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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 38, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1995

Charge Conservation and the Transcapacitance Element: An Exposition

Arthur David Snider, Senior Member, IEEE
Absmcr- A simple gedanken experiment is presented to demonstrate the violation of charge (and energy) conservation, as predicted by Ward, Paulos and Antoniadis, and Root and Hughes, in the two-parameter nonlinear modeling of capacitance. The paradoxes are resolved through examination of a complete physical model of the capacitor. The role of the transcapacitive element in reestablishing charge conservation is explored in this context. Discussion of the software implementation of transcapacitance and its dual, transinductance, is also included.

Fig. 1 . Nonlinear capacitor circuit.

I. INTRODUCTION
FETs has led workers to postulate nonlinear elements whose capacitance is dependent on a pair of junction voltages. For example, the gate-source capacitance is often modeled as a function of both the local gate-source voltage Vg, and the (remote) drain-source voltage v d s [1]-[3]. ~ u r t i c e[3] finds that the relation

C (Faradd

HE accurate modeling of junction capacitances in MES-

fits his measurements, for appropriate values of A . Root and Hughes [4] argue that such an element might transport a nonzero net charge in a circuit exhibiting (otherwise) periodic oscillations. They label this a violation of charge conservation, which must be atoned by the introduction of a novel circuit element, the transcapacitance. (See also Ward [5], Paulos [ 6 ] ,and Paulos and Antoniadis [7].) We propose the following gedanken experiment to illustrate the principle. The capacitor in Fig. 1 is nonlinear; its capacitance depends on the remote voltage VZ in accordance with the graph in Fig. 2. (The unrealistic magnitudes were chosen to simplify the calculations.) We analyze a cycle wherein the voltage VI is stepped from 1 V to 2 V, then VZ is stepped from 1 V to 2 V, then VI is reset to 1 V, and finally VZ is reset to 1 V, restoring the circuit to its original state. However, we shall note a net transfer of charge and a net depletion of energy through the source VI-although there are no dissipative elements present! A specific physical model for the capacitor explains these inconsistencies. It will then be demonstrated how the transcapacitive element introduced in [4] automatically resolves the charge issue.
Manuscript received May 1992. The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 USA. IEEE Log Number 9415016.

Fig. 2. Capacitance C( VI V2)

11. THE EXPERIMENT The charge conservation dilemma will be shown to be a consequence of the postulated dependence of the nonlinear capacitance C on the remote voltage VZ. For the purpose of simplicity we choose C(V1, V2) to be dependent only on VZ, in the manner shown in Fig. 2. Now as VI is stepped from 1 V to 2 V while VZ is held at 1 V, the capacitance is frozen at 2 farads and a charge S d Q = SCdV1 = 2 coulombs is delivered by VI. Integrating this charge through the voltage we find that the energy AU,,,,,. = V1dQ = 3 J is also delivered. This is indicated as the transition between states one and two in Table I. (The reader should ignore, for the moment, the entries in parentheses.) Holding V I at 2 V we now step V z from 1 V to 2 V. Since AVl = 0, according to conventional circuit theory (dQ = GdVl) this entails no passage of charge through the capacitor (though in fact we shall subsequently argue this point), and its capacitance drops from 2 to 1 farad. The transition between states two and three of Table I is thus as shown.

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SNIDER: CHARGE CONSERVATION AND THE TRANSCAPACITANCE ELEMENT AN EXPOSITION

371

TABLE I
S t a t e Trans S t a t e Trans S t a t e Trans S t a t e Trans S t a t e
VI

l
1

2 l 2 t *

2 2 1

1 2 1 + *
0 (1)

1 1 2

V,
C

2
2

AQ

0 (-2) 0 (-4)
(2) (-2)

-1

'"source (AUmech) ('"eield)

3 (0)

-1.5

O(1) (-.5)

(0)
(-1.5)

(3)

t.5)

TABLE I1
State Trans State Trans State Trans State Trans State
VI

l
1 2 -1
+

v,

1
2
+

+
+

2
l

2
1
+

+
+

1 l
2

AQ

c c
CAY, CAY,

-2 (0) * -2 ( 1 )

-2 (2)

-1

(3)

*
1 (-2)
1 (-2)

-1

-1

'"source

-4 ( 2 )

-1.5

Fig. 3. Transcapacitance

e(VI .r/2) .

Similarly, a charge AQ = G . AV1 = -1 coulomb and an energy @ U = -1.5 J are returned to VI in the transition . between states three and four, and A Q = AU = 0 between states four and five; see Table I. Thus we find that conventional circuit theory predicts a net transfer of 1 coulomb out of the source V14espite the fact that the circuit's original state has been restored. This phenomenon is called violation of charge conservation in [4]. Additionally, since the source VI is always positive, it is clear that energy must have been expended in delivering this charge, and Table I reveals that 1.5 joules have somehow been dissipated in this apparently lossless circuit. A specific model for the nonlinear capacitor reveals the inadequacy of conventional circuit theory in analyzing the experiment. Suppose we employ a parallel-plate capacitor whose plate separation S can be adjusted. Then we can arrange to have the capacitance C = EOA/6 depend on V 2 as depicted in Fig. 2; we double the separation 6 as V 2 goes from 1 V to 2 V. As we spread the plates the surface charge density U = EOE = qV1/6 is reduced by half, and the source VI is recharged in accordance with A Q = A(CV1) = V1,AC = -2 coulombs. The apparent violation of charge conservation is the result of the omission, in the conventional circuit model, of this recharging effect as C is changed. The energy delivered to VI during this transition is VI AQ = -4 J. Similarly, as V 2 is reduced and the plates resettle at their initial distance, a charge VI . A C = 1 coulomb and an energy VI .AQ = 1 J are extracted. These alterations are displayed as the parenthesized items in the first five rows of Table I. Note that the net transfer of charge through the source VI is zero (2 - 2 - 1 1) with this model. It is instructive to account for the other energy exchanges as well. The mechanical work can be shown to equal V : . AC/2; the stored field energy is (qE2/2)(A6).These effects are tabulated in the final rows of Table I. Energy balance has been restored; in each transition, the sum of the work done

by the source VI and by the mechanical system equals the increase in stored energy. Over the whole cycle a net 1.5 J is, in fact, delivered to the source VI (by the mechanical system). For this specific model one could visualize how the mechanical system might be powered by the source V2. Of course, in a FET or other solid state device the physical description of how C is controlled by V , could be very complex-or it may be missing entirely, if the function C(V1, V2) was obtained purely by curve fitting, as in [3]. However, from this model we can draw the following conclusions: when the value of a capacitance is controlled by a remote voltage the conventional descriptor equation for a capacitor ( I = G . dV/dt) does not account for all the currents that flow; a remote-voltage-controlled capacitor can appear to be a dissipative or energetic element, if the control mechanism is ignored.
111. TRANSCAPACITANCE
A more mathematical way to account for the missing charge transport is to introduce a transcapacitance. Suppose a new element C is added to the circuit of Fig. 1, transporting current according to the equation I = dQ/dt = C?.dV2/dt. By analogy with the transconductance equation ( I = gV2), C is called the transcapacitance. If the dependence VI, V2) is as indicated in Fig. 3, then as V 2 is stepped from 1 V to 2 V while VI is held at 2 V, a charge AQ = C . AV2 = -2 coulombs is transferred. The remaining (nonparenthesized)entries in Table II are readily confirmed. Note that the net charge transfer is, again, zero. In fact, the data in Table I1 exactly match the corresponding entries in the modified Table I (and the capacitor/transcapacitor pair apparently generate energy). The transcapacitance element has appeared in several circuit modeling papers [4]-[6]. To motivate its construction, recall how Kirchoff's voltage law is automatically enforced by the

e(

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 38, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1995

assignment of node voltages to each node in a circuit. One can use this same artifice to enforce charge conservation during a cycle of the variables V I , VZ; one specifies that the charge on the node at any time is a mathematical function of VI and V2-i.e., a state variable. Now if charge transfer through a device is governed by Q = Q(V1,V2) then the small-signal-operation equation

MESFET

c = + bVgs+ cv;,
(U

tanh(aVds)

and

3
derived from the state function

SeCh2(QVd,) + p,

has the form of a classical capacitance and a transcapacitance in parallel IV. TRANSINDUCTANCE

dQ = CdVi+ CdV2,
if we identify C and C with the partial derivatives of Q. Charge conservation will be guaranteed if every capacitance C(V1,Vz) in a circuit is paired with a transcapacitance C(V1,V2) derivable from a function Q(V1,V2) via

Of course an entirely dual construction can be made for inductance. If a nonlinear inductance L depends on a local and a remote current L(I1,I z ) , then flux will be conserved over cycles if L is accompanied by a transinductance i ( I 1 , I z ) derivable from a flux function $(I1,12) via

d$ a$ dI1 --+ v =dl1 dt dt

Observe that this identification requires a compatibility condition between a capacitance and its corresponding transcapacitance: namely,

-- = L-+L--.

a$ dI2 aI2 dt

dI1 dt

-dI2 dt

v.

SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION

ac - a 2 ~- a2Q - 66 av, - avzav, av,av, - av;

In Figs. 2 and 3 the compatibility condition is met, since both curves have slope -1. In fact, any other transcapacitance function VI, Vz) compatible with C(V I ,V2) will ensure charge conservation, since a quick computation shows that the state variable defined by

e(

Several circuit simulation software packages allow the user to encode hisher own novel circuit elements, and the transcapacitance or transinductance equations given herein are simple. However, when the numerical values of these elements are sufficiently small, the time delay feature included in some pre-coded transconductance models can be exploited, as shown in [l 11. The basic idea is as follows. The transconductance element (or voltage controlled current source) governs a remote-controlled (small-signal) current via the equation i = gu2. Now if g is encoded so as to model high-frequency rolloff and time delay, then the formula

g = goe-Jwr / ( I + jwT)
satisfies C = aQ/aVl, C = aQ/aV2 for any values of the constants a , b, K . (These identities are well known from vector analysis; the compatibility condition states that the curl of the V2 space vanishes, which guarantees vector v = { C,C } in V I , that v is the gradient of the potential function &(VI,V2) [8].) The alternative choice C(V1,V2) = 2V2 - VI generates the parenthesized data in Table 11. Although the individual charge transfers and energies are altered, nonetheless the model is charge-conservative (and dissipative). Some preliminary studies conducted 191 have shown that one can gain appreciable improvement in curve-fitting E T circuit models to measured S-parameter data if transcapacitive elements are included. Notice that a transcapacitance function compatible with the Curtice capacitance cited in Section I (or, indeed, any other transcapacitance function) can be obtained by partial integration of the latter with respect to VI (resulting in an undetermined additive function of VZ), and subsequent differentiation with respect to V2 is employed. Observe the first-order expansion of this formula

= go - jwgo(7 + T ) .

For frequencies low enough that the next term, gow2(7 can be neglected, the equation for the device is

+ T),

= gou2 - jwgo(7 + T1 2 .

= SOU2 - g o ( 7

+ T )du2 Z ,

which is mathematically equivalent to a transconducance in parallel with a transcapacitance. Existing software, then, can be used to model low-level transcapacitances without the introduction of novel elements. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of Samuel Pritchett of Texas Instruments, Inc. and L. Chris Henning, Peter Winson, and Miriam Calvo of the University of South Florida for suggesting and assisting with the research leading to this document; and to recognize the generosity of Texas Instruments, Inc. in funding the graduate studies of the latter three students.

-2A[1

+ .0125 vd,][3.75 - vgs]12 + f(Vds).

In fact we have found [lo] that the following pair give good fits to data for the drain-source capacitive junction in a

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379

REFERENCES V. D. Hwang and T. Itoh, An efficient approach for large-signal modeling and analysis of the GaAs MESFET, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT 35, no. 4, Apr. 1987. V. D. Hwang, Y.-C. Shih, and H.M. Le, Accurate nonlinear modeling and verification of MMIC amplifier, in IEEE I989 Microwave and Millimeter- Wave Monolithic Circuits Symp.. W. R. Curtice and M. Ettenberg, A nonlinear GaAs FET model for use in the design of output circuits for power amplifiers, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT 33, no. 12, Dec. 1985. D. Root and B. Hughes, Principles of nonlinear active device modeling for circuit simulation, presented at 32nd Automatic Radio Frequency Techniques Group Con$, Dec. 1988. D. E. Ward, Charge-based modeling of capacitance in MOS transistors, Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, June 1981. J. J. Paulos, Measurement and modeling of small-geometry MOS transistor capacitances, Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept. 1984. J. J. Paulos and D. A. Antoniadis, Limitations of quasistatic capacitance models for the MOS transistor, IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. EDL-4, no. 7, pp. 221-224, July 1983. H. F. Davis and A. D. Snider, Introduction to Vector Analysis. Dubuque, I A William C. Brown, 1994, 7th ed. (Sec. 4.3-4.4).

[9] M. Calvo and A. D. Snider, (unpublished). [lo] L. C. Henning, Charge conservation nonlinear modeling of gallium arsenide MESFETs, M.S. thesis, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of South Florida, 1991. [ l l ] L. C. Henning, P. B. Winson, and A. D. Snider, Voltage-controlled charge source simulation with existing LIBRA software, presented at EESOF Users Group Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX, May 1990.

Arthur David Snider (M83-SM91) was bom in Richmond, VA in 1940. He holds a B.S. in mathematics from M.I.T. (1962), an M.A. in physics from Boston U. (1966), and a Ph.D. in mathematics from the Courant Institute at N.Y.U. (1971), and is a Registered Professional Engineer. He has worked as a mathematical analyst at the Draper Instrumentation Lab at M.I.T. (1962-66), a professor of mathematics at the University of South Florida (197O-I983), and a professor of electrical engineering at USF (1983-1993), in addition to consulting with industry. In 1989 he was named the Krivanek Distinguished Teacher of the university, and in 1986 he was an Outstanding Faculty Advisor for the student IEEE chapter. He is the co-author of Fundamentals of Complex Analysis (Prentice-Hall. 1993) and Introduction to Vector Analysis (W. C. Brown, 1994). His research interests are computations, optimization, and the mathematical modeling of physical systems.