1-1

For the following systems, define a control volume and state whether the system is open or closed and steady or unsteady. Identify any and all heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations flows. a. Rocket b. Pot of boiling water with no lid c. Portable space heater with fan d. The jet airplane in Figure 1-1c e. The house in Figure 1-4

Approach:
For each system, identify a control volume with a dotted line and then describe the various processes occurring to the system.

Solution:
a) Define the control volume to surround the rocket. Because the hot exhaust gases cross the boundary, this is an open system. As the propellant burns, a mass flow exits through the rockets nozzle and the mass of the rocket decreases (changes with time), so the system is unsteady. The nozzle is very hot compared to its surroundings, so there is heat transfer across the boundary, but it is negligible compared to the energy flow associated with the hot exhaust gases. The stored energy in the rocket propellant is converted to kinetic energy in the rockets nozzle. b) Define the control volume as shown in the figure to the right. Heat transfer crosses the boundary from the gas flame to the pot bottom. Because the water is boiling, water vapor crosses (a mass flow rate) the boundary at the top of the pot, so the mass of the system decreases with time, so this is an unsteady system. The vapor leaving the system removes energy from the system. (Note that if the water was not boiling and heat added, then the mass of the water would remain the same, but the temperature of the water would increase with time, so the system would still be unsteady.) c) Define the control volume as shown in the figure. Electricity crosses the boundary in the wire; electricity is considered work. Air is sucked into and pushed out of the heater by the fan; this is the same mass flow rate crossing the boundary in two locations. Because neither air nor energy is stored in the heater, and the air flow is constant, this is a steady system. (Note that once the electricity is inside the heater, some of the electricity is converted to mechanical work to drive the fan, and some electricity is dissipated in the heater to heat the air. Because neither of these conversion processes results in work or heat crossing the boundary we have defined, we do not have heat transfer or a second work process.) Electricity (mechanical work) is converted to thermal energy in the flowing air and kinetic energy in the air. d) Define a control volume to encompass the airplane. The processes are identical to those identified in part (a) for the rocket.

e) Define a control volume as shown in the figure to the right. Heat transfer enters the house due to the solar radiation. Assuming the air outside the house is warmer than the air inside the house, there also is heat transfer from the surroundings into the house. Electricity enters the house to drive the air conditioner; electricity is considered mechanical work. A mass flow of refrigerant enters and leaves the house at different conditions where the control volume cuts through the two pipes. Assuming the air temperatures, solar radiation, and flow rate of refrigerant are constant, this is a steady system.

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1-2

Describe some of the thermal-fluid systems in a typical residence, define a boundary, and describe the energy and/or mass flows associated with them.

Approach:
Chose several systems, identify a control volume with a dotted line and then describe the various processes occurring to the system.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume to surround a refrigerator, as shown in the first diagram; the control volume passes along the surface of the heat exchanger at the back of the refrigerator. Assume the cooling unit is operating. Electricity crosses the boundary; electricity is considered work. There is heat transfer from the warmer room to the colder interior of the refrigerator. As the cooling unit is running (for example, to freeze ice cubes), the total energy level in the refrigerator drops, so that the system is unsteady. If the cooling unit is not running, there is no work crossing the boundary, but heat transfer still occurs from the warmer room to the cooler refrigerator interior. The energy level in the refrigerator increases, so the system is unsteady. Note that no mass flows across the boundary, so this is a closed system. Note that the cooling unit has a heat exchanger often on the back of the refrigerator that transfers energy from the hot refrigerant to the cooler room. Depending on where the control volume surface is drawn, the processes occurring will change. Defining the control volume to pass along the surface of the heat exchanger, then this there is a heat transfer process with heat flowing from the surface of the heat exchanger to the room air, but no mass flow, so this is a closed system. If the control volume is drawn farther away from the heat exchange surface to include the air, then there is a mass flow of air at different temperatures into and out of the control volume, but there is no heat transfer; this results in an open system. If the control volume is drawn to cut the tubes conveying the refrigerant, then there is a mass flow of refrigerant at different condition into and out of the control volume, but no heat transfer or mass flow of air, but, again, this is an open system. b) Define a control volume around a gas oven as shown on the figure to the right, and assume the oven has been just turned on. Gas flows (mass flow rate) across the boundary; so this is an open system. Electricity is also flows across the boundary, so there is a work process. Air is needed to burn the gas, so cold air enters and hot exhaust gases exit the control volume, so these are two more mass flows carrying energy that need to be taken into account. The surface of the oven is warmer than the room, so there is a heat transfer process. With time, the oven heats, so this is an unsteady system. If the oven has been on for a long time, and the desired oven temperature has been reached, the oven thermostat maintains the fixed temperature. The gas and air flows remain constant and the temperature is fixed, so this then would be a steady, open system. c) Define a control volume to encompass the lightbulb. No mass crosses the boundary so it is a closed system. Electricity flows to the bulb, so there is a work (power) term. The bulb is hot so there is heat transfer from the bulb to the surrounding air. Likewise, some energy leaves the systems as visible light. When the lightbulb is first turned on, it takes a little while before it reaches a steady temperature, so it would be an unsteady system. After a long time operating, the temperature would stabilize and the system would be steady.

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1-3

For the following four systems, define a control volume, state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, constant volume or changing volume, constant fluid density or changing fluid density. Also, identify all heat transfer, energy flows, and mass flows. a. Swimming pool being filled (Choose one control volume as the whole pool; then choose a second control volume one surface of which follows the surface of the rising water.) b. Helium tank being filled c. Helium balloon being filled

Approach:
For the given systems, identify a control volume with a dotted line and then describe the various processes occurring to the system.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume to surround the physical pool envelope (the concrete, tile, etc.) and cutting across the top opening, as shown. Water flows in, so mass crosses the boundary. The total mass of the system is increasing so this is an unsteady, open system. The rising water level displaces air, so air leaves the system. However, the air mass flow rate is very small compared to the water flow rate and can be assumed to be negligible. We assume the water has the same temperature as the pool envelope so that there is no heat transfer process. The total volume of the system remains constant, but the mass increases. The density of the water is constant. Mechanical work crosses the boundary because the increasing volume pushes against atmospheric pressure; force is pressure times area, and work is force times distance, but this work would be very small. Define the control volume to include only the water in the pool. During the filling, water crosses this boundary, so this is an unsteady, open system. Unlike the previous control volume, air does not play a roll in the present defined control volume. The volume of the system is changing with time; both the mass and the energy in it increase. Mechanical work crosses the boundary because the increasing volume pushes against atmospheric pressure; force is pressure times area, and work is force times distance, but this work would be very small. The density of the water in the control volume remains constant. b) Define a control volume to follow the inside surface of the helium tank. Mass enters the control volume from the filling port, so this is an unsteady, open system. Energy flows along with this mass. The volume of the system is fixed. The density of helium increases with time. With fixed volume, no mechanical work occurs. As the gas is inside the tank is compressed, the gas temperature will rise. If the temperature of the tank becomes greater than that of the surroundings, then there will be heat transfer. c) Define a control volume to follow the inside surface of the balloon. Mass enters the control volume at the balloons opening, so this is an unsteady, open system. The volume of the system increases. The density of the helium also increases slightly with time. With the increasing volume, mechanical work occurs across the boundary, but this would be very small. The gas compression is small; any heating of the gas inside the balloon due to the compression would be small, so heat transfer would be negligibly small.

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1-4

A thermal solar energy system consists of a solar collector on the roof of a house, a hot water storage tank to store hot water, a heat exchanger through which the hot water passes, a fan that blows air through the heat exchanger to heat the house, and a pump to circulate water through the complete system. Define several different control volumes around different individual pieces of equipment or collections of equipment, and identify if the control volume is steady or unsteady, open or closed, what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur, and if constant or varying volume.

Approach:
Identify several control volumes in this thermal solar energy system with dotted lines and then describe the various processes occurring to the systems.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume to surround the solar collector on the roof. Solar energy enters the system; this is a heat transfer process. Assuming the collector surface is a temperature greater than the surrounding air, there is a second heat transfer process. The pump circulates water through the collector. Assuming the solar radiation, the water flow, the surrounding air temperature, and the entering water temperature are constant, this is a steady, open system. The volume is fixed. If the water entering the solar collector is not constant (that is, we are trying to increase the water temperature in the storage tank) and everything else is constant as in the first part of this answer, then the system would be unsteady, because the overall temperature (energy) level of the collector would be increasing. b) Define a control volume to encompass the pump and its electric motor. Assume they are running at a constant speed. Electricity crosses the boundary; electricity is considered mechanical work. Water enters and leaves across the boundary (mass flow rates). This is an open, steady system. c) Define a control volume to encompass the storage tank. Assume it is well insulated, so there is no heat transfer from it. Water at one temperature enters the tank and leaves at a different temperature. This is an unsteady, open system. Volume is fixed. No mechanical work occurs. d) Define a control volume to surround the fan and heat exchanger. Air and water flow into and out of the control volume. Electricity (work) crosses the boundary to drive the fan. This is an open, steady system.

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1-5

In hydroelectric plants, electric power is generated from the flow of water from a reservoir, such as shown in Figure 1-18. The water flows continuously with a seemingly endless supply. How is the water replenished? Where does the energy in the water come from that is converted to electrical power?

Approach:
The question can be answered with either an open system analysis or a closed system analysis. For the open system, choose a control volume that includes the dam, the reservoir, and the river water just downstream of the dam. For the closed system, choose a control volume that includes all the water on the planet.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume that includes the dam, the reservoir, and the river water just downstream of the dam. This is an open system, with mass entering and leaving. Water flows into the reservoir from an upstream river and groundwater sources. Water leaves via the downstream river. If water enters the control volume at a higher flow rate than it leaves, the reservoir water level rises and the system is unsteady. Conversely, if water drains from the reservoir more quickly than it is replenished, the water level falls. If the flow rates are equal, the system is in steady state. This choice of control volume is not useful for determining how the water is replenished. An energy balance on the control volume shows that the potential energy of the water decreases as it flows from the reservoir to the downstream river. This potential energy is converted into work in the hydroturbine and into kinetic energy of the downstream river water. b) Define a control volume that includes all the water on the earth. No water enters or leaves this control volume, so it is a closed system. The water at the base of the dam flows down the river and empties into an ocean. Water evaporates from the ocean surface and is suspended in the air as water vapor and clouds. The water is transported over the land by air currents and eventually falls to the earth as rain, snow or hail. The water runs over the land and soaks into the soil. Some water is stored as snow or ice and later melts into liquid form. Both the runoff and the groundwater eventually reach rivers, sometimes passing through streams, swamps, lakes and ponds. Some of the river water is at a location upstream of the dam and acts to replenish the supply of water. An energy balance on the control volume reveals that heat is added to the earths water by the sun and by internal heat generation within the earths crust (fission reactions). Work is done by the hydroturbine in the power plant (shown in the figure as being along the Nile river). Thus the turbine work comes from solar or geothermal heat. The river water is replenished because the input heat is driving water circulation on the earth. There are, of course, many more heat and work interactions with the earths water than the two shown.

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1-6

The radiator of a car is a heat exchanger. Energy from the hot water that flows through the heat exchanger is transferred to the cooler air that also flows through the radiator. For the three control volumes defined below, state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur. a. Water b. Air c. Complete heat exchanger

Approach:
For the three systems specified, clearly identify the control volumes with dotted lines and then describe the various processes occurring to the systems.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume (CV I) to surround the water flowing through the car radiator. Assume the air flow rate and inlet temperature are constant; also assume the water flow rate and inlet temperature are constant. Mass (water) flows across the boundary, so this is an open system. Heat flows from the water across the boundary to the air, so there is a heat transfer process. Everything is constant, so this is a steady system. No mechanical work occurs. b) Define a control volume (CV II) to surround the air flowing through the car radiator. Assume the air flow rate and inlet temperature are constant; also assume the water flow rate and inlet temperature are constant. Mass (air) flows across the boundary, so this is an open system. Heat flows from the water across the boundary to the air, so there is a heat transfer process. Everything is constant, so this is a steady system. No mechanical work  = Q  because of the sign convention. occurs. Note that Q I II c) Define a control volume (CV I + CV II) to encompass the complete heat exchanger, and assume the outside surface of the heat exchanger is well insulated. Assume the air flow rate and inlet temperature are constant; also assume the water flow rate and inlet temperature are constant. Mass (air and water) flows across the boundary, so this is an open system. Everything is constant, so this is a steady system. No mechanical work occurs. Note that there is no heat transfer. Heat transfer occurs only across boundaries. The energy flowing from the water to the air is internal to the control volume and not across a boundary, so by definition, there is no heat transfer.

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1-7

An acorn is planted in the ground. After many years, the acorn grows into a mighty oak tree. Define a system, and describe the processes involved. Where did the mass in the tree come from?

Approach:
Define a control volume that includes the tree and the neighboring air and soil. Discuss mass flow and energy transformations.

Solution:
Define a control volume around the tree including the neighboring air, the root system, and the surrounding soil. The system is open, since mass in the form of air, water, and organic materials crosses the control volume over time. The tree grows, so the system is transient. Sunlight enters the control volume and provides energy for photosynthesis. This energy is stored in the tree as chemical energy in the molecules. The tree is composed of organic molecules with four main constituents: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The tree absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air, reduces it, and returns oxygen to the atmosphere. The tree also draws water (H2O) and dissolved nutrients (which contain nitrogen) through the roots, trunk and branches. Much of the mass in the tree comes from the carbon in the surrounding air.

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1-8

A Rankine cycle power plant is shown schematically in Figure 1-13. For the control volumes defined below, state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur. a. Electric generator b. Steam generator c. Complete turbine d. All the equipment shown

Approach:
For the four systems specified, clearly identify the control volumes with dotted lines and then describe the various processes occurring to the systems. For all the systems, we assume that they operate at steady state.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume surrounding the electric generator. Mechanical energy crosses the system from the turbine that drives the electric generator; mechanical energy leaves the control volume in the form of electricity. Not all of the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to electricity (feel a motor; it gets hot since not all the electricity is converted to mechanical energy), so the generator is hotter than the surrounding air and there is heat transfer. Generators also are actively cooled by passing some sort of fluid (water or air or other gases) through them, so most often a generator is an open system. Mechanical energy is converted to electricity (another form of mechanical work) and heat. b) Define a control volume around the steam generator. Fuel and air enter the steam generator, and exhaust gases leave. Water (steam) enters the system at two locations and leave at two locations. Hence, this is an open, steady system. If the outside surface of the steam generator is heavily insulated, then there is not heat transfer; if it is not insulated, there would be heat transfer from the hot steam generator to the colder surrounding air. No mechanical work occurs. The flowing thermal energy in the hot gases formed by combusting the fuel and air is converted to flowing thermal energy in the steam. c) Define a control volume surrounding the steam turbine. Assume the turbine is heavily insulated, so that there is no heat transfer. Steam enters and leaves the turbine at different conditions, so this is an open system. Mechanical energy leaves the turbine where its shaft crosses the boundary. The flowing energy in the steam is converted to mechanical energy in the turbine. d) Define a control volume around all the equipment shown. Mass crosses the boundary in three locations: air, fuel, and exhaust gases. Electricity (mechanical energy) crosses the boundary in one location. Heat transfer crosses the boundary at the steam generator and steam turbine (if not well insulated), at the electrical generator, and at the condenser. The flowing thermal energy in the hot gases formed by combusting the fuel and air ultimately is converted to electricity (mechanical work) in the generator and heat.

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1-9

A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, similar to what is used in air conditioning systems, is shown schematically in Figure 1-5. For the control volumes defined below, state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur. a. Electric motor b. Refrigerant flowing through condenser c. Complete condenser d. Throttling valve e. All the equipment shown

Approach:
For the five systems specified, clearly identify the control volumes with dotted lines and then describe the various processes occurring to the systems. For all the systems, we assume that they operate at steady state.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume surrounding the electric motor. Mechanical energy crosses the system from the turbine that drives the electric generator; mechanical energy leaves the control volume in the form of electricity. Not all of the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to electricity (feel a motor; it gets hot since not all the electricity is converted to mechanical energy), so the generator is hotter than the surrounding air and there is heat transfer. Generators also are actively cooled by passing some sort of fluid (water or air or other gases) through them, so most often a generator is an open system. b) Define a control volume around the refrigerant flowing through the condenser. The flow rate is constant and crosses the boundary, so this is a steady, open system. There is heat transfer from the refrigerant to the surrounding environment. No work occurs.

c) Define a control volume around the complete condenser. Refrigerant enters and leaves the system (crosses the boundary) at different conditions and at a steady flow rate. Air flows through the condenser (crosses the control volume boundary) and removes energy from the refrigerant at a steady rate. Hence, this is an open, steady system. Assume the condenser is insulated. By definition, there is no heat transfer between the refrigerant and air because that energy flow does not cross the control volume boundary. d) Define a control volume surrounding the throttling valve. Assume the valve is heavily insulated, so that there is no heat transfer. Refrigerant enters and leaves the valve at different conditions, so this is an open system. No mechanical work is done.

e) Define a control volume around all the equipment shown. Mass (air) crosses the boundary in four locations: in and out at both the evaporator and condenser. There is no heat transfer. Electricity (work) crosses the boundary at the electric motor.

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1-10

A hot cup of coffee is placed on a tabletop to cool. Define a control volume, and state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur.

Approach:
Define a control volume around the coffee in the cup. Choose two time periods one short so that negligible evaporation occurs, and one long so that significant evaporation occurs.

Solution:
Define a control volume around the coffee in the cup, as shown. If we take a relatively short time period, such as one hour, we may assume that a negligible amount of coffee evaporates and the system is a closed system. The system is unsteady because the coffee cools during the hour. Heat is transferred from the exposed top of the liquid surface by convection and heat conducts into the sides and bottom of the coffee cup. No work is done on or by the coffee. The internal energy of the coffee decreases as heat is transferred from it. If we choose a relatively long time period, such as a week, then we need an open system analysis. During the week, the coffee will not only cool, but also evaporate. This is an unsteady open system, since mass crosses the control volume as water vapor. Energy leaves by heat transfer as before and also is removed by evaporation.

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1-11

The water in a canal lock is at the downstream river level and the gates are opened. A boat enters the locks and the downstream gates are closed. A valve is opened, and water from upstream flows into the lock, raising the boat. After the water reaches the upstream river level, the upstream gates are opened, and the boat travels upstream. Finally, the first valve is closed and a second valve is opened, allowing the water in the lock to drain to the downstream river level. Another boat arrives from downstream, and the process is repeated. Neglect the energy required to open and close the gates and valves. Where does the energy come from to raise the boat?

Approach:
Define a control volume around the canal lock. Alternatively, draw a control volume around the entire earth to show the primary source of the energy used to raise the boat.

Solution:
Define a control volume around the canal lock. This is an open, transient system, with water and boats entering and leaving. In the context of this control volume, the energy to raise the boat comes from the potential energy stored in the water upstream of the canal. We may also choose a control volume that encloses all the water on the earth. This is a closed, transient system. Heat enters this control volume from the sun and also from nuclear reactions within the crust of the earth. The heat energy evaporates water from the surface of all the bodies of water on the earth. The water is transported throughout the earth by wind and returns to the land as rain, snow, or hail. Water runs into the river upstream of the canal, and acts to raise the boat. Thus the ultimate source of the power to lift the boat is sunlight and geothermal energy.

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1-12

A closed pan of cold water is placed on a burner of an electric stove, which is already turned on. For the control volumes defined below state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur. a. Pan of water b. Burner c. Pan of water plus burner

Approach:
For the three systems specified, clearly identify the control volumes with dotted lines and then describe the various processes occurring to the systems.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume (CV I) surrounding the pan of water. Heat crosses the boundary into the control volume from the burner beneath the pan. Because the cold water does not boil initially, no vapor leaves the pan, so the mass is constant, but as the temperature of the water increases, the energy level increases. Thus, this is a closed, unsteady system. No mechanical work occurs. As the temperature of the water/pan combination increases, there is heat transfer from the pan to the surrounding air. The heat transfer is converted to internal energy. b) Define a control volume (CV II) around the burner on the electric stove. Electricity crosses the boundary; electricity is considered mechanical work. Heat transfer crosses the boundary from the heater to the bottom of the pan. The mass is constant. Assume the operating temperature level of the burner is attained quickly, so this is a closed, steady system. The electricity  = Q  because of (mechanical energy) is converted to heat. Note that Q I II the sign convention. c) Define a control volume (CV III) around the pan of water and burner. Electricity crosses the boundary; electricity is considered mechanical work. Because the cold water does not boil initially, no vapor leaves the pan, so the mass is constant but as the temperature of the water increases, the energy level increases. Thus, this is a closed, unsteady system. As the temperature of the water/pan combination increases, there is heat transfer from the pan to the surrounding air. The electricity (mechanical energy) is converted to internal energy.

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Water from a home swimming pool is pumped through a filter and returned to the pool. If the system is all the water in the pool and filter, is this an open or closed system? If the system is just the water in the filter, is this an open or closed system?

Approach:
If mass crosses the control volume, the system is open, otherwise it is closed.

Solution:
For the first control volume, which is all the water in the pool, we have a closed system. We are assuming that no mass enters or leaves the pool by evaporation, rainfall, or addition of city water from a hose. For the second control volume, which is the water in the filter, we have an open system. Water enters and leaves the filter, crossing the control volume as it does so.

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1-14

Wind turbine systems, such as shown in Figure 1-1b, consist of a wind turbine, an electric generator connected to the wind turbine, and either a power line connecting the generator to the electrical grid or to battery storage. In a steady wind, for the control volumes defined below state if the system is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur. a. Wind turbine b. Battery c. Electric generator d. Wind turbine, electric generator, and electrical grid e. Wind turbine, electric generator, and battery

Approach:
For the five systems specified, clearly identify the control volumes with dotted lines and then describe the various processes occurring to the systems.

Solution:
a) Define a control volume surrounding the wind turbine as shown in the figure to the right. Air enters and leaves the control volume at different conditions. Mechanical work is transferred from the turbine to the electric generator. For the steady wind, this is a closed, steady system. No heat transfer occurs. The kinetic energy in the wind is converted to mechanical energy in the turbine. b) Define a control volume around the battery. Electricity enters or leaves the battery depending on the operation of the system, so the stored energy level changes. No heat transfer occurs. No mass crosses the boundary, so this is closed, unsteady system. The electricity (mechanical energy) is converted to stored energy in the battery. c) Define a control volume around the outside surface of the electric generator. Mechanical energy is transferred to the generator from the wind turbine. Not all the mechanical energy is converted to electricity (touch an electric motor; not all of the electricity is converted to mechanical work), so the generator heats up, and there is heat transfer from the generator to the surrounding air. No mass flows through the generator control volume, so this is a steady, closed system. d) Define a control volume around the wind turbine, electric generator, and electrical grid. For a steady wind, a steady flow of electricity (mechanical work) flows from the generator into the grid, but since we include the grid in the control volume, no mechanical work occurs. Air flows into and out of the control volume. Assuming all the electricity is used, no energy is stored in the grid; likewise, the mass and energy level of the control volume are constant, so this is a closed, steady system. If all the electric energy is not used, but some is stored or used from the battery, then this would be a closed, unsteady system. The kinetic energy in the wind is converted to mechanical energy in the turbine; the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy (another form of mechanical energy) in the generator. e) Define a control volume around the wind turbine, electric generator, and battery. Air flows into and out of the control volume. The mass of the system s constant. Electricity may flow out of the system if the grid demands it, or the energy may be stored in the battery if the grid does not require it. Thus, this is a closed system but it could be either steady or unsteady depending on the operation. The kinetic energy in the wind is converted to mechanical energy in the turbine; the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy (another form of mechanical energy) in the generator.

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1-15

Global warming has been in the news much in recent years. Define an appropriate control volume to study this system and state whether it is steady or unsteady, open or closed, and what heat transfer, energy flows, mass flows, and energy transformations occur.

Approach:
If mass crosses the control volume, the system is open, otherwise it is closed.

Solution:
Choose the entire planet earth as the control volume. Neglecting the small amount of mass that enters via meteorites and solar wind and the small amount of mass that leaves as interplanetary probes, this is a closed system. Sunlight enters the control volume, is transmitted through the atmosphere and absorbed at the surface of the earth. The earth reemits radiation; however, the reemitted radiation has a much longer wavelength than the incident solar energy. The atmosphere is largely transparent to solar radiation but partially opaque to the longer infrared wavelengths. As a result, reemitted radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere and global warming occurs. Global warming is caused by the so-called greenhouse gases, which include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and certain refrigerants. These are gases that are transparent to incident solar energy but absorb infrared radiation reemitted by the earth. The increase in concentration of some of these gases over time leads to global warming. Especially important is the concentration of carbon dioxide, which has increased substantially since the industrial revolution due to the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Water vapor is also an important factor, since, as atmospheric temperature rises, the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere increases. Increases in methane concentration result from increases in the cattle population. Volcanic eruptions also added gases and particulates to the atmosphere that can be important in the global energy balance. Since the earths temperature changes over time (scientists estimate an average rise of 0.5oC over the last century), this is an unsteady system. The fundamental energy transformation is the conversion of incident solar radiation to stored internal energy in the earths atmosphere.

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