The

Influence of Gender, Age, and Education on Native Americans

Perry F Dripps

Multicultural Issues Final Paper

During his two terms as president, from 1829 to 1837, Jackson implemented a policy toward American tribes through forced transport [] In a move some called legal chicanery, tribe after tribe was uprooted from its ancestral land and marched hundreds of miles to a bleak new destination, without regard to justice or humanity. Akbar Ahmed, Journey Into America Native Americans have a longstanding history of oppression in the United States (Heart & Deschenie, 2006). In addition to direct verbal and physical harm, Native Americans have also been the victims of racial stereotypes in the film and media industry (Kopacz & Lee Lawton, 2011), childrens films and reading books (Reese, 2007) and in depictions of logos and sports team mascots (Wolburg, 2006). Despite this, many Americans may be unaware of the stereotyping and racist attitudes that persist toward Native Americans today (Steinfeldt et al., 2010). Along with oppression, many Native Americans are also the victims of crushing poverty (Heart & Deschenie, 2006). The following describes three reoccurring themes in the current research on Native Americans: the physical and psychological consequences of historical trauma, the role of education in overcoming barriers, and the need for social support. Implications for therapy are also discussed and areas for future research are considered. THE EFFECTS OF HISTORICAL TRAUMA Researchers have adopted the term historical trauma to describe the collective emotional and psychological history of what McLeigh (2010) refers to as cataclysmic genocide (p. 178). Heart & Deschenie (2006) note that trauma for

Native Americans has been the result of the forced assimilation process and traumatic events such as the assassination of Sitting Bull, the Wounded Knee Massacre, and the forced removal of Lakota children to boarding schools have forever changed the lives of Native people (Heart & Deschenie, 2006). There are currently five hundred and sixty four recognized tribal entities (U.S. Department of The Interior Indian Affairs website, 2011) and Native Americans collectively comprise one percent of the U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau website, 2011). Deprivation of resources has led to chronic poverty and a high incidence of homelessness (Kramer & Barker, 1996). Research historically contends that Native Americans are the most disadvantaged group of individuals living in America (Yates, 1988). Poverty pervades the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, the nations poorest Indian reservation. The average per capita income for an individual living on the Pine Ridge reservation is around seven thousand dollars a year (McLeigh, 2010). Because poverty is socially and emotionally taxing, particularly to children, suicide rates among 15-24-year olds are three times the national average (McLeigh, 2010). While any number of factors may influence suicide, widespread poverty, depression, traumatic stress, drug and alcohol abuse, child maltreatment, and domestic violence are typically noted as strong influencing factors (McLeigh, 2010). Alcohol abuse and alcoholism are the leading cause of death among Native Americans and this is widely discussed in the literature (Koss et al., 2003). Some research studies examine the influences of social environment on alcohol dependency (Criado & Ehlers, 2007) while other neurological research looks at the

potential heritability of substance dependence (Wilhelmsen & Ehlers, 2005). American Indians living in desolate environmental contexts are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors, particularly adolescents and young children who are living in these areas (Ehlers et al., 2006). Along with the inherent physical health-related risks of drugs and alcohol abuse, developing long-term dependence has been linked to a wide variety of subsequent mental health issues, namely affective disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and organic brain disorders (Abbott, 2008). Adverse childhood exposure can also lead to a lifetime of use and abuse, which results in other health problems as well (Koss et al., 2003). An interrelated epidemic addressed in the literature is obesity. Obesity and health-related diseases such as diabetes have become a chronic problem for Native Americans, particularly for women (Pickering, Grant & Chou, 2007). Early onset of type II diabetes is typically influenced by a number of factors including heredity, obesity, age, and environmental context (Pine, 1988). Obese individuals also show a higher incidence of depression (Pickering, Grant & Chou, 2007). Race is important in this respect because Sahmoun, Markland, & Helgerson (2007) note that the depressive symptoms of Native American patients in hospitals and mental health agencies as typically higher than for Caucasian patients. ABC news show 20/20 recently released a special in October 2011 entitled Hidden America: Children of the Plains about the families living on the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota. Out of the fifteen thousand individuals living on 2.2 million acres of land, one out of every two people in this area is diabetic. The

average age of mortality is 58 for males and 66 for females, nearly twenty years less than the national average. Pine Ridge is often cold and the living conditions are harsh. McLeigh (2010) notes, The federal government has failed to live up to its mandate to provide the highest quality care to Native Americans (p. 179) and this has led to the current lack of provisions and poor living status of people in this area. Despite immeasurable odds, there is hope for Native Americans living on Pine Ridge. The commentator from 20/20 says, These statistics may be changing. More healthy commodities and resources are being provided by the federal government, foods are being donated and local businesses are beginning to open up. This example highlights the tremendous need for a wealth of resources in these communities. Another area identified in the research is regarding the specific groups of Native Americans that are at further risk for a variety of different issues. Many women and elderly are the victims of domestic violence. Along with the aforementioned threats to youth in general, adolescent girls are at increased risk for becoming victims of long-term physical and sexual abuse, substance abuse, depression, and suicide (Bohn, 2003). Research has linked childhood physical and sexual abuse to risk-taking behavior later in life (Saylors & Daliparthy, 2006). Girls who engage in sexual activity are also at increased risk of HIV/AIDS, which undoubtedly poses a threat to well-being (Hobfoll et al., 2002). Postpartum depression is also common because of the high number of unplanned pregnancies (Baker et. al, 2005) and rates of infants with fetal alcohol syndrome (Szlemko, Thurman, & Wood, 2006). All of these issues impact mental the health of mothers

and so the research indicates a high number of mental health disorders among Native American women (Duran et al., 2004). The elderly are also at risk. Elder Native Americans experience a variety of health issues including hypertension, shortness of breath, diabetes, chest pains, alcoholism and depression (Kramer & Barker, 1996). Geriatric depression scale results show increased depression rates among Native Americans (Ferraro, Bercier & Chelminski, 1997). Depression impacts overall cognitive functioning (Ferraro, Bercier & Chelminski, 1997) and the presence and stability of depression is often experienced in the long-term for this group of individuals (Curtyo, Chapleski, & Lichtenberg, 1999). This may in part be attributed to the fact that many elders are the victims of long-term trauma that has occurred across the lifespan (Miller, Byers, & Moxley, 2009). More must be done to help all generations of Native Americans, regardless of age or gender. THE POWER OF EDUCATION The needs of Native American students are largely unmet in schools. Many of these students have in the past had low achievement scores, high dropout rates, and an overrepresentation in special education classrooms (Irvin et al. 2010). Schools are central to child development. Ergo, academic context, teacher expectations, feelings of belonging, and student-teacher ratios can all strongly influence achievement and future aspirations (Irvin et al. 2010). While historically Native Americans have not done well in westernized schooling, more recent research has noted a shift in achievement among Native American college students (Irvin et al., 2011). These students note several unique

factors to their educational successes including reliance on mentors, along with family and community support (Irvin et al., 2011). The single most influencing factor on achievement is the ability for students to identify with at least one classroom teacher (Irvin et al., 2011). This emphasizes the tremendous impact that teachers can have on students. Along with a lack of social support, there are currently only few prevention- based programs to help deal with issues like substance abuse and HIV/AIDS education for at risk students (Aguilera & Plasencia, 2005). This research emphasizes a culturally appropriate HIV/AIDS and substance abuse prevention programs for Native American students, focusing on cognitive engagement, utilization of school and community resources, and collaboration (Aguilera & Plasencia, 2005). It is particularly important for teachers and educators to be more aware not only of the specific needs of Native American students in their classrooms, but also of the potential ways that implementing a culturally diverse and engaging curriculum can lead to positive academic outcomes for all students (Zitzer-Comfort, 2009). The Native American Languages Act (NALA) was implemented in 1990 to provide a supporting federal role in preserving and protecting the Native American languages in the U.S. (Warhol, 2011). The ability to learn and use ones native language is an essential to identity development (Ngai, 2006). Zitzer-Comfort (2009) also notes the positive effects of a culturally competent classroom on non- Native students. These classrooms tend to be more accepting of various cultures, language, and teachers are more receptive to student needs (Zitzer-Comfort, 2009).

Classrooms should engage in culturally compatible conversations (Yamauchi & Tharp, 1995). Educators, administrators, and local governments should implement empirically-based cultural enrichment programs because of their positive effects on students. While these are only a few of the many ways that education can help students in overcoming barriers, the implementation of new resources, and the support of more culturally aware educators will lead students to successes in the future. SOCIAL SUPPORT Humans hold a strong, innate desire to belong and feel accepted by one another (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). It is clear from the research that pro-social bonds with family and school and peer networks can lead to self-efficacy and refusal skills (Irvin et al., 2011). Social bonding improves mental health (Irvin et al., 2011). Social networks and community support have particularly helped Native American women tremendously in mental health and rehabilitation treatment centers by improving self-efficacy, self esteem, and alternatively by working to reduce anxiety, depression and hostility toward others (Chrong & Lopez, 2005). In this study, psychosocial health was strongly influenced by support from family and the surrounding community, which led many of these women to be resilient (Chrong & Lopez, 2005). Above all else, family members and peers often have the strongest influence on the risk-taking behaviors of children and adolescents (HeavyRunner-Rioux & Hollist, 2010). With regards to substance prevention, age of first intoxication and family history of alcoholism are one of the best predicting factors for dependency

(Ehlers et al., 2006) and so It is essential for parents and guardians to take a leading role for preventing high risk behaviors. Spirituality also strongly influences the resilience of Native Americans (Limb & Hodge, 2008). Native Americans hold culturally unique beliefs about the ways that problems can be reduced and their spirituality is typically interconnected with the issues around health and well-being (Limb & Hodge, 2008). Traditional healers and elderly in the community typically work to restore the wellness of others by helping them find a balance between the internal and external worlds and a deeper and more spiritual understanding of the self (McCabe, 2007). Social support and the spirituality of clients may therefore have strong implications in therapeutic interventions. IMPLICATIONS FOR THERAPY There are any number of barriers that prevent therapists from being able to help Native Americans but a clear logistical barrier is the fact that Native Americans live in a wide range of geographical areas, ranging from metropolitan cities to socially isolated and often impoverished areas of the country (Johnson & Cameron, 2001). Implementing school psychologists and school counselors in various school districts may be difficult depending on the environmental context and the resources available. Clinicians and counselors must also work to branch out to local communities and increase capacity building in these areas by establishing connections to the outside world. Role modeling and a reliance on elders and spiritual knowledge may be particularly helpful for therapy (McCabe, 2007). Collectivism focuses on the self as a

function of a larger group, and thus much of traditional healing works to establish a connection between the client and the world around him or her (McCabe, 2007). The client must have a readiness to heal and a willingness to restore balance with nature and counselors may take on a variety of roles to accomplish this (McCabe, 2007). This type of teaching therapy may be fitting for many Native American clients because it helps solidify spiritual beliefs and it leads the client to view their illness as an imbalance that exists in their community and less so within themselves (McCabe, 2007). Working with potentially suicidal clients may be particularly difficult. In the past, therapists have led clients to restore an internalizing feeling of being in control, which leads them to feel more empowered and hopeful for the future (Long, 1986). This may be particularly difficult for the therapist to do however, because of a lack of anonymity around suicide that has plagued Native American communities in what Long refers to as a community contagion (Long, 1986). The counselor may need to connect the client to others who engage in tribal traditions and practices, along with providing counseling and health education (Long, 1986). This research also notes the importance of helping the client find good role models and social support groups (Long, 1986). Ehlers also notes the importance of prevention efforts aimed at reducing the prevalence of alcohol and drug dependence (Ehlers et al., 2006). Strong, pro-social bonds with the three primary socialization sources of family, school, and peer networks have led to child self-efficacy and refusal skills and thus, a decrease overall drug use (Galliher et al., 2007) and so counselors should work to make those

connections. HeavyRunner-Rioux & Hollist (2010) also support the importance of social bonding, social learning, and social organization in decreasing self-reported use of alcohol, marijuana, and illegal drugs. As a final note, therapists may need to be particularly sensitive when working with individuals who come from at risk groups such as children, women, and the elderly. Many Native Americans may avoid therapy altogether because of an overall poor history with psychotherapy in general (McCabe, 2007). Counselors may also need to provide clients with effective interpreters if English is not their native language in order to facilitate communication and equal opportunity for therapy (McCabe et al., 2006). The ways in which multiple identities can interact and increase the difficulty of overcoming barriers will undoubtedly need to be addressed and taken into account by the healer or therapist. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH With the relatively recent rise of geriatrics, care for Native American elderly

is something that has comparatively been less researched than for non-Native- Americans. Along this same line, information specifically regarding youth and Native American women is also lacking. More research is needed with regard to Native American students in order to find more viable ways of overcoming barriers for learning. Schools hold the power change the future lives of Native American children. There is a tremendous need for school-based support and the development of empirically-based prevention programs that will lead children to be successful. A great deal of work needs to be done in order to involve the local and federal

government, educators and school counselors, and psychologists in advocating for social justice and positive change in Native American communities.

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