CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction This chapter shall discuss the literature and related studies which have direct bearing on this study.

2.2

ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE ACADEMIC SYSTEM The introduction of computer into information technology has massively improved the

information need of organization [1]; the success of this machine is dependent on the knowledge base. Therefore, one can be prompted to ask aloud what is a computer. [16] defined a computer as an electronic device that can perform automatically and at a high speed a sequence of logical operations according to instructions given to it inform of a pre-arranged program. [17] defined a computer as an electronic device capable of accepting data and instructions, processing the data based on the instructions to generate results or output in such a manner that is yet to be equalled by any other known machine to mankind. [18] defined it by saying that Computers are looked upon as obedient servants who are ever ready to free man from tedious procedures and produce results as compared with human computing time. [19] defined computer as a machine that is capable of accepting input data, store and process the data based on instructions given by the computer user and in this way produce expected results, generally called output. [1] describes an information system (I.S) as a system consisting of the network of all communication channels used within an organization, and includes software and hardware. It may also be defined as a system that collects and processes data (information) and provides it to

mangers at all levels that use it for decision making, planning, program implementation and control. The aim of information system to admission, registration, result processing and clearance in universities is improving the quality and accuracy of information provided to all involved as well as assisting universities in compiling and reporting information. Information Technology has been an integral part of academic system since almost four decades. According to [20] the world is entering an era in which technology will literally transform every aspect of business, every aspect of life and every aspect of society. Since the arrival of Internet technology, school system has taken a new shape and style with a blend of convenience and satisfaction. [21] said that computer-based education includes both computer-assisted instruction programs that interact with students in a dialogue and a broader array of educational computer applications such as simulations or instruction in computer programming. Learning from a students bedroom, office or anywhere in the World has made its way into university system with the advent of Internet technology. Information technology has always helped the university system to educate students in better way. To explain few examples, student online clearance is a method where the student obtains his/her clearance letter without carrying files around. This is only possible with the help of information technology. This feature is safe, fast and hassle-free. Filling out the documents and comparing options and waiting for approval is a time consuming process. Through the Internet, this process is made much easier and sometimes the approval is made within minutes. This explains an efficient way of obtaining clearance and saves time and money for students.

2.3

DATA AND INFORMATION The concepts of data and information are very important in understanding issues that go

with development and implementation of a computer-based information system. The term data and information are used interchangeably in everyday conversation as meaning the same thing. To many managers and information specialists, however, these terms have distinct meanings. According to [1] data simply consists of raw, unprocessed facts while information is data that have been processed by the computer.

Data is defined [1]: A graphic or textual representation of facts, concepts, numbers, letters,symbols, or instructions suitable for communication,

interpretation, or processing. Data is the basic element of information that is used to described objects, ideas, conditions, or situations. [22] defined data and information as follows: Data are facts, events, transactions, and so on, which have been recorded. They are the raw materials from which information is produced. Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be useful to the recipient.

Data are facts obtained by observation, counting, measuring, weighing, etc., which are then recorded. Frequently, they are called raw or basic data and are often records of day-to-day

transactions of the organisation. For example, the date, amount, and other details of an invoice or cheque, payroll details of pay, the number of students living in a particular hostel and so on. [23] argues that the concept of information in an organisation sense is more complex and difficult than the frequent use of this common word would suggest. [24] emphasised that information is data that have been processed, transmitted to the recipient, interpreted and understood by the recipient. Here it should be noted that the user, not just the sender is involved in the transformation of data into information. There is a process of thought and understanding

involved and it follows that a given message can have different meanings to different people. Based on this, one can conclude that the data which has been analysed, summarised, or processed in some other fashion to produce a message or report which is conveniently deemed management information only becomes information if it is understood by the recipient. Therefore, it is the user who determines whether a report contains information or just processed data.

2.4

COMPUTER-BASED INFORMATION SYSTEMS

An information specialist, [22] defined computer-based management information system as:The combination of human and computer-based resources that results in the collection, storage, retrieval, communication and use of data for the purpose of efficient management of operations and for business planning.Computer-based information system is a feature of all large organisations nowadays. The literature identifies four kinds of computer-based information system: Transaction Processing System (TPS), Management Information System (MIS), Decision Support System (DSS), and Executive Support System (ESS). Some systems record

routine activities: employees hired, material purchased or produced, and the like. Such recorded events are called transactions. Other systems use these recorded events to help managerial planning and control. The systems form a pyramid, each primarily supporting one another level of management.

a) Transaction Processing System (TPS): This system records day-to-day transactions such as customer orders, bills, inventory levels, and production outputs. The TPS helps supervisors by generating database that act as foundation for other information system. b) Management Information System (MIS): MIS summarises the detailed data of the transaction processing system standard reports for middle-level managers. Such reports might include production schedules and budget summaries. c) Decision Support System (DSS): The DSS provides a flexible tool for analysis. The DSS helps middle-level managers and others in the organisation analyse a wide range of problems, such as effects of events and trends outside the organisation. Like the MIS, the DSS draws on the detailed data of transaction processing system. d) Executive Support System (ESS): The ESS is an easy-to-use system that presents information in a very highly summarised form. It helps top-level management oversee the companys operations and develop strategic plans. The ESS combines internal data from TPS and MIS with external data.

2.5

DATABASES In the early days of computerisation, it was normal to maintain specific files for individual

applications. Data were processes centrally in batches and there was little or no online

interrogation of data. This approach is wholly inefficient for most of todays data processing systems. Supporting this, [25] enumerated the problems that result from organising data using the file system: a) There exists a high redundancy between files, which result from the fact that the information is replicated in different places, and that these replications are not controlled by a central monitor. b) Inconsistencies might result from the possibilities that a program makes changes on the files it uses without these changes being made (at the same time) by all other programs that uses the file. c) There exists inflexibility against changes in the application: if new actions or events arise in the course of time, these can be realised at a substantial expense of time. d) The work of many programmers involved is characterised by low productivity, since program maintenance is expensive: if the structure of an existing file has to be modified during its lifetime, then all application programs has to be modified correspondingly. e) Finally, there is the problem of adopting and maintaining standards (with respect to coding, data formats, etc.), which is important for exchanging data or for migration to a new operating system release, or even to a new computer system. To overcome these problems, databases were developed. It is now common for large organisations to organise their operational data using the database technology. The subject of database is adequately covered in many works on database technology. [26] briefly defined database as a collection of data supporting the operation of an organisation. Quoting CIMA, [22] provides a more detailed definition: A database is a file of data structured in such a way that it may serve a number of applications without its structure being dictated by any one of those

applications, the concepts being that programs are written round the database rather than files being structured to meet the needs of particular programs. [25] dealt extensively on the need for the use of computers on such database system like computerized clearance system. In the words of [24], At the center of any information system is a database, which is any collection of related information grouped together as a simple item. The term can also apply to the ways in which information is catalogued, analyzed, stored and used manually.

[25] was also of the view that without a computer, effective handling of Candidates records cannot be achieved effectively. In a database, all the data is defined together rather than each file being defined separately. In fact, all the literature consulted seem to support the fact that a database is a collection of structured data with the structure of data being independent of any particular application. Specifying the need for databases, [24] listed the following advantages:

a) Sharing: others.

In an organisation, information from one department can be readily shared with

b) Security: Users are given passwords or access only to the kind of information they need to know. Thus, the Payroll department may have access to employees pay rate, but other departments would not. c) Fewer Files: With several departments having access to one file, there are fewer files. Therefore, excess storage or what is called redundancy is reduced.

d) Data Integrity:

Older filing systems many times did not have integrity. That is, a change

made in the file in one department might not be made in the file in another department. As one might expect, this can cause serious problems and conflicts when data is used for important decisions affecting both departments.

To the advantages enumerated above, [25] adds: a) Standards/access protocols can be enforced. b) Currency of data can be maintained. c) Data/program independence can be maintained. d) Conflicting requirements can be balanced among users. In these days of integrated networks, the database appears as the most logical method for organising the operational data of large organisations. One may as well say that these advantages give the database the attractions over the traditional file processing method.

2.6.1 SQL SQL (Structured Query Language) is a special-purpose programming

language designed for managing data in relational database management systems (RDBMS) [36]. Originally based upon relational algebra and tuple relational calculus, it is a declarative language with two parts: a data definition language and a data manipulation language. The scope of SQL includes data insert, query, update and delete, schema creation and modification, and data access control. 2.6.2 MySQL

MySQL was owned and sponsored by a Swedish company MySQL AB, now owned by Oracle Corporation [27]. MySQL is free for open source and not-for profit projects. For commercial use, developers have to pay a license fee and paid editions offer additional functionality [28]. MySQL is a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that runs as a server providing multi-user access to a number of databases. [29] MySQL was designed for three principles, which are performance, reliability and usability. A cheap, distinctive, fast and efficient RDBMS was created by following those principles. MySQL becomes a perfect tool for developers and administrators to establish maintain and configure complex applications. It has the following main features:

Performance In the RDBMS, the speed of executing a query and returning the results to the searchers is very important. MySQL is very fast, sometimes the implementation of major orders is even faster than its competitors. The benchmark on the MySQL official website shows that it is superior to almost all other databases such as Microsoft SQL Server 2000 and IBM DB2 [30]. Open Source The developer of MySQL(MySQL AB) is a strong supporter of open source, and MySQL software could be used smoothly under General Public License (GPL). Users can download and modify the source code to meet their needs of application, and are free to use it to enhance their applications. [31]

Reliability

In most cases, the higher the performance of the database is, the more it will reduce the reliability. However, MySQL is not the case as it provides maximum reliability and uptime, and a large number of demanding applications has been tested and certified. MySQLs huge user base will help to quickly find and resolve the existent defects, and can test software in a variety of environments; this approach has created almost no defects in the software. In addition, each new version of MySQL must be tested with internal testing and crash-me tool testing, whose main purpose is to reach its limit to access the ability of the system [32]. Portability MySQL can be run on UNIX and non-UNIX operating systems, including Linux, Solaris, FreeBSD, OS/2, MacOS, and Windows, it can run on a range of architecture, including Intel x86, Alpha, SPARC, PowerPC and IA64, it also supports the 386 series from low to high-end Pentium machines and IBM zSeries mainframes.[33]

2.6.3 MS SQL MS SQL is short for Microsoft SQL Server [37]. It is a relational database management system developed by Microsoft. As a database, it is a software product whose primary function is to store and retrieve data as requested by other software applications, be it those on the same computer or those running on another computer across a network (including the Internet). There are at least a dozen different editions of Microsoft SQL Server aimed at different audiences and for different workloads (ranging from small applications that store and retrieve data on the same computer, to millions of users and computers that access huge amounts of data from the Internet at the same time). Its primary query languages are T-SQL and ANSI SQL [38]. 2.7 Hypertext Preprocessor: PHP

PHP (recursive acronym for PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor) is a widely-used open source general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development and HTML can be embedded into it. The developer could use PHP and HTML to generate the homepage. Once a visitor accesses the index page, the server will execute the PHP command and send the outcomes of implementation to the visitors browser, however, the difference is that PHP is open source and supports most of the popular platforms and it can be run on a Windows platform and multiple versions of UNIX. [34] PHP does not require any pre-processing before rapid feedback; it does not need mod_perl to adjust the memory image of server. PHP consumes few resources, as a part of the IIS server, PHP does not need to call an external binary code and the server does not bear any additional burden. In addition to operating the page, PHP can cooperate with HTTP. The cookie and digital signatures management can be modified in the settings, and it provides a good connectivity to the database. There is no need to have a very special development environment with PHP, the block starts and ends with the tags <?php and ?>. Certainly, PHP could be configured with tags and even in ASP format and it would deal with everything among those signs, but not in the same file. The PHP programming language is similar to Pascal. There is no need to define any variables before using them, and it is very simple to establish the array and the Hash. PHP also has some object-oriented features which are provided to support and to organizing and packaging the source code. 2.8 Visual Basic

Visual Basic is a third-generation event-driven programming language and integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft for its COMprogramming model first released in 1991 [40] . Visual Basic is designed to be relatively easy to learn and use [41]. Visual Basic was derived from BASIC and enables the rapid application development (RAD) of graphical user interface (GUI) applications, access to databases using Data Access Objects, Remote Data Objects, or ActiveX Data Objects, and creation of ActiveX controls and objects. VBA is effectively the same language as Visual Basic but VBA-code is tied to Microsoft Office and can only run within that environment.The scripting languageVBScript is a subset of Visual Basic. A programmer can create an application using the components provided by the Visual Basic program itself. Programs written in Visual Basic can also use the Windows API, but doing so requires external function declarations. Though the program has received criticism for its perceived faults [42], version 3 of Visual Basic was a runaway commercial success [43] and many companies offered third party controls greatly extending its functionality. The final release
was version 6 in 1998. Microsoft's extended support ended in March 2008 and the designated successor was Visual Basic .NET (now known simply as Visual Basic).

2.9 GSM Modem Used For Sending SMS GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile telephony system that is widely used in Europe and other parts of the world [44]. GSM uses a variation of time division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital wireless telephony technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA) [44]. GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band. GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile telecommunications that includes HighSpeed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio 18 System (GPRS), Enhanced

Data GSM Environment (EDGE), and Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS) [44]. A GSM modem is a specialized type of modem which accepts a SIM card and operates over a subscription to a mobile operator, just like a mobile phone [46]. From the mobile operator perspective, a GSM modem looks just like a mobile phone. When a GSM modem is connected to a computer, this allows the computer to use the GSM modem to communicate over the mobile network. While these GSM modems are most frequently used to provide mobile internet connectivity, many of them can also be used for sending and receiving SMS and MMS messages [46].

2.10 Related Studies Below are some related studies taken from dissertations or thesis from past researchers. 2.10.1 Web-Based Library Management System with PHP and MySQL The study of [35] has explored the process of building a PHP and MySQL Library Management System. The purpose of the study was to design a user view interface for the Library Management System. The Library Management System was built on the basis of PHP development; this study reduced the development cost. The further operation and maintenance cost were gained from advertising fees. The system used a fully graphical interface, which fully considered the efficiency of managing system. The study [35] was limited since Library Management System will have a manager view interface. The work done in this study was a user view interface of the whole system.

In the latter part of the system development process, the programmer would focus on the combination of the library and website, integrating the News system and administration module. Meanwhile, the maintenance of the system was also very important as well as improving the efficiency of procedures by optimizing the database and simplifying the structure of PHP script. 2.10.2 Design and Implementation of Online Clearance System The study [1] was a research work that helped build an effective information management for schools. It was aimed at developing a system for making clearance after graduation . The designed software served as a more reliable and effective means of undertaking students clearance, removed all forms of delay and stress as well as enabled students to understand the procedures involved as well as how to do their clearance online. This project work made used of data collected from the University, materials and journals from various authors and software was developed to effectively achieve the aims of the project. In this project, the implementation of the computer-based system was carried out using PHP, JAVASCRIPT, CSS, APACHE and MYSQL for the database. In conclusion, the work met all the objectives intended. It was, however, recommended for use by all tertiary institutions. 2.10.3 Mindanao State University- Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU- IIT) Online Clearance System The signing of clearance in MSU-IIT [2] was done manually and did take one week to finish. The process of the schools old system of signing of clearance was very long, timeconsuming and tiring. The researchers decided to create a system that would automate the process of signing of clearance by making an Online Clearance System that was capable of showing the destinations of each student where they have liabilities.

The researchers used PHP as the language for development and Postgre SQL as the backend database. The work of the faculty, staff and students was greatly reduced and unnecessary processes were eliminated. 2.10.4 Grade Inquiry System (in MUST): An Education Service Based on SMS The study [39] aimed to utilize a popular mode of communication today, the SMS technology, to provide the most basic and essential service to the students, specifically to provide an efficient and quick way of grade inquiry through SMS technology. It employed hardware devices namely GSM modem, personal computer, and cellular phone; and software device called Visual Basic. The results showed that the proposed system could help the students to get their grades at their own convenient time through their cellular phones. The system was 90%-100% effective in providing the grade inquiry service.