five features; low concentrations were
identified from C1007 (fills of post‐hole ), C1050 (fill of post‐hole ), C1069 (fill of pit ), C1107 (fill
of post‐hole ) and C1162 (fill of post‐hole ).

Metallic debris – Many of the features contained metallic material in low to high concentrations.
The highest concentrations (++++) of metallic debris were recorded from C1088, C1140, C1147 and
C1157. While this material contains a metallic component, it is difficult to ascertain whether this
is a result of metal working or naturally occurring deposits. No more can be said about the
material at this time.

Mollusca – A very low concentration of molluscs was recorded from C1110 however, it is difficult
to make any assumptions based on this minute assemblage and so no more can be ascertain at
this assessment stage.

Flint – Evidence for flint debitage was identified from seven features – C1037, C1088, C1091,
C1099, C1107, C1146 and C1169. Based on the size of the assemblage however, it is difficult to
establish whether it represents cultural or natural material.

Chert – Fragments of chert were also recovered from the majority of the features, with larger
concentrations recorded from C1037, C1099 and C1169 and 1014. It is difficult to ascertain
however, whether the fragments were culturally or naturally formed.

DISCUSSION

For the purpose of this report Area A and Area B will be discussed separately.

Area A
The presence of carbonised cereal grain in some of the samples from Area A indicates that a
degree of domestic activity may have been carried out in or around the site. Much of the grain
was abraded and proved difficult to identify further. While barley and wheat were recorded, they
are both cereal types which were cultivated from the prehistoric period to modern times. The
grain, which was altogether recorded in small numbers, was randomly scattered across the site in
ones and twos and was not associated with any conflagration deposits. This suggests that the
material is the result of secondary or even tertiary deposition of crop processing debris, which
would have entered structural deposits or features via local water channels, through wind and
human activity, or during infilling of open features.

Charcoal is a common occurrence on archaeological sites and is likely to reflect a) the use of
hearths in and around the site and b) the cleaning out and dumping of this burnt debris into
nearby open features. Carbonised hazelnut shell is a frequently recorded on prehistoric sites
(Moffett et al. 1989; Greig. 1991) and its presence is usually interpreted as a) the waste debris of
gathered foodstuffs or b) a fuel source. In this instance, the hazelnut shell recovered from many
of the features is in such small quantities, that its origin is uncertain.
52

The botanical evidence from Area A, with the exception of the wood charcoal, was generally
quite low. While the cereal assemblage does indicate that crop processing was carried out in the
vicinity, this area of the site may not have been the focus for domestic activity.

Area B
The soil samples from Area B contained primarily wood charcoal fragments. This is a pattern
that has been recorded from other burnt mound sites, such as Carton Demesne, Maynooth
(O’Sullivan, 2001) and similar features recorded from the N25 archaeological excavations (Sites 7,
11, 40, 41 and 44) (Lyons, 2004a, 2004b, 2005c, 2005d, 2005e).

The high charcoal content recorded from Contexts 2004, 2011 and 2012 [fulacht deposits] is not
surprising since these deposits are directly related to the burning activities carried out within
these fulachta fiadh and associated features. The charcoal recorded from the other features (C2018
and C2020) is likely to be material transported from the fulacht and burnt mound sources, which
has become re‐distributed across a wider area.

Evidence for what was tentatively identified as metallic material was recorded from C2011 (fill of
trough C2005), C2018 (fill of pit C2017) and C2020 (fill of cut C201)]. It is very possible that this
material is a result of naturally occurring iron‐panning, however without a proper detailed study
of the material, it is difficult to fully ascertain.

The animal bone identified from C2020 (fill of cut C2019) it likely to be associated with the animal
skeleton excavated from this feature and should be discussed with the animal bone assemblage.

References

Greig, J, 1991 ‘The British Isles’ in van Zeist, Wasylikowa & Behre (eds) Progess in Old World
Palaeoethnobotany, 299 – 334. Rotterdam.

Lyons, 2004a ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Hegarty L and Long, P 2004 N25 Waterford Bypass,
Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 7 in the townland of
Ballymountain, Co. Kilkenny. Excavation Licence No.: 04E0331. Headland Archaeology
unpublished client report.

‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2004b ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Hegarty L. and Long, P. 2004 N25 Waterford Bypass,
Contract 3: Preliminary report on the archaeological investigations at Sites 9‐11 in the Townland of
Killaspy, Co. Kilkenny. Excavation Licence No.: 04E0257. Headland Archaeology unpublished
client report.

‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2005c ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Gleeson, C and Breen, G. 2005 N25 Waterford Bypass,
Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 40 in the townland of Rathpatrick,
Co. Kilkenny Excavation Licence No.: 04E0318. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report.

‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2005d ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Gleeson, C and Breen, G. 2005 N25 Waterford Bypass,
Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 41 in the townland of Killaspy, Co.
53
Kilkenny Excavation Licence No.: 04E0770. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report.

‐‐‐‐‐‐ 2005e ‘Soil Sample Assessment’ in Gleeson, C and Breen, G. 2005 N25 Waterford Bypass,
Contract 3: Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site 44 in the townland of Killaspy, Co.
Kilkenny. Excavation Licence No.: 04E0318. Headland Archaeology unpublished client report.

O’Neill, J 2000 ‘Just another fulacht fiadh story’, Archaeology Ireland Vol. 14 No.2

O’Sullivan, E 2001 ‘No. 666 Site 5, Carson Demesne, Maynooth, Co. Kildare’, in I. Bennett (ed)
Excavations Bulletin, Excavations 2001, p198. Wordwell Ltd, Dublin.

Moffett, L et al 1989 Cereals, fruits and nuts: charred plant remains from Neolithic sites in
England and Wales and the Neolithic economy. In A Milles, D Williams & N Gardner (eds), The
beginnings of agriculture. British Archaeological Repots International Series 496: 234‐261.
54

Appendix 9. Human Remains Report
By Carmelita Troy

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Weight distribution of identified fragments from pyre fill (1104)
Figure 2 Percentage of colour of cremated bone in each deposit of pyre (1004)

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1 Pre‐excavation shot of Spit 1 of pyre fill (1104) in NE quadrant of pyre (1004)
Plate 2 Pre‐excavation shot of Spit 2 of pyre fill (1104) in NE quadrant of pyre (1004)
Plate 3 North facing post‐excavation shot of cremation pyre (1004)
Plate 4 Skull fragments
Plate 5 Two distal hand phalanges
Plate 6 Nutrient foramen on right tibia
Plate 7 Premolar crown (left); third molar root and partial crown (right)
Plate 8 Range of colours of cremated bone – black, blue, grey and white
Plate 9 Experimental pyre of a cremating pig (Marshall 2005)
Plate 10 Worked chert (E2437:1104:1)
Plate 11 Quartz pebbles

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Radiocarbon results obtained from E2437 Newford
Table 2 Size of samples processed for cremation analysis
Table 3 Summary of the quantification analysis
Table 4 Summary of cremated bone present by sieve fraction weight and percentage of
total weight
Table 5 Range of colours in burnt bone related to the temperature

APPENDIX
Table 1 Cremated material by spit and colour
Table 2 Cremated material by spit and sieve fraction
Table 3 Recognisable skeletal elements by context (g)
Figure 1 Representation of recognisable elements from cremation burial (1104) E2437
Newford

55
SUMMARY

This document is submitted as a report for the post‐excavation treatment and analysis of
cremated human remains retrieved from Site E2437, in the townland of Newford, Co. Galway.
This document details the methodologies and analytical procedures that were undertaken to
complete the report. The excavation was undertaken on behalf of Galway County Council in
compliance with Ministerial Directions issued for the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Scheme
(Contract 2 Newford to Knocknadaula) under the National Monuments Amendment Act 2004.

Test excavations on this site in 2005 identified two separate areas of archaeological potential on
the basis of negative cut features and associated in situ burning visible in the base of test trenches.
Limited investigation of these features confirmed their status as archaeological, and these
separate areas were subsequently designated Area A and Area B with recommendations for full
excavation of all features to ascertain the character, significance and extent of archaeological
deposits.

Full excavation revealed a possible Bronze Age funerary pyre, cremated token deposits and
associated post‐holes in Area A, and a Bronze Age burnt mound with associated trough in Area
B.

1. Introduction

This document is submitted as a report on the osteological analysis of cremated human remains
recovered during archaeological excavations at Newford, Co. Galway under the direction of
Brendon Wilkins of Headland Archaeology Ltd. The human remains from E2437 Newford
consist of burnt bone from within pits (1068, 1161 & 1177); post‐holes (1135, 1006, 1058, 1100,
1087, 1090, 1098, 1133, 1039, 1066 & 1024) and a pyre feature (1004). The majority of the
osteological analysis was carried out on the pyre pit, which contained a moderate quantity of
cremated bone.

2. Methodology

2.1. Processing

All contexts containing a considerable amount of human bone were carefully wet‐sieved through
a sieve bank of 10 mm, 5 mm and 2 mm mesh sizes, under the supervision of a qualified
osteologist. However, there were some samples that were processed through a flotation tank
because of the small amount of cremated bone that was believed to be in them. Any grave goods,
pyre debris and charcoal recovered during this process were retained for examination by the
appropriate specialist. The cleaned bone was dried and bagged according to mesh size, and
packed in museum standard boxes prior to analysis.

56
2.2. Analysis

Following procedures laid down by McKinley (1994b; 2004), and Gejvall (1969), the remains from
each burial were assessed for:
• weight
• degree of fragmentation
• skeletal elements
• demographic data ‐ sex, age, minimum number of individuals
• pathology data
• efficiency of cremation.

2.3. Dating

Bone samples from two contexts were provided to Queen’s University, Belfast, for radiocarbon
dating. The results indicate that the funerary activity at Newford dates to the latter stages of the
Later Bronze Age. Table 1 also shows the radiocarbon dates of charcoal from deposits that also
contained burnt bone.

Calibrated range (2
Radiocarbon
Context Description Lab Number sigma) calendar yrs BC /
Date BP
AD
Cremated human bone from
1104 UB‐7406 2535 +/‐ 35 799‐540 BC
pyre feature (1004)
Cremated human bone from
1156 UB‐7484 2580 +/‐ 34 814‐559 BC
pyre feature (1004)
Charcoal Corylus avellana
1007 UB‐7399 2863 +/‐ 33 1187‐921 BC
(hazel) from post‐hole (1006)
Charcaol Quercus sp. (oak)
1059 UB‐7401 2843 +/‐ 33 1114‐918 BC
from post‐hole (1058)
Charcoal Pomoidaceae spp.
1069 (apple/hawthorn/rowan type) UB‐7402 2834 +/‐ 33 1113‐908 BC
from pit (1068)
Charcoal Pomoidaceae spp.
1162 (apple/hawthorn/rowan type) UB‐7403 2854 +/‐ 32 1121‐925 BC
from post‐hole (1161)
Table 1. Radiocarbon results from E2437 Newford
3. Results

In all, 18 possible cremations were fully excavated, resulting in 213 litres of material processed,
see Table 2 below.

Context Fill Of Sample No Feature Type Sample Size (lt.)
1104 (1004) 20, 21,22, 24, 25, 59, 60, 71, 72, 74, Fill of pyre 43.5
75
1156 (1004) 61, 76, 66 Fill of pyre 5
1136 (1135) 13 Fill of post‐hole 4
57
1069 (1068) 43 Fill of pit 4
1162 & (1161) 38 Fills of post‐hole 20
1163
1157 (1004) 67 Fill of pyre 1
1179 (1177) 69 Fill of pit 0.5
Table 2. Size of samples processed for cremation analysis

3.1. Type of Deposit

Recording of the type of deposit of cremated bone is necessary to make fair comparisons between
different deposits from across a site, between one site and another and between cremated bone
deposits from different historical contexts. Recording the type of deposit allows inferences to be
made about the state of preservation of the material interred and how this may have affected
bone content and fragmentation. This information is essential for accurate analysis of cremation
processes due to diagnostic analytical techniques being based upon the weight and size of bone
fragments present.

In Area A, 18 features with burnt human bone were excavated and 100% sampled. These
features were a similar dimension, profile and fill, and were all interpreted as a pyre, cremation
pits and post‐holes. There was no evidence for in situ burning or capping stones associated with
these features that could otherwise have indicated the visible presence of a cremation from the
surface.

Pyre feature (1004) (Plate 3) was sub‐rectangular in shape and 3.7 m long and 2 m wide, with a
NW/SE orientation. Three fills (1157, 1156 & 1104) of the pyre feature contained varying
quantities of cremated bone.

Pyre fill (1157), was charcoal rich but only contained occasional burnt bone. The secondary
deposit (1156) contained both burnt human and animal bone. It is also important to note that this
feature was excavated in spits between 0.04‐0.05 m in an attempt to ascertain, whether the bone
was distributed in a deliberate order, or whether it had been placed into the pit with no regard
for skeletal element. These spits were identified with a number; Spit 1 of context (1156) was
displayed as 1156:1 (Plate 1) and Spit 2 as 1156:2 (Plate 2). A deposit of cremated material (1104)
contained frequent burnt bone throughout and it was also excavated in spits between 70‐80 mm,
1104:1 (Plate 1), 1104:2 (Plate 2) and 1104:3. This pit was very trough‐like in appearance, the
deposit of cremated material (1104) appears to have been placed on the eastern side much later
than the pit was dug.
58

The post‐holes containing burnt bone material ranged in dimensions from 0.15 m in diameter and
0.17 m deep to 0.43 m by 0.41 m. Post‐hole fills (1136, 1007, 1059, 1162/3, 1101, 1088, 1025, 1091,
1099, 1134, 1040, 1067) also contained varying amounts of charcoal and burnt material. Only
post‐hole fill (1007) contained a single rim sherd of shell tempered pottery and (1069) contained
an animal tooth.

The secondary fill (1069) of a shallow pit (3.5 m wide, 2 m long and 0.15 m deep) was charcoal
rich, and contained burnt bone. Additionally a burnt depression (1179) contained some charcoal,
occasional burnt stones and bone.

3.2. Identification and quantification of cremated bone

Cremated bone deposits have been found on frequent occasions to contain both human and
animal bone remains. Often, particularly if the bone fragments are very small, it is not possible to
identify whether bone is categorically human or animal. However, it is clear from the analysis of
cremated bone deposits that the deposition of both types of bone together is intentional and,
therefore, it is imperative to approach the assessment of the cremated bone present in an
integrated way to attempt to identify human and animal elements.

The table below summarises the results of the quantification analysis:

Total Weight of Total Weight of Identifiable Human
Context MNI
Cremated Bone (g) Fragments (g)
1104 684.9 72.3 1
1156 7.2 0 0
1136 1.1 0 0
1007 0.3 0 0
1059 1.2 0 0
1069 0.7 0 0
1162/3 0.2 0 0
1101 1.0 0 0
1157 0.1 0 0
1088 2.8 0 0
1025 0.3 0 0
1091 0.6 0 0
1099 0.3 0 0
1134 4.0 0 0
1179 3.8 0 0
1040 0.5 0 0
1067 0.8 0 0
Total 709.8 72.3 1
Table 3. Summary of the quantification analysis

An assessment of the quantity of bone recovered may give an indication of the state of
preservation of the associated feature in which the bone was interred or, if recovered from a
relatively undisturbed context, may provide valuable information regarding cremation processes.
This may relate not only to the actual pyre technology itself but also to the collection and ritual
59
deposition of bone after the process was complete. McKinley (1993) found that modern
cremation processes resulted in the production of between 1227.4 g and 3001.3 g of bone. From
this she inferred that the cremation of a whole body and deposition of the remains in an
archaeological context would realistically produce between 1001.5 g and 2422 g of cremated
human bone.

Identification of particular elements of the human body serves to confirm the presence of human
material and also may give an insight into any particular areas of the body which may have been
purposefully collected following cremation. The absence of elements, especially those that are
smaller, may be due to the lack of their survival as a result of fragmentation during the
cremation, post‐depositional preservation conditions or may be due to their loss during
cremation itself.

The content of the bone from each context varied but was consistently well below (an
approximation of 10%) the amount that would be expected by osteologists to be representative of
a cremated, whole body in an archaeological deposition. Even though Table 3 shows that the
MNI for the site in Newford is one.

Total Weight (g)
50
40
30
20 Total Weight (g)
10
0
Skull Axial Upper Lower
Skeleton Limb Limb

Figure 1. Weight distribution of identified fragments from pyre fill (1104)

Only the main pyre fill (1104) produced bone fragments that could be identified as definitely
being human. It contained skull fragments (Plate 4), teeth, humerus, radii, ulna, hand phalanges
(Plate 5), ribs, cervical vertebrae, tibiae (Plate 6) and fibula. Figure 1 below shows the weight
distribution of identified fragments from this context:

3.3. Demographic Data

Demographic data recorded from human cremated bone gives an indication as to the age and sex
of the individual. This information is derived from the macroscopic examination and metric
assessment of sexually dimorphic elements (Gejvall 1981) as well as analysis of dental and bone
60

Colour Temperature

Brown/Orange Unburnt

Black Charred (c.400°C)

Blue/Grey Incompletely Oxidised (c.500‐700°C)

White Completely Oxidised (>800°C)

Table 5. Range of colours in burnt bone related to the temperature

The colour may vary from bone to bone as different elements of the body may be exposed to
different temperatures for different lengths of time. It is, therefore, essential to record any
differences in colouration according to skeletal elements affected and to the aspect of the element
(i.e. interior, exterior) affected. The extent of the burning or oxidation of the bone represents the
relative success of the cremation processed applied and contemporary knowledge of pyre
technology.

Dehydration of the bone was recorded in Newford. Horizontal and longitudinal cracking were
evident in the majority of the identifiable long bones. There was also evidence of ‘U’‐shaped
cracking of the femoral shaft. Shrinkage of bone due to dehydration can amount to a 25‐30%
decrease in cross‐section width and accordingly approximately a 5% decrease in length (Lange et
al. 1987).

50
45
40
35
% of Material
30 Unburnt
25 Black
20 Blue
15 Grey
White
10
5
0
1157 1156 1104
Cremation Deposits
Figure 2. Percentage of colour of cremated bone in each deposit of pyre (1004)

63
development recommended by Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994). A large sample of well‐preserved
cremated bone deposits can provide a valuable insight into the demographic structure of the
archaeological population and also into any ethnocentric funerary practices associated with age
and sex of the individual cremation.

Observations of material present and any indicators of age and sex were noted on the recording
sheets. No fragments present were large enough to allow for metric or observable morphological
assessments to be undertaken.

Age
The pyre fill (1104) contained two elements that could be analysed macroscopically to ascertain
the age of this individual. These were a permanent root of a third molar and two crowns of a
premolar. This would indicate that the individual was at least 21 years old at death.

The remaining contexts contained no elements that could be analysed macroscopically to
ascertain the age of these individuals.

Sex
No elements were present in any of the contexts from Newford that could be assessed for
indications of the sex of this individual.

3.4. Bone Fragmentation

The observation and quantification of bone fragmentation is essential in assessing its impact on
the quality of the overall data retrieved from the analysis of cremated bone. It may also be an
indicator of practices carried out during the cremation process and give an insight into pyre
technology. Usually fragmentation of bone can be assessed by sorting all bone fragments into
three sieve fractions (10 mm, 5 mm, 2 mm) and comparing the proportion of bone in each fraction
(McKinley 2004); but due to the nature of the samples it was thought best for them to be wet‐
sieved through a flotation tank. Measurement of the maximum bone fragment is also recorded.

The fragmentation of bone can occur for several reasons, i.e. from the raking of the remains
during the cremation process, the collection and the subsequent interment of the remains,
making it difficult to assess whether bone was deliberately fragmented as part of the cremation
ritual (McKinley 1994b). It is, however, generally believed that both the excavation and post‐
excavation processes can lead to the largest amount of damage caused to the remains (Lange et
al. 1987; McKinley 1994b).

Table 4 below summarises the results of the quantification of cremated bone present by sieve
fraction weight and percentage of total weight:

61
10mm 10mm 5mm 5mm 2mm 2mm
Context weight % of weight % of weight % of
(g) Total (g) Total (g) Total
1104:1 83.7 17.9% 246.8 52.9% 136.3 29.2%
1104:2 21.9 10.5% 101.1 48.6% 85.2 40.9%
1104:3 1.4 14.1% 5.6 56.6% 2.9 29.3%
1156:1 0 0 0.7 31.8% 1.5 68.2%
1156:2 0 0 2.2 45.8% 2.6 54.2%
1136 0 0 0.7 63.6% 0.4 36.4%
1007 0 0 0 0 0.3 100
1059 0 0 0 0 1.2 100
1069 0 0 0 0 0.7 100
1162/3 0 0 0 0 0.2 100%
1101 0.1 10% 0.3 30% 0.6 60%
1157 0 0 0 0 0.1 100%
1088 2.4 85.7% 0.3 10.7% 0.1 3.6%
1025 0.3 100% 0 0 0 0
1091 0.2 33.3% 0.3 50% 0.1 16.7%
1099 0 0 0.1 33.3% 0.2 66.7%
1134 3.4 85% 0.5 12.5% 0.1 2%
1179 2.6 68.4% 0.8 21.1% 0.4 10.5%
1040 0.3 60% 0.2 40% 0 0
1067 0.6 75% 0.2 25% 0 0
Table 4. Summary of cremated bone present by sieve fraction weight and
percentage of total weight

These results indicate that 83.5% of the cremated bone recovered from all of the deposits was less
than 10 mm in size. Although the average maximum fragment size was 16.79 mm (36.6 mm
being the maximum), only a small percentage of the bone present was of this size. The vast
majority of the bone, however, was rounded and indicated that the degree of bone fragmentation
observed may have been present at the time of deposition. This may, therefore, have been the
result of the cremation processed employed.

3.5. Efficiency of the Cremation

Effective cremation of a human body requires basically two elements: burning at high
temperatures and a sufficient length of time of the application of this heat. Differences in
temperature and length of time of exposure will result in variation in how the bone is burned.
Complete burning will result in complete oxidation of the organic element of bone, leaving the
mineral portion remaining (McKinley 1994a; Lange et al. 1987).

Walker et al. (2006) reports that generally, the range of colours (black, blue, grey and white –
Plate 8) seen in burnt bone relates to the temperature to which the bone was exposed as seen in
Table 5 below:
62
Figure 2 displays the percentage of colour of cremated bone in each deposit of pyre pit (1004).
The results of the analysis of colour variation in the fragments of bone indicate that all of the
deposits contained bone that had been exposed to heat at a sufficient temperature (i.e. above
800°C) for a sustained amount of time in order to completely oxidise the bone. However, there
was quite an amount of bone (67%) that was not completely oxidised (>800°C). The presence of
blue/grey bone amongst completely oxidised bone was common in Newford. This was generally
present along the internal surface, or in the cancellous bone of long bones. This may indicate that
this bone was exposed to high enough temperatures to oxidise the outside of the bone (or cortical
bone) but not for long enough for the internal surface of the bone to oxidise (Murray and Rose
1993). This implies that only some regions of the skeleton were completely burnt while others
did not quite reach the optimum temperature.

The presences of unburnt bone in pit fill (1069), pyre fill (1157) and post‐hole fill (1134) were
noted during analysis and may well represent an event separate to the main cremation process.

3.6. Presence and Type of Pyre Debris

Recent experimental reconstructions of pyre sites have determined that distinct features and
types of debris can be left by former pyre sites and in particular that the use of different materials
alters the type and form of deposit (Marshall 2005).

Preliminary species identification of the charcoal from the pyre deposit (1104) and post‐hole
(1136) reveals that a range of trees were gathered as firewood, including oak, hazel, ash and
willow. Oak produce hot fires, which burn for long periods of time, making it ideal for use in a
cremation pyre. The presence of hazel, which generally prefers to grow in more ‘dryland’
conditions, and willow, which would be considered as a typical ‘wetland’ species, indicates that
firewood was collected from dry areas like the nearby riverbanks, or that the site was located on
the boundary of a dry and wetland environment. Ash makes excellent firewood, burns
fragrantly and prefers moist but well drained fertile soils. Lime‐rich soils are conductive to the
growth of ash. There is some suggestion in the literature that fragrant woods were preferred for
cremation pyres (McKinley 1994b). This evidence corresponds with the site as it was described as
being good quality pastureland and with decayed limestone contained in the natural and
subsoils.

4. Discussion

At Newford, 14 features contained burnt bone (excluding pyre feature 1004). It is unlikely that all
of these are token burials. Any feature containing less than 1.0 g of burnt bone is discounted as
being a token deposit as it is possible that wind or other natural processes could have easily
carried this material. Therefore only six possible token burials were considered in Newford but it
is very unlikely that this constitutes a Late Bronze Age cemetery, as even the amount of burnt
bone in these features are considerably minute.

The sub‐rectangular feature (1004) probably represents a pyre structure that would have
supported the cremation of an individual. It was 3.2 m long, 1.6 m wide and no more than 0.15 m
deep. It contained charcoal‐rich contexts and a moderate amount of burnt bone. If this was a
64
pyre then it would have adequately held a human body on top of the pyre material, as an
experimental pyre of a cremating pig (Plate 7) measures 2 m long by 1.25 m wide (Marshall 2005).

Radiocarbon dating estimations divide the site into two separate phases of activity. The pits and
post‐holes containing minute fragments of burnt bone and dated charcoal suggest that they were
in use several generations (approximately 300 years) before the use of the pyre. This would
suggest that the inclusion of burnt bone into these pits and post‐hole were completed long before
the area was used as a pyre site and therefore primary and secondary burial rites were not being
practiced contemporarily. This would support the notion that when funerary pyres are identified
they are rarely located near cemeteries (Waddell 1990, 20).

It is unclear how carefully the remains were gathered following firing. However, the presence of
some hand phalanges and teeth suggests that they had been carefully collected. It is possible that
subsequent erosion has reduced what were originally much fuller remains. Many fragments had
clearly broken along fracture lines during the burning process.

Unfortunately, it cannot be stated with certainty how many individuals were represented in pyre
fill (1104). The most convincing evidence points to most of the remains belonging to an adult.
However, the presence of a third molar and premolar indicates that either these were stray teeth,
which somehow became incorporated with the remains of another individual, or that the entire
remains were those of an adult, aged at least 21 years.

The sex of this individual (or individuals) is unknown. There was no evidence of disease and the
cause of death could not be ascertained.

The excavation report considered whether primary processes, such as excarnation may have been
carried out on platforms at this site, but osteological analysis of the cremated bone would suggest
otherwise. Characteristic dehydration such as horizontal, longitudinal and U‐shaped fissuring
was demonstrated on the bone. This indicates a number of factors. Firstly it seems likely that
when the body was burnt there was still flesh and particularly fat attached to the bone, as
opposed to the burning of defleshed (excarnated) bones. In a modern crematorium, when the
body reaches a temperature of 800°C the fat in the body ignites and essentially, the body then
burns so fiercely that the gas jets may be switched off (Mays 1998; McKinley 1994a). The splitting
on the bones from Newford indicate intense burning such as this but only one third of the sample
was fully oxidised (white‐colouration) and the majority of bone (64%) was blue‐grey indicating
temperatures between 500‐700°C. This implies that temperatures must have differed throughout
the pyre with only a small percentage of bones were becoming charred.

Pyre deposit (1104) contained 96.6% of the cremated bone from Newford and was located in the
centre of the eastern edge of the pit, constituting one of the upper fills. Further pyre fills (1156 &
1157) also had a small amount of cremated bone but because of the nature and location of these
fills it is thought that the cremated bone may have been a result of previous use of the pyre site.
However, it is impossible to say how many times the actual pyre feature itself was used.

The evidence for the inclusion of goods was a piece of struck chert (Plate 10) and quartz pebbles
(Plate 11) located in possible pyre deposit (1104). Chert was often used during the prehistoric
period as a source material for stone tools and is considered less attractive and more common
than flint. There were three quartz pebbles, one from Spit 1 and two from Spit 2 in the pyre
65
deposits (1104). The inclusion of quartz points to a ritual use. Quartz was a known indicator of
copper and gold, and may have been thought to have magical properties (INHP 2006). Also, a
single rim sherd from a Late Bronze Age domestic vessel (Grogan & Roche 2007) came from the
fill of post‐hole (1007). Although a very minute amount of burnt bone (0.3 g) was found in this
context it is unlikely that this was a token burial or that the pottery was linked to the burnt bone.
It is quite feasible that the pottery was interred without the burnt bone being associated with it.

5. Conclusion

The cremated bone from Newford was mostly found in a pyre feature and only 3.5% of the bone
came from various pits and post‐holes. The volume of cremated bone was moderate amounting
to 709.8 g for the entire site. Consequently, only a small percentage (10.2%) of the total could be
identified. Although no pathological features were noted on the remains, it was ascertained that
the individual was an adult, of at least 21 years at death and of indeterminate sex.

Pyre sites are not commonly found; therefore Newford helps us investigate prehistoric primary
ritual technology. Cremation technology appears to have been imperfectly understood, whereby
they used the appropriate firewood for the pyre but did not achieve even temperatures to fully
cremate the majority of the bones. The pyre was made up of woods such as oak, hazel, ash and
willow, which would have created a very hot and long‐lasting fire.

66
Plate 1 - Pre-excavation shot of Spit 1 of pyre fill (1104) in northeast quadrant of pyre pit (1004)
Plate 2 - Pre-excavation shot of Spit 2 of pyre fill (1104) in northeast quadrant of pyre pit (1004).
Note the concentration of cremated bone
Plate 3 - North-facing post-excavation shot of cremation pyre (1004)
Plate 4 - Skull fragments

Plate 5 - Two distal hand phalanges
Plate 6 - Nutrient foramen on right tibia

Plate 7 - Premolar crown (left); third molar root and partial crown (right)
Plate 8 - Range of colours of cremated bone – black, blue, grey and white
Plate 9 - Experimental pyre of a cremating pig (Marshall 2005)
Plate 10 - Worked chert (E2437:1104:1)

Plate 11 - Quartz pebbles
7. Bibliography

Buikstra, J E and Ubelaker, D H (eds) 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal
Remains, Research Series NO 44, Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey.

Gejvall, N G 1969 ‘Cremations’ In Brothwell, D and Higgs, E (eds) Science in Archaeology, 2nd Ed.,
London: Thames and Hudson.

Gejvall, N G 1981‘Determination of burned bone from prehistoric graves: observations on the
cremated bones from the graves at Horn’ Ossa Letters NO 2.

Grogan, E and Roche, H 2007 ‘Ballygarraun, South Newford, Co. Galway (A024/002, Site 2.1A)’
Report on the prehistoric pottery assemblages from the N6 Galway – Ballinasloe Scheme. Unpublished
technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for Galway County Council.

Irish National Heritage Park, 2006 ‘Ferrycarrig, Co. Wexford’.
http://www.inhp.com/history_bronze.htm

Lange, M, Schutkowski, H, Hummel, S and Herrmann, B 1987 A Bibliography on Cremation, PACT
19. Strasbourg: Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.

Marshall, A J 2005 ‘Experimental Cremation of Prehistoric Type’.
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/field_proj/amarsh/cremexp.htm

Mays, S 1998 The Archaeology of Human Bones, London: Routledge.

McKinley, J I 1993 ‘Bone fragment size and weights of bone from modern British cremations and
their implications for the interpretation of archaeological cremations’.International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology, 3, 283‐287.

McKinley, J.I. 1994a. ‘ Bone fragment size in British cremation burials and its implications for
pyre technology and ritual’. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 339‐342.

McKinley, J I 1994b ‘The Anglo‐Saxon cemetery at Spong Hill, North Eltham part VIII: the
cremations’ East Anglian Archaeology Report NO 69, Dereham: Field Archaeology Division,
Norfolk Museums Service.

McKinley, J I 2004 ‘Compiling a skeletal inventory: cremated human bone’ In Brickley, M and
McKinley, J I (eds) Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains, Institute of Field
Archaeologists Paper NO 7, 9‐13, in association with BABAO.

Murray, K A and Rose, J C 1993 ‘The analysis of cremains: a case study involving the
inappropriate disposal of mortuary remains’ Journal of Forensic Sciences, 3, 98‐103.

Waddell, J 1990 The Bronze Age Burials of Ireland, Galway: Galway University Press.

67
Walker, P L, Miller, K W P, and Richman, R 2006 ‘Time, temperature, and oxygen availability: an
experimental study of the effects of environmental conditions on the colour and organic content
of cremated bone’ Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2‐15.

8. Appendix

8.1. Tables of Raw Data

Total Weight Black Blue‐Grey White Max. Frag Size
Cut Fill Spit (g) (%) (%) (%) (mm)
1004 1104 1 466.8 3.40% 55.70% 40.90% 36.6
1004 1104 2 208.2 10.40% 74.9% 14.60% 33
1004 1104 3 9.9 1% 58.60% 40.40% 27.46
1004 1156 1 2.2 22.70% 45.50% 31.80% 14.8
1004 1156 2 5.0 14% 40% 46% 14.37
1135 1136 ‐ 1.1 9.10% 54.50% 36.40% 14
1006 1007 ‐ 0.3 ‐ ‐ 100% 8.77
1058 1059 ‐ 1.2 8.30% 41.70% 50% 10.8
1068 1069 ‐ 0.9* ‐ 33.30% 44.40% 14.05
1161 1162/1163 ‐ 0.2 ‐ ‐ 100% 9.38
1100 1101 ‐ 1.0 50% 10% 40% 10.60
1004 1157 ‐ 0.2** ‐ ‐ 50% 4.47
1087 1088 ‐ 2.8 46.4% 3.6% 50% 24.79
1024 1025 ‐ 0.3 ‐ 100% ‐ 11.98
1090 1091 ‐ 0.6 ‐ ‐ 100% 10.55
1098 1099 ‐ 0.3 ‐ ‐ 100% 9.28
1133 1134 ‐ 4.1*** ‐ ‐ 97.6% 26.49
1177 1179 ‐ 3.8 26.3% ‐ 73.7% 26.53
1039 1040 ‐ 0.5 ‐ ‐ 100% 11.49
1066 1067 ‐ 0.8 12.5% ‐ 87.5% 16.42
(* 0.2g (22.2%) of unburnt bone) (**0.1g (50%) of unburnt bone) (***0.1g (2.4%) of unburnt bone)
Table 1. Cremated material by spit and colour
68
Cut Fill Spit 10mm Fraction 5mm Fraction 2mm Fraction Total Weight
1004 1104 1 83.7 246.8 136.3 466.8
1004 1104 2 21.9 101.1 85.2 208.2
1004 1104 3 1.4 5.6 2.9 9.9
1004 1156 1 ‐ 0.7 1.5 2.2
1004 1156 2 ‐ 2.3 2.7 5.0
1135 1136 ‐ ‐ 0.7 0.4 1.1
1006 1007 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 0.3
1058 1059 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 1.2
1068 1069 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 0.7
1161 1162/1163 ‐ ‐ ‐ - 0.2
1100 1101 ‐ 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.0
1004 1157 ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.2 0.1
1087 1088 ‐ 2.4 0.3 0.1 2.8
1024 1025 ‐ 0.3 ‐ - 0.3
1090 1091 ‐ 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.6
1098 1099 ‐ ‐ 0.1 0.2 0.3
1133 1134 ‐ 3.4 0.5 0.1 4.0
1177 1179 ‐ 2.6 0.8 0.4 3.8
1039 1040 ‐ 0.3 0.2 - 0.5
1066 1067 ‐ 0.6 0.2 - 0.8
Table 2. Cremated material by spit and sieve fraction (g)
Cut Fill Skull Axial Skeleton Upper Limb Lower Limb Unidentifiable

(g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
1004 1104 48.4 2.3 10 11.6 612.4
1004 1156 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 7.2
1135 1136 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1.1
1006 1007 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3
1058 1059 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1.2
1068 1069 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.7
1161 1162/1163 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.2
1100 1101 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1.0
1004 1157 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.1
1087 1088 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 2.8
1024 1025 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3
1090 1091 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.6
1098 1099 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.3
1133 1134 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 4.0
1177 1179 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 3.8
1039 1040 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.5
1066 1067 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 0.8
Table 3. Recognisable skeletal elements by context (g)
69

Figure 1. Representation of recognisable elements from cremation burial (1104)
E2437 Newford

70
Appendix 10: Site matrix
1000
1001
1089
1173
1155 1088
1172
1087
1156 1104
1157 1158 1159 1160
1089 1069 1111 1143 1004
1088 1070 1144 1132

1101 1059 1122
1181
1087 1068 1145 1019 1031 1154 1131
1100 1058 1121 1210 1212 1214 1216 1128 1061 1067 1075 1077 1113 1171 1208 1202 1028 1126 1048 1042 1063 1086 1097 1120
1146 1020 1032 1153
1209 1211 1213 1215 1038 1060 1066 1074 1076 1112 1170 1207 1196 1203 1029 1127 1049 1043 1062 1085 1096 1119
1025 1168 1200 1152
1147 1018 1030
1204 1201 1027 1125 1047 1041
1124 1136 1022 1036 1151
1099 1040 1026 1132 1169 1148 1008 1011 1013 1015 1017 1134 1184 1186 1194 1198 1206 1199 1083 1095 1191 1045 1065 1093 1106
1123 1135 1195 1023 1037 1150
1098 1039 1024 1131 1167 1009 1010 1012 1014 1016 1133 1183 1185 1193 1197 1205 1064 1092 1105
1149 1084 1102 1192 1046
1021 1035
1005 / 1176 1082 1094 1190 1044
1107 1139
1108 1140
1109 1141
1110 1142
1103 1137
1002 1003
Legend:
1183 = Cut = Postholes cluster A
= 2 large postholes = Postholes cluster B
= Pits with burnt bone = Pit
= Postholes with burnt bone = Pyre and Postholes

Newford Bronze Age Cremation Pyre and Burnt Mound

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Site No Burials MNI Average Burial Weight (g)

Item Quantity Quantity

Figure 1 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Figure 2 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

1094 1170 1112

Figure 3 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Figure 4 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

North-facing section of 1004

1156 iron mottles

East-facing section of 1004 0 0.5 m

Figure 5 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

East-facing section of 1058

Figure 6 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Figure 7 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Figure 8 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Figure 9 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Figure 10 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Newford E2437

Plate 4 - Area A: Northwest-facing section of post-hole 1024

Plate 6 - Area A: East-facing section of post-hole 1058

Plate 8 - Area A: South-facing section of post-hole 1137

Plate 10 - Area A: Post-excavation view of post-hole 1137

Plate 12 - Area A: East-facing section of pyre 1004

Plate 14 - Area A: Post-excavation view of pyre 1004

Plate 16 - Area A: Northeast-facing section of pit 1111

Plate 18 - Area B: Pre-excavation view of 2004

Total Weight (g)

20 Total Weight (g)

Plate 4 - Skull fragments

Plate 6 - Nutrient foramen on right tibia

Plate 10 - Worked chert (E2437:1104:1)

Cut Fill Skull Axial Skeleton Upper Limb Lower Limb Unidentifiable

1157 1158 1159 1160

1089 1069 1111 1143 1004

1088 1070 1144 1132

= 2 large postholes = Postholes cluster B

= Pits with burnt bone = Pit

= Postholes with burnt bone = Pyre and Postholes

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