Complete Thesis PDF

Budapesti Mszaki s Gazdasgtudomnyi Egyetem
Budapest University of Technology and Economics

Solar air conditioning and its
applications in Galicia.

Garcia Alvite, Diego
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
ID: 44823666-R
NEPTUN: WTVVVM

Budapest University
of Technology and Economics
applications in Galicia

Abstract

Summer air conditioning represents a growing market in buildings worldwide.
Nowadays, air conditioning is not a luxury but even a necessity in some situations.
Traditional vapor compression systems requires big amounts of electricity to work, this
is responsible for an increasing peak demand of electrical power. This means a network
overload and increased pollution from electricity generation. For all this, the rise of
conditioned spaces using traditional technologies is not sustainable. This document
presents the different solutions proposed in order to solve this and demonstrates its
viability in Galicia.
During the last decade, technologies has been developed which allows to get
energy for cooling spaces from the sun. The use of solar energy instead any other type
of renewable source has, among others, the advantage that cooling load is simultaneous
to the availability of solar radiation. This means that the higher demand moments are
the higher generation moments. Solar air conditioning goes beyond the simply
electricity production for traditional air conditioning systems, it means a new generation
of devices which are able to convert the heat from the sun into cool for the building. Ten
of them are analyzed in this document.
The most widespread solar air conditioning system is the absorption one.
Absorption cycle differs from the traditional vapor compression cycle in the method of
creating the pressure difference and moving the refrigerant trough the circuit. Whiles
traditionally this was made with the work from a compressor, absorption do it from
heat. Thanks to this, the system is suitable to work together with solar panels, which
produces this heat.
Finally, this document demonstrates the viability of this kind of installations in
Galicia. An installation is designed for a health center situated in this region. Although
it is not a very sunny region, it is shown that these technologies may be attractive from
an economic point of view but, above all, they are important from an ecological view.

Budapest University

iv

Index

Nomenclature...................................................................................................... v

1. Introduction. ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 The growing need for air conditioning. ........................................................ 1
1.2 Electric cost of air conditioning. .................................................................. 3
1.3 Environmental cost. ...................................................................................... 4
1.4 Advantages of solar air conditioning. ........................................................... 5
1.5 Current situation of solar air conditioning. ................................................... 6
1.6 Solar air conditioning in Galicia. ................................................................. 7
1.6.1 Estella-FEUGA building. ................................................................. 8
1.6.2 Inditex Group head offices. .............................................................. 8

2. Solar air conditioning system: classification. ..................................................... 10
2.1 Electrical systems. ........................................................................................ 11
2.1.1 Vapor compression systems with photovoltaic panels. .................... 11
2.1.2 Thermoelectric systems. ................................................................... 12
2.2 Thermal systems. .......................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Heat transformation cycles. .............................................................. 12
I. Closed cycle. ......................................................................... 12
2.2.1.1 Absorption. ................................................................................. 12
2.2.1.2 Hybrid systems. .......................................................................... 14
2.2.1.3 Adsorption. ................................................................................. 14
II. Open cycle. ........................................................................... 14
2.2.1.4 Dessicant systems. ...................................................................... 14
2.2.2 Thermo mechanical systems. ............................................................ 15
2.2.2.1 Ejector. ........................................................................................ 15
2.2.2.2 Vapor compression systems driven by thermal engines. ............ 16
2.3 Other systems. .............................................................................................. 16

3. Comparison between the solar absorption air conditioning system and a
traditional vapor compression air conditioning system. ..................................... 18
3.1 Vapor compression cycle. ............................................................................ 18
3.1.1 Cycle description. ............................................................................. 18
3.1.2 Cycle components. ........................................................................... 18
3.1.3 Refrigerant used. ............................................................................... 19
3.1.4 Thermodynamic analysis. ................................................................ 21
3.2 Absorption cycle. .......................................................................................... 24
3.2.1 Cycle description. ............................................................................. 24
3.2.2 Description of solar absorption air conditioning. ............................. 25
3.2.2.1 Single effect solar air conditioning system................................. 27
Budapest University

v

3.2.2.2 Double effect solar air conditioning system. .............................. 28
3.2.3 Cycle components ............................................................................ 29
3.2.4 Refrigerant and absorber used. ......................................................... 30
3.3 COP contrast between the two systems. ....................................................... 31
3.4 Economical analysis. .................................................................................... 31
3.4.1 Initial cost. ........................................................................................ 31
3.4.2 Operating cost. .................................................................................. 32
3.4.3 Maintenance cost. ............................................................................. 32
3.5 Environmental impact. ................................................................................. 32

4. Example of application on a real building in Galicia. ........................................ 33
4.1 Description of the studied building. ............................................................. 33
4.1.1 General description. .......................................................................... 33
4.1.2 Enclosures description. ..................................................................... 33
4.1.3 Occupation of the rooms. ................................................................. 34
4.2 Design conditions. ........................................................................................ 36
4.2.1 Indoor conditions. ............................................................................. 36
4.2.2 Outdoor conditions for the worst situation. ...................................... 37
4.2.3 Outdoor conditions for the simplified average situation. ................. 38
4.3 Summer cooling load calculation. ............................................................... 41
4.3.1 Theoretical calculation. .................................................................... 41
4.3.1.1 Sensible load. .............................................................................. 41
I. Transmission and radiation through windows. ..................... 41
II. Trans. and radiation through exterior walls and ceiling. ...... 43
III. Transmission trough partition walls. .................................... 44
IV. Floors. ................................................................................... 44
V. Infiltrations. .......................................................................... 44
VI. Ventilation. ........................................................................... 45
VII. People occupation. ................................................................ 45
VIII. Equipments and appliances. ................................................. 46
IX. Artificial lighting. ................................................................. 46
X. HVAC equipment. ............................................................... 46
4.3.1.2 Latent load. ................................................................................. 46
I. Infiltrations. .......................................................................... 46
II. Ventilation. ........................................................................... 47
III. People occupation. ............................................................... 47
IV. Equipments and appliances. ................................................. 47
4.3.1.3 Total loads. ................................................................................. 47
4.3.2 Calculation of summer cooling load using specific software. .......... 48
4.3.3 Comparison between theoretical and software calculation. ............. 49
4.3.4 Summer cooling load reduction. ....................................................... 49
4.4 Selection and design of a vapor compression system................................... 51
4.4.1 Variation of COP depending on the outdoor temperature. ............... 51
4.4.2 Variation depending on the indoor temperature. .............................. 52
Budapest University

vi

4.5 Selection and design of a solar absorption system ....................................... 53
4.5.1 Selection and COP study of an absorption chiller. ........................... 53
4.5.2 Design of the solar collector field..................................................... 55
4.5.2.1 Calculation of the solar panel tilt. ............................................... 55
4.5.2.2 Selection of the most suitable model of panel. ........................... 57
4.5.2.3 Solar collector field sizing. ......................................................... 61
I. Energy requirements for cooling during summer months. .. 61
II. Calculation of the solar collector field in terms of the
maximum power of the absorption machine. ....................... 62
III. Calculation of the storage tank............................................. 63
IV. Calculation in terms of the solar coverage. .......................... 63
V. Distance between collector rows. ......................................... 67
VI. Maximum surface needed for the solar collector field. ....... 68
4.5.2.4 Calculation of the auxiliary boiler. ............................................. 69
4.5.2.5 Refrigeration tower ..................................................................... 70
4.6 Comparison between the two systems. ......................................................... 70
4.6.1 Economical comparison. .................................................................. 70
4.6.1.1 Initial cost. .................................................................................. 71
4.6.1.2 Operating cost. ............................................................................ 72
4.6.1.3 Maintenance cost. ....................................................................... 74
4.6.1.4 Present worth comparison ....................................................... 74
4.6.1.5 Equivalent annual cost comparison......................................... 75
4.6.2 Ecological comparison. .................................................................... 76
4.6.3 Other points of interest. .................................................................... 78

5. Conclusions. ....................................................................................................... 79

6. Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 81

Appendix.
I. Plans of the example building.
II. Excel charts for load calculation
III. DP CLIMA calculation sheets.

Budapest University

vii

Nomenclature

AC Air conditioning.
A
c
Collecting area.
AE Absorbed energy.
COP Coefficient of performance.
d Distance between collectors.
DG Degree day.
DP Dew point.
E Wall thickness.
EER Energy efficiency ratio.
EL Energy looses.
F Solar contribution.
f
bp
By-pass factor.
FC Altitude, pollution and dew
point correction factor.
FP Flat plate.
F
sol
Sunny fraction.
F
sto
Storage factor.
G Global radiation
h Enthalpy.
h
i
Convection heat transfer
coefficient indoor face.
h
o
Convection heat transfer
coefficient outdoor face.
HT Incident energy on a squared
meter of horizontal surface.
HVAC Heating, ventilation and air
conditioning.
IE Inciding energy.
Incl. Inclination.
I
s
Irradiation.
K Heat transmission
coefficient.
L
c
Collector panel lengh.
m-M Minimum-maximum.
Ndm Number of days of the
month.
Nhc Number of sunny days in a
month.
NPE Percentile level.
N
v
Type of glass correction
factor.
Relative humidity.
P
1
Evaporating pressure.
P
2
Condensating pressure.
P
c
Price.
Q
c
Heat of condensation.
Q
e
Heat of evaporation.
Q
gen
Amount of heat applied to
the generator.
Q
HVAC
Gains due to air conditioning
equipment.
Q
inf
Gains due to infiltrations.
Q
lat
Latent heat.
Q
light
Gains due to illumination.
Q
o
Maximum Load.
Q
part
Gains through partitions.
Budapest University

viii

Q
people
Occupation gains.
Q
r
Refrigeration effect.
Q
rad
Radiation gains for windows.
Q
sen
Sensible heat.
Q
trans
Transmission gains for
windows.
Q
vent
Gains due to ventilation.
Q
wall
Gains through walls.
R Radiation.
S Surface.
S
c
Surface of the collector field.
T
d
Dry temperature.
T
in
Indoor temperature.
T
out
Outdoor temperature.
T
w
Wet temperature.
UE Useful energy.
V Volume.
V
inf
Infiltrations volume.
VT Vacuum tube.
V
v
Ventilation airflow.
w Absolute humidity.
W Compressor work.
W
c
Collector panel wide.
W
pump
Pump work.
o
Optical efficiency.

Budapest University

1

1. Introduction

Mechanical cooling has launched new forms of architecture and altered the ways
people live, work, and play since the early years of XX century. This technology as
changed our relationship with nature itself by creating indoor artificial climates.
Air Conditioning improves our comfort even in the work and at home.
Engineered air is today an essential component of modern living. But its importance
goes beyond the comfort; artificial cooling is essential today for health, industry and
work productivity. In many cases, buildings cannot survive without artificial cooling
because they were designed fully integrated with it.
But this dependence of air conditioning has its price. Since the energy crisis of
the 1970s, interest has returned to a "green" architecture that relies less on fossil fuels
and more on natural principles. In this way traditional air conditioning systems suppose
a problem because of their high electric consumption. Therefore, knowing the
impossibility of doing without AC, it is important to research on new systems that can
maintain the level of comfort without leading a waste of energy.
Today, almost all the AC equipments installed in the world are based on the
vapor-compression cycle. The compressors are powered by electricity and the
refrigerants used are Chloroflurocarbons (CFC), Hydrogenated CFC (HCFC) or
Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC).

1.1 The growing need for air conditioning.
Summer air conditioning represents a growing market in buildings worldwide,
with a particularly significant growth rate observed in European commercial and
residential buildings.

Budapest University

2

Fig 1.1.1: Estimation of the evolution of air-conditioned floor area in Europe.

Main reasons for the increasing energy demand for summer air-conditioning are
four: the increased thermal loads, increased living standards and occupant comfort
demands as well as building architectural characteristics (modern glass buildings).
The last one is the fall of prices of air conditioning devices.
1. Increased thermal loads.
The rise of the thermal loads is not only a consequence of the global warming
(that, caused or not by the human influence, is a reality that has increased the Earth
average temperature in almost 1C in only one century). It also owing to the fact of the
increasing number of persons that stays at the same place simultaneously (e.g. big
malls) or the presence of machines which produces residual heat (e.g. offices with a lot
of computers). Artificial lighting also produces an appreciable thermal load.
2. Increased comfort demands.
The rise of comfort level expectations is indeed an important factor related with
the growing need for air conditioning. Economic growth results in increased demands of
comfort. In that way a Pew Research Center survey shows that home Air Conditioning
is now considered a necessity by seven-in-ten American adults, up from half (51%) in
1996. In addition, many researchers suggest that the use of air conditioning at work
affects the need for it at home.

Budapest University

3

3. Building architectural characteristics.
Among many others, main factors are the buildings thermal mass, building
orientation, window sizes and characteristics, shading devices and their control,
construction of walls and ceilings etc. Passive or semi-active techniques, used for
centuries to keep comfortable indoor conditions seem to have been forgotten in a lot of
new buildings. In fact, many buildings were design taken for granted the use of AC.
The sum of all this factors causes that more and more buildings have air
conditioning systems and also that these systems have to be running for more hours.
The number of installed air-conditioning systems in Europe with cooling capacity
over 12 KW has increased by a factor of 5 in the last 20 years
1
. Total air-conditioned
floor space has grown from 30 million m
2
in 1980 to over 150 million m
2
in 2000.
The electricity consumption for refrigeration in the residential and services
sectors in Spain is the 11.1% of the total, where the 98% is related to the services
sector. Nevertheless, the increment is being significant enough in the domestic services:
nowadays, 3.3 millions of homes have AC systems while in 1990 there were only
620,000. One fact that reflects this situation is that, only in 2005, 1.3 million AC units
were sold (mainly mini split-type residential systems) and about 0.6 million new
housings were built
2
.

1.2 Electric cost of air conditioning.
This more and more extensive use of electrically driven compression cooling
equipment is responsible for an increasing peak demand of electrical power in summer,
which reaches the capacity limit in several cases.

1
Adnot J, Giraud D, Colomines F, Riviere P, Becirspahic S, Benke G, et al. Air conditioning systems in
Europe. Proceedings of second international conference on IEECB; Nice. 2729 May 2002
2
Mercado de climatizacin, Mquinas, Enero-Diciembre 2005. Asociacin de Fabricantes de Equipos de
Climatizacin (AFEC).
Budapest University

4

Fig. 1.2.1: Evolution of the electricity demand in Spain. Increasing demands over the years and
summer and winter peaks due to air conditioning.
3

In Europe, annual energy use of room air conditioners was 6 TJ in 1990, 40 TJ in
1996 and is estimated to reach 160 TJ in 2010.
In the case of Spain there is a maximum peak in electricity consumption in
summer season every year due to the use of electrically powered AC, with risk to
overload the grid and eventually leading to blackouts. Peak-power increases yearly
because AC is being installed at a high pace. In 2003, the peak value was over 34 GW;
in 2004 it reached 36 GW and in 2005 about 38 GW
4
.

1.3 Environmental cost.
It is easy to understand that this enormous demand on the electrical system causes
a negative effect on the environment. Most electricity is produced by burning coal so
air-conditioning contributes to dirty air, acid rain and global warming.
But the electric consumption is not the only bad effect of traditional AC on the
environment. The refrigerants used in vapor compression cycles are very polluting,
specially CFC and HCFC, substances that causes the ozone layer destruction and
probably participate to the greenhouse effect.

3
Red Elctrica Espaola. Informe sobre el mercado elctrico espaol 2008.
4
Informe mensual Diciembre 2004, Red Elctrica de Espaa (REE), pp. 112.

Budapest University

5

1.4 Advantages of solar air conditioning.
The main advantage of solar air conditioning technologies is that cooling load is
simultaneous to the availability of solar radiation, so that heat storage does not need to
be large. It is also a solution to solar thermal collector (STC) overheating during
summer season, when there is no need of space heating and at the same time domestic
hot-water (DHW) demand is reduced on average down to 14%
5
.

Fig. 1.4.1: Comparison between cooling needs and solar radiation throughout the year.

From an environmental point of view, the main advantages of solar-assisted
cooling over conventional air conditioning are two. First, the reduction of emissions
derived from electricity savings. In fact, the reduction in CO2 emissions is the most
significant advantage in a global scale. The second advantage is the lack of harmful
coolants such as CFCs because the refrigerants that are used (water, salts, silica gel,
lithium bromide and lithium chloride) are harmless and the chemicals do not come into
contact with the air. The materials used for solar cooling do not have a relevant global
warming potential (GWP).
Another aspect, which is becoming increasingly relevant, is the lowering of
demand on grid electricity in hot regions. The spreading of solar air conditioning will
decrease the grid load, finishing with the summer blackouts that are now usual in hot
European countries like Spain.
It is also good for users because of the reduced need for electricity, with a
respective reduction in energy bills. In many countries (including Spain) the peak

5
Asociacin Tcnica Espaola de Climatizacin y Refrigeracin (ATECYR)
Budapest University

6

load electricity that can be partially substituted by solar driven systems is very
expensive, while the solar energy itself is free. Moreover, as energy costs are predicted
to rise in the future, this cost aspect could become one of the most significant factors in
the growth of solar cooling.

1.5 Current situation of solar air conditioning.
Solar assisted air conditioning is a new and growing technology, compared to
other fields of solar energy application. Most of today projects are of research or
demonstration nature and still much additional design and planning effort are necessary.
In this way, authorities from many countries have realized of the importance of
these technologies and they are enhancing them. The European Union, for example, is
funding the Solar Air Conditioning in Europe program (SACE) that is helping to
introduce this kind of systems in the European air conditioning market.
The SACE program was aimed to assess the state-of-the-art and to provide a clear
picture of the potential, the future needs and the overall perspectives of this technology.
The main objectives of the project were: (1) To conduct a horizontal study on the state-
of-the-art of environmentally friendly technologies for air conditioning of buildings in
Europe with an emphasis on cooling and dehumidification (summer air conditioning)
and low temperature heat-driven technologies; (2) To assess the potential of these
technologies for using solar heat as the driving mechanism; (3) To achieve a broad
overview about the state-of-the-art of solar assisted air conditioning in Europe; (4) To
identify the strong and weak points of the reviewed technologies in relation to their
energy performance, environmental impact and financial viability; (5) To identify future
needs and necessary actions in order to better exploit the potential of the identified
technologies and to contribute to the advancement of promising technologies, that will
accelerate their introduction into the market.
But, although is not a very spread technology and small-splits systems are a
common trend worldwide, some companies are beginning to offer solar air conditioning
systems at competitively prices. However these systems are not appropriate for the
residential sector but to larger consumers, like hotels, large offices and industries.
Budapest University

7

In short, this is technology with a long road ahead to achieve the expected aims
but because of its importance (both environmental as for economically) many efforts are
being devoted to its development. Solar air conditioning has a strong potential for
significant primary energy savings. In particular, for southern European and
Mediterranean areas, such as Spain, where it is sure that in a few years solar air
conditioning will be widely used. Further research and development activities are
necessary in order to promote market integration and to reduce the cost of using solar
assisted air conditioning in buildings.

1.6 Solar air conditioning in Galicia.
Solar radiation levels in Galicia are not very high, between 3.2 and 4.2 kWh / m
2
daily on average, compared with more than 5 kWh/m
2
of southern Spain. Thus, the
daylight hours to Galicia vary between 1,600 and 2,200, while in Spain they do between
2200 and 2800. In the same way, the summers in Galicia are not very hot so the air
conditioning needs are not as great as in other parts of the country.

However, the profitability of solar systems has been demonstrated over the last
decades.
In the case of solar thermal energy, moreover, there are two major advantages.
First, that they do not need a very strong radiation to has a good performance. Second,
the big experience in this type of technology: there are a lot of companies and
Figure 1.6.1: Yearly total of global
irradiation in Spain and Portugal.
Solar irradiation in the north of
Galicia is one of the lowest of the
country.
Budapest University

8

professionals in this field, resulting from the Spanish legislation that requires a
minimum solar contribution for all the new buildings.
Talking specifically about solar cooling, although they are not commercially
widespread, some experiences have been proven successful. Two representative
examples are the Inditex Group head offices and the STELLA-FEUGA building.
1.6.1 STELLA-FEUGA building.
Located in Santiago de Compostela, the building hosts an educational foundation
(Fundacin Empresa-Universidade de Galicia). It is a bioclimatic building able to
collect warm in winter and dissipate it on summer thanks to its design.
The air conditioning system uses underfloor distribution with absorption chillers
for refrigeration and gas for heating. There are 60 m
2
of solar panels to feed the 115 KW
of power absorption machines. The energy consumption of a conventional building is
reduced in a 50%.
System type Technology Power Solar panels Surface Distribution
Absorption
machine
LiBr-H
2
O
YAZAKI 400E
WFC-30
115 KW
Flat-plate
collectors with
selective cover
60 m
2
Underfloor

1.6.2 Inditex Group head offices.
This building, situated in Arteixo (A Corua) is used mainly for offices, with a
part for stores. The distribution combines air handling units with fan-coils. The solar
installations was designed both for winter and summer and is perfect when heat is
needed, since it achieves very high efficiency rates, but it is not as good in the case of
cold water.
There is a large surface of solar panels, a 15000 liters accumulator and a 1000
KW heat exchanger. This solar facility saves a total of 565 060 kWh/year, 15% of the
total energy required, with a consequent reduction in emissions of 2822.5 Kg in CO2
and other pollutant gases.
Budapest University

9

System type Technology Power Solar panels Surface Distribution
Absorption
machine
LiBr-H
2
O
Carrier 16JB014
170 KW
Flat-plate
collectors with
selective cover
1626 m
2

Air handling
&fan-coils

Budapest University

10

2. Solar air conditioning systems: classification.

There are several available refrigeration systems with application in solar air
conditioning. These systems can be classified in two main categories according to the
type of solar energy they need: photovoltaic panels or thermal collectors. While in the
first category the input energy for operation of the system is electricity, in the second
one the driving force is thermal energy. There are also hybrid systems where several
energy forms are used together in order to provide increased system efficiency as well
as greater balance in energy supply.
Inside the thermal driven processes, there is an important subdivision: those
systems that are based on heat exchanges and transformations and those that are based
on mechanical devices activated with thermal energy. Going in depth with the first ones,
there are open and closed cycles. In closed cycles the same refrigerant does not enter or
leave the system, it is used over and over again. They need a heat rejection system. In
Budapest University

11

the open cycles, instead, the refrigerant (always water) brought into direct contact with
the atmosphere.

2.1 Electrical systems.
2.1.1 Vapor compression cycle combined with photovoltaic panels.
These are traditional air conditioning systems (most of them based on the vapor
compression refrigeration cycle) whose electric energy comes from photovoltaic panels.
For small residential and small commercial cooling (less than 5 MWh/year) PV-
powered cooling has been the most frequently implemented solar cooling technology.
The reason for this is debated, but commonly suggested reasons include incentive
structuring, lack of residential-sized equipment for other solar-cooling technologies, the
advent of more efficient electrical coolers, or ease of installation compared to other
solar-cooling technologies (like radiant cooling). In fact, in a house with a traditional
AC system it can be adapted in order to get the electricity from solar panels without
much efforts.
The electrical systems can be subdivided according to the working fluid used for
its operation e.g., vapor, air and CO
2
. While the first one is based on the vapor
compression cycle, the second one is based on the inverse of the JouleBrayton cycle
and the third one on the trans-critical cycle. Besides these systems, there is the
thermoelectric refrigeration system that, unlike the other ones, accomplishes its
objective, the cooling, in a more direct manner.
The major part of refrigeration systems operated electrically are based on the
vapor compression refrigeration cycle, which is composed of four basic components:
evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion valve.
The great disadvantages of these systems are their low efficiencies, derived from
the low performance of photovoltaic panels and the mechanical losses in the
compressor.

Budapest University

12

2.1.2 Thermoelectric systems.
The thermoelectric cooling system uses directly electrical energy to achieve a
refrigeration effect without any intermediate conversion process such as the conversion
of electrical energy to mechanical energy to drive the compressor. It is based on the
Peltier effect which is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric
voltage and vice versa. Moreover, thermoelectric cooling uses DC electricity so they are
appropriate to work with PV panels, without conversion. Thermoelectric cooling is used
mainly for freezing and not for air conditioning.
A thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state which two dissimilar materials. There
are two junctions between these materials. When an electrical potential difference is
applied on these materials, the temperature of the junction located in the refrigerated
space decreasesthe refrigeration effectwhereas the temperature of the other
junction increases. The heat is transferred against the temperature gradient (from cold to
hot), with consumption of electrical energy. In solar cooling this electrical energy came
from photovoltaic panels.
The system is compact, quiet, and needs little maintenance.

2.2 Thermal systems.
2.2.1 Heat transformation process.
I. Closed cycles.
2.2.1.1 Absorption.
The absorption cycle differs from the vapor compression cycle in the method of
raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is
replaced by an absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid
pump which raises the pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the
refrigerant vapor from the high-pressure liquid. In short, absorption cycle needs a
supply of heat instead of the mechanical energy that the vapor compression cycle needs.
Budapest University

13

This is the main advantage of the absorption cycle because the needed heat can
come from waste heat, or from renewable sources such as thermal panels.
Although absorption cooling, as a method, is as old as the vapor compression it
has only started to gain significant importance recently. The reasons are on the one
hand, the undesirable effects of the synthetic refrigerants used on vapor compression on
the environment and on the other hand, because of the increasing energy prices.
Absorption systems can be classified according to:
Working fluid. The most popular fluids in the absorption system
are H2OLiBr (water as refrigerant and lithium bromide as secondary
fluid) and NH3H2O (ammonia as refrigerant and water as secondary
fluid). The first pair of fluids are suitable for positive temperatures in the
evaporator the second one can also be used for negative. Moreover, the
first one is non-toxic and so may be used for air conditioning.

Number of effects, that describes the number of cycles that are
connected in cascade. A single effect machine is related to a single cycle,
while a double effect unit uses the heat released in the high pressure cycle
to the low pressure generator. Thus, the energy supply to the system is
used twice and the COP of the cycle is average doubled.
In spite of a fast increase in use, absorption cooling is still more expensive and
huge than the classic vapor compression systems. However, it presents a lot of
advantages over the vapor compression systems:
Lower operating costs and higher efficiency, because it can
operate with little electricity and take the heat that it needs from wastes
or renewable sources.
Eliminates environmentally harmful CFCs. Absorption cycles do
not use polluting refrigerants.
Budapest University

14

Safe, quite operation. The elimination of the compressor means
no moving parts resulting in safe and silent devices, for this same reason
they are more reliable and has low maintenance.
Effective for heat recovery applications.
Initial costs offset by energy savings.
2.1.1.2 Hybrid systems.
They are solutions based in the combination a single vapor compression cycle
with an absorption cycle. Therefore, these systems are operated with heat and electricity
at the same time.
The main advantages are that the COPs are increased compared with absorption
cycle. The refrigerants used are the same that the absorption cycles and because of the
compression the amount of heat energy necessary is lower.
2.1.1.3 Adsorption.
Adsorption systems are similar to the absorption ones but they use a
refrigerant/adsorbent solid pair instead of a liquid pair. There are several available pairs
such as the ammonia-activated carbon and the water-zeolite are the most frequent ones.
Adsorption systems are very expensive and hardly used. Nevertheless some studies
have shown that they are better than absorption ones for small capacity.
6

II. Open cycles.
2.1.1.4 Dessicants systems.
Desiccant cooling is based on an open cycle where the cooling is done directly
in the air by changing its humidity, instead of being cooled trough evaporators as in the
other systems.

6
M. Pons and F. Poyelle, Adsorptive machines with advanced cycles for heat pumping or cooling
applications, 1999.
Budapest University

15

In a desiccant cooling system the air to be insufflated in the space is dehumidified
as it passes through a substance called desiccant. A desiccant is a synthetic or natural
material that is able to absorb or release the humidity of the surrounding air. The
humidity absorption is followed by an increase of the air temperature because of the
latent heat released by the condensing water. In an opposite way, the humidity absorbed
by the desiccant can be released to the air by heating the desiccant to a sufficiently high
temperature, decreasing the temperature of the air, because of the water evaporation.
Hot water from solar panels can be used to heat the desiccant and get the cooling effect.
The most important advantage by using desiccant cooling is that both air
temperature and humidity can be simultaneously controlled. However, dessicant
systems tend to be used in a series with conventional cooling equipment. The common
design approach uses desiccant to remove the moisture while conventional cooling
removes the sensible load.
Dessicant systems are classified according to the nature of the material:
Solid dessicant systems: Several solid desiccant materials can be
found, such as silica gel, carbon, etc. The typical COP values are about 1
Liquid dessicant systems: They are smaller but also more
expensive. The substances used are lithium bromide and potassium.
2.2.2 Thermo-mechanical process.
2.2.2.1 Ejector.
In these systems the cycle is almost the same that in vapor compression but the
mechanical compressor is replaced by an ejector. Vapor from the evaporator (the
secondary fluid) is induced to flow because of the circulation of the primary fluid (high
pressure vapor from the generator) through the ejector, somewhat, an ejector is a device
designed to transform velocity into pressure and vice versa.
It is a thermo-mechanical process based on the steam jet cycle.
Ejector refrigeration can use solar energy to operate the generator. It can work
with a low temperature energy supply, thus a solar collector can be used.
Budapest University

16

An ejector cycle can produce cooling at levels from 0 to 20C from thermal
sources with temperatures from 60 to 120, so is suitable for solar air conditioning.
Ejector refrigeration is one of the most promising technologies

because of its
relative simplicity and low initial cost. They can provide heating and cooling
simultaneously using a single heat source, such as solar energy. Moreover, these system
has no moving parts, which makes them very reliable.
2.2.2.2 Vapor compression systems driven by thermal engines.
These systems are based on the traditional vapor compression cycle, but in this
case the electricity supply to the compressor comes from a thermal engine, namely the
Stirling engine, instead of coming from the main electrical grid (as conventional AC) or
photovoltaic panels.
For efficient operation the heat source should work between 650 C and 800 C,
so is quite difficult to activate them with solar energy. There are a few of those engines
running with parabolic solar concentrators, but these systems are expensive and
complex, as they must track the sun.

2.3 Other systems.
There are some other systems that are being developed to exploit solar energy for
air conditioning in different situations. None of them is widespread nowadays but they
show the industry ideas for the future.
Metal hybrid system exploits the properties of hydrogen absorbing alloys to get
the cooling effect. This type of metals produces exothermic and endothermic reactions
when they absorb or desorp hydrogen, respectively. This phenomenon can be
implemented in a refrigeration cycle using a combination of two alloys, one working at
high and another at low temperatures.
In thermo-acoustic refrigeration a loudspeaker creates sound in a hollow tube
which is filled with an ordinary gas. The process itself utilizes standing acoustic waves
Budapest University

17

in an enclosed cavity to generate the mechanical compression and expansion of a
working fluid needed for the cooling cycle.

Table 2.3.1: Typical values of COP of several refrigeration systems.

Refrigeration cycle COP
Vapor compression Standard
PV cells
Duplex Rankine
23
35
0.30.5
Reverse JouleBrayton 1
Thermoelectric Standard
PV cells
0.51
0.5
Absorption Single effect
Double effect
Thermal collectors
0.6
1.2
0.61.3
Adsorption Standard
Thermal collectors
0.20.7
0.30.8
Desiccants Standard
Thermal collectors
1
0.51.5
Ejector Standard
Thermal collectors
Combined heat and power
0.7
0.30.8
0.250.45
Hybrid Heat/electricity
Solar/biomass
Solar/biomass/diesel
23.5
0.5
1.2
Budapest University

18

3. Comparison between solar absorption air
conditioning systems and traditional vapor
compression equipments.

3.1 Vapor compression cycle.
3.1.1 Cycle description.
A vapor compression (also known as centrifugal refrigeration) system uses a
compressor to compress the refrigerant and provides chilled water to cool the air in
terminals. It makes use of the boiling and condensing of a working fluid (the
refrigerant) at different temperatures and at different pressures
A complete centrifugal system usually comes as a compact unit, called a
centrifugal chiller. Most centrifugal chillers are driven by open and hermetic motors.
Occasionally, they may be driven by internal combustion engines.
3.1.2 Cycle components.
A typical single-stage vapor-compression cycle has four components:
Compressor:
The compressor is the device which increases the pressure of the refrigerant by
reducing hardly its volume. A centrifugal compressor is a turbomachine that converts
velocity pressure into static pressure. According to the number of internally connected
impellers single-stage, two-stages or three-stages compressor may be used.
The compressor has two functions in the cooling cycle: the first one is to retire
vapor from the evaporator, reducing the pressure to the point where the evaporation
temperature can be maintained. The second function is to raise the pressure of the
refrigerant to a high enough level before its arrive to the condenser. Thus, the saturation
temperature will be higher than the temperature of the cooling water, that is the
responsible of the condensation of the refrigerant.
Budapest University

19

The relation between the in and out pressures in a compressor is the
compression ratio, Rcom=Pdis/Psuc. In a single stage compressor it is usually lower
than 4, but impellers connected in series increase it and can satisfy most compression
requirements.
Condenser:
The function of the condenser in a vapor compression cycle is to accept the hot,
high pressure gas from the compressor and cool it to remove first the superheat and then
the latent heat, so that the refrigerant will condense back to a liquid. In addition, the
liquid is usually slightly sub-cooled. In nearly all cases, the cooling medium will be air
or water.
Evaporator:
The purpose of the evaporator is to receive low-pressure, low temperature fluid
from the expansion valve and to bring it in close thermal contact with the load. The
refrigerant takes up its latent heat from the load and leaves the evaporator as a dry gas.
Evaporators are classified according to their refrigerant (just as the condensers, air or
water) flow pattern and their function.
Expansion valve:
Expansion valve is responsible for control the flow of refrigerant from the high-
pressure condensing side of the system into the low pressure evaporator. In most cases,
the pressure reduction is achieved through a variable flow orifice, either modulating or
two-position.
Expansion valves may be classified according to the method of control (float
valves, float switches or thermostatic control)
3.1.3 Refrigerant used.
The properties of the ideal working fluid for a Vapor compression cycle would
be:
A high vaporization latent heat.
High density of suction gas.
Budapest University

20

Non-corrosive, non-toxic and non-flammable.
Critical temperature and triple point outside the working range
Compatibility with materials of construction, with lubricating oils, and
with other materials present in the system
Working pressures not very high and nor below atmospheric pressure.
Low cost.
Ease of leak detection.
Environmentally friendly.
There is not any single working fluid with all these properties. This is the reason
why several different substances have been used during the years.
During several decades there had not been any discussion, and the widespread
refrigerants were chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) substances, such as R11, R12, R22,
R502. However, in the last 20 years the environmental awareness has increased.
Concerns as the global warming and particularly the ozone layer depletion directly
linked with CFCs- led to the ban of the production of these substances by the countries
signatories to the Montreal Protocol.
Nowadays the trend is to clean refrigerants, specially ammonia and hydrocarbons.
Ammonia has a low boiling point (-33C), an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.00
when released to atmosphere, and a high latent heat of vaporization (9 times greater
than R-12)
7
. These characteristics result in a highly energy-efficient refrigerant with
minimal environmental problems. Its disadvantages are its high toxicity and
flammability. On the other hand hydrocarbons such as propane and butane are being
successfully used as replacement and new refrigerants for R12 systems. They are
cheaper than the chemical refrigerants and also highly efficient.
Another type of refrigerants increasingly important are the refrigerant blends.
They have 2 or 3 components and are zeotropes with varying evaporating or condensing
temperatures in the latent heat of vaporization phase.

7
Ammonia as a refrigerant; ASHRAE Board of directors, January 2006.
Budapest University

21

3.1.4 Thermodynamic analysis.
The basic vapor compression cycle used in air conditioning is essentially a
reverse Rankine cycle. The vapor refrigerant is compressed to a higher pressure, and
then the condensed liquid is throttled to a lower pressure to produce the refrigerating
effect by evaporation.

Figure 3.1.1: System schematic representation.

Figures 3.1.2 and 3.1.3: Pressure-Enthalpy and Temperature-Entropy diagrams.

Figures 1-2-3 shows an ideal single-stage vapor compression cycle in which
compression occurs in the superheated region. The words single-stage means that there
is only one stage of compression (there are variations of the vapor compression cycle
with multistage compressions). The cycle is also called ideal because it is a theoretical
model where the compression process is isentropic, the expansion process is isenthalpic
and the pressure losses in the pipeline, valves, and other components are despised.
Although in the real application these suppositions are false, variations are very small.
The different phases of the cycle are:
Budapest University

22

1-2 Isentropic compression. Through a W work introduced by the compressor,
the refrigerant pressure is raised from P1 (evaporating pressure) to P2 (condensation
pressure). Moreover of the pressure rise, the compressor causes the extraction of the
refrigerant from the evaporator due to the compressor suction. When the refrigerant
enters the compressor it is a saturated vapor and because of the isentropic compressions
it leaves as a superheated vapor. Enthalpy also rises from h1 to h2.
2-3 Condenser. The superheated vapor goes through the condenser which
removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. It is later condensed to liquid and the latent
heat of condensation Q
C
is rejected to the environment. Taking the friction losses as
zero, the condensation is isobaric. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as saturated
liquid.
3-4 Isenthalpic expansion. The liquid refrigerant, as saturated liquid at
condensing pressure, flows through an expansion valve, which reduces it to the
evaporating pressure. This process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-
refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes).
The throttling process at the expansion valve is the only irreversible process in a ideal
vapor compression cycle.
4-5 Evaporator. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at low temperature and
partially vaporized. Through the evaporator tubes it is totally vaporized by the warm air
that is retired from the cooled space. This heat flux has a value of Qe and is the function
of the cycle itself. The resulting saturated refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor
inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
The values of the works and the heat flux are easily calculable from the values of
the enthalpies. Taking the mentioned suppositions and applying the steady flow energy
equation:

h
1
+ 0 = h
2
+ W
-W= h
2
- h
1
Budapest University

23

So the work input in the compressor is W= h
2
- h
1.
In the same way, the heat
released by the refrigerant in the condenser is Q
cond
= h
2
- h
3
and the heat extracted from
the environment (the refrigeration effect) is Q
ref
= h
1
-h
4

On the other hand, the coefficient of performance (COP) is defined as the ratio of
the cooling effect Q
ref
to the work input on the compressor W. It is the relation between
the cooling effect produced and the provided energy. The COP is partly a measure of
the efficiency of a system, but it is also related with the conditions under it is operation.
The COP can be greater than 1, for that reason it is used instead of thermal efficiency.
C0P =
iefiigeiation effect
woik input
=
h1 -h4
h2 -h1

This expression clarifies the obvious: the smaller the difference between the
condensing and evaporating temperatures (or pressures) the lower the work input to the
compressor at a specific refrigerant effect and, therefore, the higher the COP.
The COP is used both for heating and for air conditioning. Nevertheless, in air
conditioning some manufactures prefer to use the EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio),
which is the ratio of output cooling in BTU/Hr and the input power in watts W at a
given operating point. EER (BTU/(Wxhr)) is converted to COP (W/W) by dividing by
3.413 BTU/(HrxW)
8
.
Both COP and EER are calculated under steady state conditions. However, air
conditioning systems operate in cycles. For that reason, one more magnitude is defined:
the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER). The SEER rating of a unit is the cooling
output in BTU (British thermal unit) during a typical cooling-season divided by the total
electric energy input in watt-hours during the same period. The higher the unit's SEER
rating the more energy efficient it is.

8
1 BTU=1055 J; 1 hour= 3600 s.
Budapest University

24

3.2 Absorption cycle.
3.2.1 Cycle description.
In absorption systems the input to get the refrigerant effect is not work, but heat.
Focusing on solar air conditioning, they transform the heat from the solar panels to
cooling. It is the main difference with the vapor compression cycle: the method of
creating the pressure difference and moving the refrigerant trough the circuit. This
function, whiles in vapor compression is done by the compressor, in absorption is done
by a secondary fluid called absorbent. So absorption is a heat-operated cycle whiles
vapor compression is work-operated.
Although there are some other pairs, in air conditioning the most employed is
lithium bromide (LiBr) as absorbent and water as refrigerant. The process occurs in two
vessels or shells. The upper shell
contains the generator and condenser;
the lower shell, the absorber and
evaporator.
In the upper shell, the heat that
comes from solar panels supplies the
generator and it is added to the
LiBr/H
2
0 solution. Because of this, the
water from the solution is removed by
distillation and goes to the condenser
section of the shell. There, the water is
condensed again because a cooling
medium is circulating through the
condenser. This liquid water flows
down to the evaporator section in the
lower shell. Summing up, the upper
shell has the function of separate the
components of the solution, using for it
the heat of the generator.
Figure 3.2.1: Absorption system schematic
representation
Budapest University

25

In the lower shell, the water that comes from the upper shell passes over the tubes
that contain the fluid to be cooled. Because the pressure in the lower shell is low (it is
reduced by an expansion valve), water boils at a very low pressure. This evaporation
causes the water to extract heat from the liquid that circulates through the evaporator,
thus lowering its temperature. At the same time, the evaporated water passes to the
absorber section where it is mixed with the strong (low watered) LiBr/H
2
0 solution. The
strong solution tends to get weaker, so it absorbs the evaporated water, creating the
circulation. This is the absorption process itself.
The weak solution o LiBr/H
2
0 is pumped from the lower shell to the upper one
with a pump to close the cycle. It needs the application of a little work but using
significantly less electricity than that for compressing.
There are three main circuits in the system: one who carries heat input steam,
another one that provides cooling water for absorber and condenser and finally the
chilled water circuit.
3.2.2 Description of solar absorption air conditioning systems.
The simple theoretical absorption system defined earlier has little real
applications. In order to improve the operation of absorption systems, modifications
have been introduced with all the ideas that achieve this purpose: since the inclusion of
heat exchangers to the inclusion of a number of elements in series or in parallel. In fact,
single-stage LiBr absorption chillers require heat source temperatures of about 90-95C
(Chilled water 9C, cooling water 31C) and this temperatures imply the use of
expensive high grade solar collectors (stationary parabolic compound collectors)
9
.
For that reason, dual-stage absorption devices seems to be the most suitable for
solar applications. This kind of chillers can operate on low grade heat source
temperatures ranging from 80C to 65C, thus means the use of ordinary flat plate
collectors. Flat plate collectors are not only cheaper, but also can be used during the
winter for heating or hot water production.
In a solar absorption air conditioning system, besides the absorption chiller itself
there are other elements. The most important ones are solar collectors, hot water storage

9
China-America Technology Corp.(CTC)
Budapest University

26

tanks and cooling towers but different ones may appear, as auxiliary boilers, chilled
water storage tanks or motorized valves depending on the needs.
Solar collectors: the difference in the operation of the solar
collectors compared to solar thermal collector systems for hot water production
is the high temperature level, at which the useful heat has to be provide. Because
of this, solar air collectors (SAC) which works heating air are not suitable for
this application. Flat plate collectors (FPC), for its part, can be used in solar
absorptions systems, but only in areas with high irradiation availability or with
dual-stage absorption chillers. For other areas and for chillers requiring higher
driving temperatures, high efficient collectors are to be implemented, e.g.
evacuated tube collectors.

Hot water storage tanks: they are primarily used to store hot water
produced by solar panels until going it going to the generator. They usually are
cylindrical shaped, in order to facilitate the stratification. The phenomenon of
stratification separates hot water which goes to the generator from cold water
which has not yet been heated by the collectors. It is produced by the different
density between hot and cold water.

Cooling towers: as with any air conditioning system, heat has to
be exhausted. The solar air conditioning system is not different and it needs a
small cooling tower. Therefore, a sustainable maintenance plan is required, in
order to avoid the risk of legionella development.

Auxiliary boilers: in some cases and in some situations, the heat
provided by the solar panels is not enough and an extra supply of heat is done by
an auxiliary boiler. This heating can be made in the storage tank itself or once
the water leaves it. In this second option, a motorized valve is needed which
connects the storage tank directly to the chiller or through the auxiliary boiler,
depending on the temperature.

Budapest University

27

3.2.2.1 Single effect solar absorption air conditioning system.

Figure 3.2.2: Diagram of single effect solar absorption air-conditioning system.

1-7: The weak solution from the absorber at point 1 is pumped through
the heat exchanger to the generator; point 7 indicates the properties of the
solution at the outlet of the heat exchanger. During the process 1-7, the
concentration of the weak solution is held constant.
7-2-3: Process 7-2 shows the sensible heating of the weak solution in the
generator, and 2- 3 indicates the boiling of water vapour from the cooling tower,
at constant condensing pressure Pc.
5-6: Shows the flow of condensed water from the condenser to the
evaporator.
6-1: Indicates the evaporation of the water in the evaporator due to the
prevailing low pressure Pe. Also, the water absorbs the heat from the space to be
cooled. The water vapor from the evaporator is, in turn, absorbed by the strong
solution in the absorber, thus completing the cycle of refrigeration.

Budapest University

28

Figure 3.2.3: Process diagram of a Single-effect solar
absorption air conditioning system cycle

3.2.2.2 Double effect solar absorption air conditioning systems.

Figure 3.7: Diagram of a two stage solar absorption air conditioning system.
Budapest University

29

One of the restrictions for the practical use of the single stage cooling system is
an economical. It is reasonable to lower the solar collector cost by using collector
models of a lower temperature range. The generator temperature of the chiller can be
lowered by using two stages LiBr system instead of single stage system. The advantages
of use two stages systems are that flat plate collectors are suitable (cheaper and useful
also during winter) and that Crystallization of the LiBr-H2O solution could be avoided.
Nevertheless they have also some disadvantages: the COP of the generator is lower, and
the amount of refrigeration water is the double so the cooling tower is bigger.
In a single-effect absorption chiller, the heat released during the chemical process
of absorbing refrigerant vapor into the liquid stream, rich in absorbent, is rejected to the
environment. In a multiple-effect absorption chiller, some of this energy is used as the
driving force to generate more refrigerant vapor.
In the double effect case, a high pressure generator (independently located) gives
a primary effect and a low pressure generator (from solar panels) a secondary effect,
thus being called a double effect. Therefore, a double effect cycle requires lower heat
input to produce the same cooling effect, for that reason the percentage of the solar
contribution to air conditioning become higher. Double effect system results in higher
COP.
As we have seen, thermodynamic analysis of absorption systems is a very
complex process, mainly because of functions required for calculating the
thermodynamic properties of fluid pairs.
We can analyze the COP, defined as:
C0P =
iefiigeiation effect
Requiieu input
=
Q
r
Q
gcn
+W
pump

Q
r
Q
gcn

3.2.3 Components of an absorption chiller.
Evaporator: is composed of a tube bundle, an outer shell, spraying
nozzles, and a water trough. The chilled water flows inside the tubes whiles a
refrigerant pump sprays the liquid refrigerant through the spray nozzles over the
outer surface of the tube bundle to increase the rate of evaporation. The water
Budapest University

30

trough is to maintain a liquid level for circulation. In the evaporator a high
pressure is maintained.
Absorber: here, cooling water flows inside tube bundles. At the
same time, the vaporized refrigerant, the water vapor, is extracted and absorbed
by the concentrated LiBr solution sprayed from the nozzles at high pressures.
Condenser: Water vapor boiled off from the generator (where the
separation H
2
0LiBr has take place) is condensed to liquid in the condenser,
because of the action of the cooling water that flows inside it.
Generator: the generator is a heat source (in this case solar panels)
that trough a heat transfer liquid which flows inside tube bundles, raises the
temperature of the diluted solution. Because of that, water is vaporized from the
solution thus producing the separation of the H
2
0 LiBr.
3.2.4 Refrigerants and absorber used.
There are two types of absorption cooling systems. One uses lithium bromide as
absorber and water as refrigerant whiles the other one uses water as absorber and
ammonia as refrigerant. As mentioned earlier, the vast majority of absorption systems
for air conditioners on market are based on technology from the mixture of lithium
bromide / water.
Using water as coolant has advantages and disadvantages. From the point of view
of the refrigerant evaporation, water has the higher latent heat of vaporization per unit
mass, with values of nearly twice that ammonia and also has high critical temperature.
For that reasons, it is excellent from security point of view. Other advantages are its low
cost and its availability.
The main disadvantage of water is not to be usable for applications below zero
degrees Celsius. Another disadvantage is the relatively low vapor pressure.
Nevertheless, this two points are not very important for air conditioning.
For its part, LiBr/H20 as mixtures has also two disadvantages: one the one hand,
the mixture is not completely soluble in all proportions as with ammonia-water mixture.
Above values close to 70% by weight of the mixture should crystallize. On the other
hand, LiBr is very corrosive. Nevertheless, technologies have been developed to
override these problems.
Budapest University

31

3.3 COP contrast between the two systems.
The COPs of absorption systems used to be between 0.8 and 1.2 whiles in vapor
compressions cycles they are bigger, usually between 3 and 5.5. Nevertheless, the COP
of a VC cycle is calculated using electricity as the energy input, that it is not a primary
energy. In absorption, for its part, the energy input is heat. For that reason COPs are not
comparable with each other. Energy in the form of work is much more expensive than
energy in form of heat.
Solar air conditioning is a perfect example of this: although COP will be higher
with a vapor compression system, photovoltaic panels to produce the electricity only
can take 15% or 20% of solar energy to produce electricity whiles with an absorption
system (with lower COP) the thermal panels can take the 90% of solar energy.
Therefore, the total performance of the whole system will be better in absorption.

3.4 Economical analysis.
To do a complete cost comparison it is needed to define the life-cycle costs. This
term includes all cost factors: first cost, operating cost, maintenance, replacement and
estimated energy consumption and can be used to evaluate the total cost of the system
over its complete life.
3.4.1 Initial cost.
Absorption air conditioning systems are more expensive than vapor compression
systems. Moreover, they need cooling towers to work properly and it is also necessary
to add the solar energy collection system cost. Because the physical size of the
absorption system is larger than the size of the vapour compression system, installation
cost will be also higher. The cost of the rest of the installation is almost the same for
both systems. Nevertheless, the life expectancy of an absorption chiller is higher than 15
years, whiles vapor compression systems has a lifetime of about 10 years
10
.

10
Comparative investigation of thermo-electric air-conditioners versus vapor-compression and
absorption air-conditioners. S.B Riffat, Guoquan Qiu; University of Nottingham.
Budapest University

32

3.4.2 Operating cost.
It includes the costs of electricity, supplies, water and materials. Vapor
compression cycles has a elevate electricity consume, necessary to activate the
compressor and also the auxiliary pumps. The operating cost of absorptions systems are
much lower, because they only consume electricity in the auxiliary pumps and
eventually in the support electric system (electricity is used to elevate the water
temperature if the solar energy is not enough).
3.4.3 Maintenance cost.
Whatever the level of maintenance (run-to-failure, preventive or predictive)
applied have its cost. It is very difficult to quantify this cost because it depends on a
larger number of variables. Although, vapor compression systems should have higher
maintenance cost because they have mobile parts.
It is very important to lubricate the compressor and also keep checking it
regularly for any defects. The compressor also requires changing of the piston, piston
rings, cylinder liner etc. from time-to-time. Thus the vapor compression system requires
lots of maintenance. Failure of compressor can be very expensive at times as the suction
and the discharge valve of the compressor are very expensive.
3.5 Environmental impact.
Obviously, the solar absorption system is the best in this field. In Spain, for each
KWh of electric energy produced, there is 0.52 kg of CO
2
emissions
11
, there are also
other types of pollutants. Therefore, all the electricity savings derived from the solar
energy use is directly related with the reduction of pollutants.

11
Spanish National Energy Balance data.
Budapest University

33

4. Example of application on a real building
in Galicia.

4.1 Description of the studied building.
4.1.1 General description.
The aim of the current study is to propose an air conditioning system for health
center located in the city of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia-Spain).
The building is divided into 3 floors. In the access plant are most of the public
access facilities: on one side consultation, on the other pediatrics. The other two plants
have a more restricted access: the upper zone with a personal restricted area, and the
basement plant with some facilities and a training room.
In all the public areas there are large windows to facilitate the entrance of natural
light. There are two skylights, one in the waiting room and another one in the entrance
of the building. The orientation is East in the general surgeries, South in pediatrics and
west in the waiting room. Al the windows haves setbacks to helps to the thermal control
in the building.
Both the faade and the roofs are made with slate. The roofs are inclined so it will
facilitate the entrance of light and also the installation of solar panels. All the windows
have wooden frames and the existence of curtains or blinds is not supposed.
4.1.2 Enclosures description
The coefficient of heat transmission is a value that describes the ability of a
material to conduct heat. In other words, it is a measure of the insulating characteristic
of one material. It is the quantity of heat transmitted from fluid to fluid (separated by a
parallel-faces surface of the studied material) per unit of time per unit of surface area
through a material or arrangement of materials under a unit temperature differential
between fluids.
For calculating the overall U of an enclosure consisting of "n" layers, the
following formula is used:
Budapest University

34

1
1 1
i i e
U
e
h k h
=

+ +

And to calculate the total weight per square meter:
i i
P e =

The values of 1 / h of the chamber air, outdoor air and indoor environment are
obtained from the bibliography. Being for this project:
1/h
i
= 0,13 1/h
o
= 0,04
In short, the characteristics of different materials used in the construction of the
building and that directly influences the calculations are detailed in this table:
Enclosure K (W/m
2
K) Weigh (Kg/ m
2
)
Exterior wall 0.93 287,88
Room divisors 1,77 90,3
Interior slabs 0,98 419,26
Terrain slab 0,94 642,26
Roof 0,6 495,32
Windows 2,56 -
Entrance door 2,8 -

4.1.3 Occupation of the rooms.

The number of persons occupying each room has to be estimated for calculation
purposes. It is predicted according with the Spanish standards. It provides an occupation
density depending on the type of activity which takes place in each room.

ROOM ACTIVITY
Surface (m2/person) N of people
1
Pediatrics nursing Offices
21,73 10,0 3
2
Pediatrics surgery Offices
21,73 10,0 3
3
Pediatrics WC (1)
4,64 0,0 0
Budapest University

35

4
Registry Storage
31,2 40,0 1
5
Installations control room (1)
4,93 0,0 0
6
Oficio limpio (1)
4,93 0,0 0
7
Oficio sucio (1)
4,93 0,0 0
8
Reception Floors or offices
24,6 10,0 3
9
Pediatrics waiting room General lobbies and spaces for public use
45,0 2,0 23
10
Lobby of the building General lobbies and spaces for public use
50,29 2,0 26
11
Multipurpose room Floors or offices
20,0 10,0 2
12
First aid room Floors or offices
20,0 10,0 2
13
General practice room 1 Floors or offices
20,0 10,0 2
14
20,0 10,0 2
15
20,0 10,0 2
16
20,0 10,0 2
17
Infirmary room 1 Floors or offices
20,0 10,0 2
18
Infirmary room 2 Floors or offices
20,0 10,0 2
19
Female treatment room Floors or offices
29,10 10,0 3
20
Female treatment WC (1)
4,35 0,0 0
21
Waiting room General lobbies and areas of public use
177,0 2,0 89
22
Floor 1 WC (1)
17,18 0,0 0
23
Conference room library Floors or offices
31,2 10,0 4
24
Floor 2 corridor General lobbies and areas of public use
21,93 2,0 11
25
Physiotherapy General lobbies and areas of public use
150 2,0 75
26
Installations (1)
77,95 0,0 0
27
Female treatment waiting room General lobbies and areas of public use
13,3 2,0 7
28
Stores lobby (1)
6 0,0 0
29
Basement stores Records and stores
20,75 40 2
30
Dental hygienist Floors or offices
24,2 10 3
31
Lecture room Aulas (excepto de escuelas infantiles)
34,85 1,5 24
32
Lecture room store Records and stores
5,25 40,0 1
33
Lecture room locker room (1)
5,25 0,0 0
34
Dental hygienists waiting room General lobbies and areas of public use
24,8 2,0 13
35
Physiotherapy waiting room General lobbies and areas of public use
13,3 2,0 7
36
Locker room M (1)
6,7 0 0
Budapest University

36

37
Locker room W (1)
6,6 0 0
38
Locker room H WC (1)
5,65 0,0 0
39
Locker room M WC (1)
5,6 0,0 0
40
Physiotherapists practice Floors or offices
12,2 10,0 2
41
Management office Floors or offices
12,05 10,0 2
42
Dentist Floors or offices
24,5 10,0 3
43
Basement floor lobby General lobbies and areas of public use
25,7 2,0 13
44
Sampling extraction room Floors or offices
20,0 10,0 2
45
High floor locker room (1)
15,07 0 0

4.2 Design conditions
City: Santiago de Compostela.
Region: Galicia.
Country: Spain.
Altitude: 316 meters.
Latitude: 42 52 N
Longitude: 8 33 W

4.2.1 Indoor conditions
The projects aims are to achieve a dry temperature of 24C and a 50% of relative
humidity, in the conditioned space. These conditions are considered satisfactory for
summer by the Spanish regulations (RITE ITE 1.1) and also by the Carrier Manual
(Table 4).
Entering this data pair in the diagram (Fig. 8), we have:

Figure 4.2.1: Geographical situation of the building.
Budapest University

37

INDOOR CONDITIONS
Td 24C
50%
w 9,4 g/Kg
Dew p. 12,8C
Tw 17C
h 47 KJ/Kg
V 0,852 m
3
/Kg

4.2.2 Outdoor conditions (extreme conditions for the worst situation).
ISO 100001:2001 data are taken as reference for the calculation of the exterior
extreme conditions for summer in the city of Santiago de Compostela (Spain):
City
Longitude
Latitude
Altitude(m)
Winter conditions Summer conditions
NPE
(%)
Td
C
DG/
year
K
Wind
m/s
directi
on
NPE
(%)
Td
C
Twc
C
Tw
C
OM
D
C
Santiago de
Compotela
10 years
8 26 W
42 54N
316
99
97,5
-1,2
-0,2
1540 6,3
SW
1
2,5
5
29,5
27,3
25,2
20,7
20,1
19,2
21,1
20,1
19,2
10,9

Entering this data in the diagram (Fig. 4.2.1), we have:

EXTREME OUTDOOR
CONDITIONS
Td 29,5C
48%
w 12,4 g/Kg
Dew p. 16C
Tw 21,1C
h 61 KJ/Kg
V 0,865m
3
/Kg

Budapest University

38

Figure 4.2.2: ASHRAE psychrometric chart with the project indoor and extreme outdoor
conditions.

4.2.3 Outdoor conditions (extreme conditions for the simplified average
situation).
The heat to be removed from the building, directly related with the total power
needed to the air conditioning system, is not a constant value but it varies depending on
many factors. The two most important are temperature and solar radiation and they vary
not only depending on the day but also on the hour.
For a normal air conditioning system the only data required for design is the
maximum summer load. Knowing that, the system can be designed proportionally and
loads variations are compensated with more or less work of the system.
For solar air conditioning, nevertheless, a deeper study must be done because the
moments of maximum load could (and in fact, they do) coincide with the moments of
maximum generation of the solar system. For that reason, an ideal study will reflect the
loads and the solar system generation for each instant of the year. However, this kind of
calculation requires of specialized software and cant be done manually with the
Budapest University

39

theoretical expressions for each load, for that reason it is defined a simplified average
load.

The average load is supposed to be the normal amount of heat to be removed
from the conditioned space in average summer conditions. It is quite difficult to know
the average conditions in summer, because they vary not only depending on the day, but
also on the hour. For this reason the suppositions taken were:
Studied months: Summer months (June, July, August and September) are
taking in consideration knowing that some other months could require air
conditioning in some situations.
Temperature and humidity: The temperature and humidity taken for the
calculation are the averages of the temperatures and humidity for each month
according to the Spanish Government Meteorological Agency (AEMET,
Agencia Estatal de Meteorologa). This is a summary of real data collected from
1971 to 2000.
Solar radiation: Averages of the radiation for each orientation in summer are
taken from the attached tables.
Ventilation, lighting and occupation loads are the same than in the maximum
load calculation.

Summing up, the average theoretical conditions are:

Fig. 4.2.3: Schematic
representation of the
relation between
maximum load, average
load and its main
components: radiation
and temperature.
Budapest University

40

SIMPLIFIED AVERAGE
OUTDOOR CONDITIONS
Td 17,5C
74,5%
w 9,5 g/Kgas
Dew p. 12,9 C
Tw 14,5 C
h 42 KJ/Kg
V 0,835 m
3
/Kg

Figure 4.2.4: ASHRAE psychrometric chart with the project indoor and simplified average
outdoor conditions.

Budapest University

41

4.3 Summer cooling loads calculation.
4.3.1 Theoretical calculation.
The design cooling load (or heat gain) is the amount of heat energy to be
removed from a house by the air conditioning equipment to maintain the house at
indoor comfort temperature when worst case outdoor design temperature is being
experienced.
There are sensible and latent cooling loads. The sensible cooling load refers to the
dry bulb temperature of the building and it is related to the variations of temperature.
The latent cooling load refers to the wet bulb temperature, it depends of the variations of
humidity. Whiles in winter the latent load is almost negligible.
Summing up, a summer cooling load is any form of heat which contributes to
raise the building temperature or humidity conditions above the designs ones. To
calculate the loads in the selected building, Load Calculation for Differential
Temperature and Cooling Load Factors (CLTD / CLF) method will be used, combined
with a set of Spanish regulations, standards and rules and the Carrier Manual for Air
Conditioning. This computing has learning purposes, although the computing using
specific and more accurate software will be found later. Nevertheless, given the
eminently didactical purpose of this document, it was thought that performing the
detailed theoretical computing would be positive, in order to learn about the
contribution of each load to the total of the building.
The most important factors that produce cooling loads are:
4.3.1.1 Sensible loads
I. Transmission and radiation striking windows, skylights and glass
doors and heating the room.

q
tranx
= K S
g|axx
(T
uut
-T
|n
) [eq. 1]

q
rad
= S n
v
FC(R
urtent-max
F
sul

FA
urtent
+RN
max
(1 -F
sul)
F
stu
) [eq. 2]
Budapest University

42

K: Transmission coefficient of the glass, in
w
hm
2
K
.
S: Glass surface, in m
2
.
(T
uut
-T
|n
): Difference between the outdoor and indoor temperatures.
Nv: Correction factor that depends on the type of glass in the window, in
this case (double glass) it is 0.92.
FC: correction factor depending on the altitude, the pollution and the dew
point.
Altitude correction: (+ 0,7%) for each 300 meters, Santiago de
Compostela is at 316 m.
Dew point correction: (+14% for each 10 C below 19,5C). Our
drew point is 15,6C.
Pollution correction: 1 (no pollution correction).
FC=(1+0,007(316/300))(1+(19,5-15,6)/100,14)= 1,0623
R: Are the radiations, depending of the orientations. They are also
tabulated in the regulations, being for Santiago:
Rsmax
SUR
= 217 W/m
2

Rsmax
NORTE
=76 W/m
2

Fsto: Is the storage factor. It is related with the materials capacity for
storage heat. It depends on the materials weigh in each m
2
, the
orientation and the solar hour.
Fsol: Is the sunny fraction of the window. It is a measure of the
proportion of window which is receiving sun and the proportion that is
on shadow. It is tabulated depending on the orientation (azimuth,
latitude) and setback of the window, the hour of the day, and the day
of the year.
To simplify the calculations, and as a more conservative criteria, the
existence of shadows is despised. Thus, the heat due to radiation will be:
Budapest University

43

q
rad
= A nu R
ur|ent
F
xtu

[eq. 3]
II. Exterior walls and ceiling.
Heat due to the radiation and transmission through the walls and the ceiling
(which affects in the attic) that protect the building from the exterior
environment.

q
wa||
= K S
wa||
T
eq
[eq. 4]

K: Transmission coefficient of the wall, in
w
hm
2
K
.
S: wall surface, in m
2
.
T
eq
: Equivalent variation of temperature trough a wall:

T
eq
= a +T
xhaduw
+h R
(T
xtand
-T
xhaduw
)
R
x
[eq. 5]

a: correction factor, tabulated in the Carrier manual.
T
xhaduw
: Variation of temperature with wall in shadow. It is tabulated
on the standards, depending on the wall weight and the hour of the day. In
this case it is 4,43C.
T
xtand
: Standard temperature variation at this orientation It is tabulated
on the standards, depending on the wall weight, the hour of the day. In
this case, it is 13,9C
h: Correction factor depending of the wall color, in this case all the walls
are dark so b= 1.
R
x
: Higher monthly insolation, in
w
hm
2
, at that latitude and orientation. In
this case it is R=217 W/m
2
.
R : Higher insolation but corrected depending on pollution, drew point
and altitude, in
w
hm
2
.
Altitude correction: (+ 0,7%) for each 300 metres, Santiago de
Compostela is at 316 m.
Budapest University

44

Drew point correction: (+14% for each 10 C below 19,5C).
Our drew point is 15,6C.
Pollution correction: 1 (no pollution correction).
R= 2171(1+0,007(316/300))(1+(19,5-15,6)/100,14)= 230,53
W/m
2
.
To simplify the calculations, and being even more conservative, the following
equation will be used:

T
seq
= bT
deqshadow
+(25-T
din
)+ (T
dout
- OMD/2 -30) [eq. 6]

If the load sign is negative (transmission trough the wall contributes to cool the
local), it will be taken as 0.

III. Partitions.
Heat due to the transmission through non- external walls and roofs, those
that separate conditioned and non-conditioned spaces or that separate the
studied building from neighboring constructions.

q
part
= K S
part

T
2
[eq. 7]

The temperature difference between a conditioned space and a non-
conditioned space is considered equal to the difference between inside and
outside temperature, divided between 2.

IV. Floors.
Floors over an open crawl and partition floors have the same type of
loads that walls and ceilings.

V. Sensible heat carried by air infiltration through holes in the building,
doors and windows.
Budapest University

45

Although a conditioned local has to be isolated from hot air currents from
the exterior, there is always a small amount of infiltrations coming inside,
when doors or windows are opened or through fissures and holes.
According to Carrier Manual, these loads will be calculated as:

Q
|n
= 1, 2
F
|n
3
1, 5 T [eq. 8]

V
inf
: Volume of infiltrations in m
3
/h; its tabulated according to
occupation and number of doors. Carrier Manual.
T: Difference between outdoor and indoor temperatures.

VI. Sensible heat carried by ventilation air.
Renewal air introduced from outside carries heat with it. The following
equation is used to quantify the amount of sensible heat introduced:

Q
Fent-xen
= , 33 hp F
u
T [eq. 9]

f
bp
: By-pass factor. 0,3 is assumed.
Vv: Ventilation airflow, in m
3
/h. The minimum amounts for each type of
building are tabulated in Spanish regulations (CTE-DB-HS).
T: Difference between outdoor and indoor temperatures.

VII. Sensible heat produced by people in the building.
These loads represent the heat load due to the occupation of people in the
rooms. They are calculated as:

q
peup|e
= n q
|nd
[eq. 10]

n: average number of people in a room, according to Spanish standards.
Q: sensible heat contribution of each person, according to the activity he
is doing. Carrier Manual.

Budapest University

46

VIII. Sensible heat produced by equipments and appliances operated in
the summer.
There are not equipments which produce heat in this case.

IX. Heat produced by the artificial lights and the illumination systems.
The lamps and lighting equipments produce heat. This heat is evaluated
as equal to the electric power in incandescent lighting and as the electric
power multiplied by 1,25 for fluorescent lighting.

Q
LI6HT-INC
= P
e|ec
[eq. 11]
Q
LI6HT-FLU
= 1, 25 P
e|ec
[eq. 12]
Q
LI6HT
= Q
LI6HT-INC
+Q
LI6HT-FLU
[eq. 13]

X. Heat produced by HVAC equipment by itself before the air reaches
the room (system gains).
As the heat produced by the HVAC equipment is proportional to its
power, and its power depends of the loads, the heat produced by the HVAC
equipment is calculated as the 10% of the rest of sensible load.

Q
HFAC
= , 1 (Q
tranx
+Q
rad
+Q
wa||
+Q
part
+
+Q
peup|e
+Q
||gh
+Q
|uur
+Q
uent
+Q
|n
) [eq. 14]

4.3.1.2 Latent loads.
I. Latent heat carried by air infiltrations in the building.

Q
|n
= 1, 2
F
|n
3
2. 512. 2
W
1
[eq. 15]

V
inf
: Volume of infiltrations in m
3
/h; its tabulated according to
occupation and number of doors. Carrier.
W: humidity difference between outside and inside environments, in
gw/kga.

Budapest University

47

II. Latent heat carried by ventilation air.

Q
Fent-xen
= , 84 F
u
W [eq. 16]

f: By-pass factor. 0,3 is assumed.
Vv: Ventilation airflow, in m
3
/h. The minimum amounts for each type of
building are tabulated in Spanish regulations (CTE-DB-HS).
W: Difference between outdoor and indoor absolute humidity.

III. Latent heat produced by people in the building.

q
|at-peup|e
= n q
|nd
[eq. 17]

n: average number of people in a room, according to Spanish standards.
Q: latent heat contribution of each person, according to the activity he is
doing. It is tabulated in the Carrier Manual.

IV. Latent heat produced by equipments and appliances operated in the
summer.
There are not equipments producing heat in this case.

4.3.1.3 Total loads.
The total sensible and latent loads are the sum of all the respective loads with a
safety factor, in order to ensure cooling for the worst situation:

Q
SFNS
= 1, 1 (Q
tranx
+Q
rad
+Q
wa||
+Q
part
+
+Q
peup|e
+Q
||gh
+Q
|uur
+Q
|n
+Q
uent
+Q
huac
) [eq. 18]

Q
LAT
= 1, 1 (Q
|at-|n
+Q
|at-peup|e
+Q
|at-uent
) [eq. 19]

Budapest University

48

The sum of all this loads is the total heat to be removed by the air conditioning
system. Therefore, the energy requirements of the cooling device may be reduced by
reducing any of the loads. Whether a traditional or a solar air conditioning system is
installed, it is necessary to analyze carefully the features of the building to be cooled
and adopt all the measures needed to reduce energy requirements.
The maximum cooling load according to the manual computing is 133.134 W.
The simplified average cooling load, for its part is 43409 W.
The results of both calculations can be seen in the appendix.

4.3.2 Calculation of summer load using specific software.
The calculation of thermal loads has been done with the program DP CLIMA.
This software was developed by the Polytechnic University of Valencia (Spain) and is a
verified validity program. The main advantages of using this software are:

It performs calculations using transfer functions, allowing greater
accuracy in the calculations.
It presents an hourly demand for each magnitude, it is possible to know
the value of any load in the building for any hour of the year.
The impact of loads from different sources in the same local can be
analyzed for separate.
It is able to calculate the maximum load for each month.

For all these reasons, the use of this kind of software is essential for a solar air
conditioning project, where not only the maximum load is needed but also the
fluctuation of the load over time.
The maximum cooling load according to the DP CLIMA is 131.506 W. The
results of the calculation can be seen in the appendix. The average cooling load during
summer months is easy to calculate from the software results, it is 63373 W.

Budapest University

49

4.3.3 Comparison between theoretical and software calculation.
Although the theoretical calculation and the software calculation are based on
the same transfer functions, the first is less accuracy than the second, as it was said
before. The reason is that, for a manual calculation, the expressions have to be
simplified. For that reason is logical that the maximum load in manual calculation
results to be bigger, because the used criteria have to be more conservative. Anyway it
can be see that the results are quite similar, this demonstrates the validity of both
methods.
Talking about the average load for summer months, the difference is bigger, but
knowing that the manual calculation was bases on a lot of simplifications and
suppositions, the DP CLIMA result will be taken into account.
4.3.4 Cooling load reduction.
The theoretical load calculation allows going deeper on the origin of the loads.
Doing it, it is possible to understand what factors affect to each load, doing it bigger or
smaller. Thanks to that, some ideas may be proposed in order to reduce the total load of
the building.
Although these measures will not be considered for calculations, reduction of
heat loads can be considered as part of a solar air conditioning project, because it
contributes positively to the independence of the system from the electrical grid. In fact,
a reduction of the heat loads can make the difference for the system to be profitable,
knowing that the installations cost are much higher for a solar air conditioning system
and the amortization of this cost comes from the energy consumption saves. The
reduction of heats loads can be made with simple considerations whether during the
building design as in the building life:
Protection from sun: solar radiation penetrates the transparent
surfaces of the building (doors and windows) causing an immediate energy gain
which must be removed by the cooling system. The impact of solar radiation
may be reduced by having recourse to different kinds of shading, reconciling
always lower loads with the lightning necessities. Sunscreens, curtains, awnings
and many other types of external and internal shading devices prevent solar
Budapest University

50

radiation from beating in transparent surfaces. Natural shading, with trees or
pergolas near the building, are good options as well. Moreover, the heat that
enter the building trough the walls and the roof can be reduced by choosing
light-colored for exterior walls, which allows the building to reflect part of the
sun radiation or with other methods as insulations, ventilated roofs
Thermal mass control: the thermal inertia of a building is the
capacity of the elements to store heat. The structures accumulate direct radiation
from the outside and release it to the inside ambient a few hours later. This
means that cooling peaks are lower. For that reason materials with high thermal
inertia should be used, especially in the construction.
Ventilation: besides being necessary to ensure clean air,
ventilation is one of the easiest ways to get the thermal comfort of occupants of
a building. Airing the rooms (if the external air is cooler than the air to be found
inside) or simply moving the air inside the building either mechanically or by
natural airflows reduces the thermal sensation of the building occupants.
Operational management of the building: an intelligent
management of the building and the air conditioning system should suppose load
reductions. Some actions in this field are the regulation of the internal
temperature of each space, no conditioning where it is useless, correct utilization
of the lighting plant and electrical appliances
Reduction of outside temperature: reduction of outside
temperature by intervening on the external setting in close proximity to the
building. Increasing relative air humidity with of ponds, fountains and
vegetation, reducing external sun-glare with green areas, shading with plants
have a good behavior not only for summer loads but also for heating loads in the
winter.
In conclusion, reduction of the summer loads depends on many factors: technical
features of the envelope, orientation, building mass, latitude, climatic conditions, etc so
the importance of the energy saving is not the same in all the buildings. Nevertheless,
they should be take in consideration because of its simplicity and because in most of the
Budapest University

51

cases they can suppose big savings. In some buildings the loads have decreased by up to
40%
12
.

4.4 Selection and design of a vapor compression system.
The selected vapor compression system is a multi-split system, from Saunier
Duval Manufacturer. These kind of units develop small powers, so it will be necessary
to install multiple systems. Nevertheless, being all equal and working at the same
conditions its study can be made as if it were a single unit. The main features of the
selected devices for air conditioning (knowing that they can work also for heating) are:
Saunier Duval 12-085 MC4NHO
Cooling capacity [ Nom (m-M) ] KW 8,30 (2,08-10,30)
Absorbed power [ Nom (m-M) ] KW 2,42 (0,74-4,12)
EER 3,43
Annual consumption KW 1210
Noise production dB (A) 72

It is operated with R-410A refrigeration and develop a COP for refrigeration in
nominal conditions of 3,43. In other operating conditions the coefficient of performance
varies:
4.4.1 Variation depending on the outdoor temperature.
With a fixed indoor temperature, the effort needed to produce a refrigeration
effect becomes greater. The following graph shows the evolution of the total
refrigeration capacity and the consumption for the selected V-C system, for the project
temperature (24C). The higher the outside temperature the more energy input is
needed. On the contrary, the total system cooling capacity decreases. The two variations
together means a great decrease of the COP, because both of them contribute to that.

12
Solar air conditioning guide; European Comission and Rhne-Alpes regional Council; Sept. 2007
Budapest University

52

4.4.2 Variation depending on the indoor temperature.
COP also varies depending on the indoor temperature, but this variation is not as
important. The graph shows the variations of COP depending on outdoor temperatures
for different indoor temperatures. As shown, when the outdoor temperature is fixed, the
COP decreases the lower indoor temperature, but this variation is slight. Nevertheless,
the graph is very useful to show the COP peak at nominal conditions.

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
21 25 30 35 40 45 50
K
W
Outdoor temperature
Total capacity Consumption
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
21 25 30 35 40 45 50
C
O
P
Outdoor temperature
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
21 25 30 35 40 45 50
C
O
P
Outdoor temperature
23 C
19 C
17 C
15 C
Fig. 4.4.1 Outdoor temperature vs.
Refrigeration capacity and Electrical
consumption.
Fig. 4.4.2 Outdoor temperature
vs. COP
Fig. 4.4.3
Variations of COP
depending on
outdoor
temperature for
different indoor
temperatures.
Budapest University

53

Knowing all this features, it is possible to calculate the behavior of the system in
any situation and therefore the electrical consumption of the vapor compression system
for any load situation.

4.5 Selection and design of a solar absorption system.
4.5.1 Selection and COP study of the absorption chiller.
An absorption chiller unit able to refrigerate the building in the worst situation
was elected. It is a Thermax Cogenie LT-5 model, which has a cooling power of 176
KW.
Absorption chillers COP depends mainly on two magnitudes when they are
operated with hot water: the temperature of the input water and the temperature of the
refrigeration water. Naturally, the higher is the temperature of the water entering the
machine, the higher is its efficiency. In the selected model, the machine does not work
below 75C of input water temperature. In the same way, the lower the temperature of
the refrigerant the better it works and therefore the higher is the COP. The graph shows
the COP variation of the selected absorption chiller for different input and refrigerating
water temperatures.

0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
75 80 85 90 95
C
O
P
Input water temperature
29,5 C
31 C
24 C
Fig. 4.5.1 Outdoor temperature vs. Refrigeration capacity and Electrical consumption.
Budapest University

54

Nevertheless, in a solar absorption air conditioning system the efficiency of the
absorption machine cannot be studied alone. Solar collectors behave just in the opposite
way: the more is the temperature the low is its efficiency.
The solar panel performance is defined as a curve, according to the expression:
=
o
-a
1
(T/G)- a
2
T
2
/G

o:
Optical efficiency.
a
1
: Loss factor 1 (W/ K m
2
)
a
2
: Loss factor 2 (W/ K m
2
)
T: T
panel
-T
outdoor

G: Global radiation

Four solar panels have been studied, two flat plate collectors and two vacuum
tube collectors:
Type
o
a
1
a
2
S(m
2
) Price()
Swiss XX-SEL Flat plate 0,82 3,8 0,018 2 538
Roca PS 2.4 Flat plate 0,79 3,8 0,012 2,4 780
Thermomax AR30 Vacuum Tube 0,832 1,14 0,014 3,23 2550
Vitosol 300 Vacuum Tube 0,84 3,86 0,0139 2,3 2840

0,4
0,45
0,5
0,55
0,6
0,65
0,7
0,75
0,8
75 80 85 90 95
Swiss XX-SEL (FP)
Roca PS 2.4 (FP)
Thermomax AR30 (VT)
Vitosol 300 (VT)
Fig. 4.5.2 Efficiency of solar panels depending of its temperature.
Budapest University

55

Summing up, the global performance of the solar system will be the product of
the absorption machine COP and the panel efficiency, this means that it will be different
for each situation.

Fig 4.5.3. Global efficiency of the solar system for different panels and temperatures on three
refrigerant water conditions.

4.5.2 Design of the solar collector field.
4.5.2.1 Calculation of the solar panel tilt.
To make a comprehensive design of thermal equipment that uses solar energy, is
necessary to know the available energy in the place where the solar system will work.
The Spanish technical specification about solar thermal energy includes tabulated values
for each province.

0,35
0,4
0,45
0,5
0,55
75 80 85 90 95
COP* (24)
0,13
0,23
0,33
0,43
0,53
75 80 85 90 95
COP* (29,5)
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
75 80 85 90 95
COP* (31)
Swiss XX-SEL (FP)
Roca PS 2.4 (FP)
Thermomax AR30 (VT)
Vitosol 300 (VT)
Budapest University

56

January February March April May June
5,4 8 11,4 12,4 15,4 16,2

July August September October November December
17,4 15,3 13,9 10,9 6,4 5,1
Table 4.5.1: Incident energy [MJ/m
2
] reaching a squared meter of horizontal surface in an
average day of each month.
When panels are not horizontal, a K correction coefficient must be used
depending on its inclination. Spanish regulations recommend that the degree of incline
may vary between +/- 10 degrees of the latitude.

Incl. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
30 1,36 1,28 1,19 1,09 1,02 1 1,02 1,1 1,23 1,37 1,46 1,44
35 1,39 1,3 1,19 1,08 1 0,97 1 1,09 1,23 1,4 1,51 1,48
40 1,42 1,31 1,19 1,06 0,97 0,94 0,97 1,08 1,24 1,42 1,54 1,52
45 1,43 1,32 1,18 1,04 0,94 0,9 0,94 1,05 1,23 1,43 1,57 1,54
50 1,44 1,31 1,16 1 0,89 0,86 0,9 1,02 1,21 1,44 1,59 1,56
Table 4.5.2: K correction coefficient for inclined surfaces.

With tables I and II we can get:
30 35 40 45 50
January 7,344 7,506 7,668 7,722 7,776
February 10,24 10,4 10,48 10,56 10,48
March 13,566 13,566 13,566 13,452 13,224
April 13,516 13,392 13,144 12,896 12,4
May 15,708 15,4 14,938 14,476 13,706
June 16,2 15,714 15,228 14,58 13,932
July 17,748 17,4 16,878 16,356 15,66
August 16,83 16,677 16,524 16,065 15,606
September 17,097 17,097 17,236 17,097 16,819
October 14,933 15,26 15,478 15,587 15,696
November 9,344 9,664 9,856 10,048 10,176
December 7,344 7,548 7,752 7,854 7,956
Table 4.5.3 Incident energy reaching a squared meter of inclined surface for an average day of
each month.
Budapest University

57

As the aim of the installation is air conditioning, a higher efficiency in summer
is the objective, only the summer months are taking into account.

Figure 4.5.4. Incident energy reaching a squared meter of inclined surface for an average day of
each month of summer.

As it can be seen in the graph, the best performance is obtained with an
inclination of 30.

4.5.2.2 Selection of the most suitable model of panel.

Average irradiation calculation will be needed:

HT: Incident energy [MJ/m
2
] reaching a squared meter of horizontal surface in a
average day of the month.
Ndm: Number of days of the month.
Nhc: Number of sunny days in a month (Statistic of AEMET)

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
30 35 40 45 50
June
July
August
September
Average
Budapest University

58

Ndm Nhc MJ/m
2
k MJ/m
2
k Is (W/m
2
)
January 31 102 5,4 1,36 7,344 620
February 28 108 8 1,28 10,24 737,4486
March 31 154 11,4 1,19 13,566 758,5606
April 30 170 12,4 1,09 13,516 662,549
May 31 190 15,4 1,02 15,708 711,9123
June 30 235 16,2 1 16,2 574,4681
July 31 261 17,4 1,02 17,748 585,5556
August 31 246 15,3 1,1 16,83 589,126
September 30 180 13,9 1,23 17,097 791,5278
October 31 138 10,9 1,37 14,933 931,8096
November 30 106 6,4 1,46 9,344 734,5912
December 31 88 5,1 1,44 7,344 718,6364
Table 4.5.4: Calculation of the average irradiation for each month.

To select the type of solar collectors due to its technical and economical
characteristics for our facility a study of the different possibilities in the market must be
done. The variable to be taken into account when choosing the type of solar panel will
be the ratio cost / power (R), which is determined with the following equation:

Pc= price ()
=efficiency
Is= Irradiation (W/m
2
)
Ac= Surface (m
2
)

The temperature of the collectors is estimated in 70 C, whiles the environment
temperature is taken from the technical regulations:

Budapest University

59

January February March April May June
12 12 14 14 16 19

July August September October November December
20 21 20 17 14 12
Table 4.5.5: Average temperature during sun hours for each month in the province of A Corua.

Knowing all the factors, is easy to calculate the Cost/Power ratio. The panel
which get the lower value of the ratio will be the selected one.

Swiss XX-SEL (FP)
R (/W)
January 0,3668516 1,182688
February 0,4390216 0,830873
March 0,4650541 0,762533
April 0,413618 0,981601
May 0,4580341 0,824951
June 0,4011464 1,167303
July 0,4186717 1,097263
August 0,4305791 1,060452
September 0,5231058 0,649676
October 0,5495993 0,525266
November 0,4534723 0,807525
December 0,4290485 0,872442

Roca PS 2.4 (FP)
R(/W)
January 0,369406 1,419016
February 0,436392 1,009893
March 0,459859 0,931684
April 0,412017 1,190556
May 0,45261 1,008632
June 0,398312 1,420344
July 0,414288 1,339715
August 0,425032 1,297936
September 0,512057 0,801861
October 0,537687 0,648675
November 0,449087 0,985162
December 0,427135 1,058788
Thermomax AR30 (VT)
R(/W)
January 0,649394 1,960821
February 0,678476 1,577871
March 0,689963 1,508418
April 0,66938 1,780111
May 0,688185 1,611411
June 0,667406 2,05912
July 0,674884 1,997746
August 0,680124 1,97034
September 0,715769 1,393473
October 0,724955 1,168691
November 0,685328 1,568171
December 0,674457 1,628824
Vitosol 300 (VT)
R(/W)
January 0,403485 5,090904
February 0,473005 3,651032
March 0,497575 3,374155
April 0,447953 4,291045
May 0,490277 3,648765
June 0,434383 5,103575
July 0,451053 4,821894
August 0,462298 4,676091
September 0,552265 2,913396
October 0,578546 2,362372
November 0,486401 3,564289
December 0,463398 3,824281

Budapest University

60

Table 4.5.6 and Figure 4.5.64: Efficiency and Cost/power ratio for each panel and month.

Although Vacuum tube panels have high efficiencies, their prices are expensive
so the cost per W is not good. The selected panel will be a flat plate collector,
specifically the Swiss XX-SEL. The main specifications of this collector are described
in the table.

Swiss XX-SEL
Irradiation surface 2 m
2

Heat transfer liquid capacity 2,6 l /m
2

Glass transmissibility 91%
Maximum pressure 3 bar
Nominal water-flow 40 l/hm
2

Energy losses for nominal
conditions
<400 Pa
Maximum temperature 200 C
Wight 52 Kg
External dimensions 900 x 2400 mm
Height 80 mm
Estructure Iron
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Swiss XX-SEL (FP)
Roca PS 2.4 (FP)
Vitosol 300 (VT)
Thermomax AR30 (VT)
Budapest University

61

Glass Low iron thickness
4mm
Table 4.5.7:Selected solar panel features.

4.5.2.3 Solar collector field sizing.

I. Energy requirements for cooling during the summer months.

The energy requirements for air conditioning will be the integrals of the power
graphs generated by DP CLIMA. As this program cannot make this type of calculation,
it is approximated by the sum of the instant load for each hour.

Figure 4.5.7: Evolution of refrigeration load during a day for summer months. Generated by DP
CLIMA.

Hour June July August September
Instant loads (W)
1 18363 21331 22201 19124
2 15540 18449 19249 16209
3 13417 16245 16878 13757
4 12072 14774 15158 11862
5 15656 16448 14029 10517
6 26266 26340 19654 9741
Budapest University

62

7 77661 77900 71096 58472
8 87989 88419 82070 69713
9 92225 92839 87166 75868
10 96305 97310 92930 84585
11 99082 101281 100336 95343
12 107234 110344 111768 109090
13 115361 119146 122137 120515
14 121603 125587 128829 126772
15 124995 128899 131506 127550
16 124413 128052 129372 122559
17 123235 126254 125293 113834
18 112495 114368 109704 95803
19 56941 58171 54943 48081
20 44214 46629 45982 40844
21 36875 39541 39635 35300
22 31030 33899 34390 30585
23 26099 29027 29773 26326
24 21896 24877 25713 22510
Energy requirements(KWh)
Daily 1600,967 1656,13 1629,812 1484,96
Monthly 48029,01 51340,03 50524,172 44548,8
Energy input for absorption machine (KWh)
Monthly 62375,33 66675,36 65615,81 57855,58
Table 4.5.8: Energy requirements calculation from the instant load for each hour of summer.

II. Calculation of the solar collector field in terms of the maximum
power of the absorption machine.

As it was seen in the load calculation, the maximum cooling demand occurs in
the month of July. For that reason the efficiency and radiation for July are used in the
expression:

=efficiency
Q
gen
= Amount of heat applied to the generator (W)

Budapest University

63

Qo= Maximum Load (W)
COP= Coefficient of performance for this input temperature (90)
Q
Gen
=131506/0,77= 170788 W

Sc=
gcn
qIs
=
170788
0,42585,55
= 694, 45 m
2

I
s
= Irradiation (W/m
2
)
S
c
= Surface of the collector field (m
2
)

The number of panels will be:

N=Sc/Ac= 348 panels

III. Calculation of the storage tank.
The facility will have an accumulation system to absorb stored energy
production and to be used in hours little or no sunlight. Nevertheless, as the demand of
hot water is directly related with cooling load and this, in turn, with the incoming solar
radiation, the storage tank need not be too large. For this reason, the storage tank will be
designed in order to be able to provide the energy need for feed the absorption system
during one hour in the worst load situation. With this device the number of the number
of starts and stops the auxiliary boiler will be reduced.
According to the technical specifications provided by IDEA low temperature
normative, for air conditioners volume accumulation will be sized in order to meet the
needs of energy demand for at least one hour. In any case they recommend using a ratio
Volume / Collector area (V/A) between 50 l/m
2
and 25 l/m
2
. In this case, as the main
aim of the installation is air conditioning, the storage volume can be lower. So finally, a
10.000 liters tank is selected.

IV. Calculation of the solar collector field in terms of the solar coverage.

To design the solar thermal installations F-Chart method is suggested, which
allows the calculation of the solar coverage of a system: the solar contribution to total
Budapest University

64

heat input required to satisfy the thermal loads, and their average performance over a
long period of time. This method is widely accepted as a sufficiently accurate
calculation process for long estimates, but has no application for estimations of weekly
or daily rates.

The equation used in this method can be seen in the following formula:

f=1,029 D
1
0,065 D
2
0,245 D
1
2
+ 0,0018 D
2
2
+ 0,0215 D
1
3

D1= Ratio between energy absorbed by the solar panel and the total heat load for
a month.

Energy absorbed by the solar panel:

A
e
=S
c
Fr ( )
n
R
1
N

Sc= Panel surface (m
2
).
R
1
: Monthly average incident radiation in a day over one square meter of
collector (KJ/m
2
).
N: Number of days of the month.
Fr ( ) = Adimensional factor that comes from:

Fr ( ) = Fr ( )
n
[( )/( )
n
] (Fr/Fr)

Fr ( )
n
: Panel optic efficiency.
( )/( )
n:
Incident angle correction factor. Single surface: 0,96; double
surface: 0,94
(Fr/Fr): Collector-exchanger correction factor. 0,95

D
2
= Ratio between the panel losses for a temperature and the total heat load for
one month.

The energy losses in the solar panel are:
Budapest University

65

E
L
=S
c
F
r
. U
L
(100-t
a
) t K
1

Sc= Panel surface (m
2
).
F
r
. U
L
= F
r
-U
L
(F
r
/F
r
)
F
r
-U
L
: Global losses coefficient of the solar panel (slope of the curve).
(Fr/Fr): Collector-exchanger correction factor. 0,95

T
a
= average monthly temperature (C).
t= time (seconds).
K
1
= Storage correction factor.

Summing up, the useful energy captured each month is:

Q
u
=fQ
a

F-Chart Method
H-daily Ht-montly IE/m2 IE AE
Days MJ/m2 k MJ/m2*k Kwh/m2*K Kwh Kwh
January 31
5,4
1,36 227,664 63,240 44015,04004 32791,20483
February 28
8
1,28 286,72 79,644 55432,53338 41297,23737
March 31
11,4
1,19 420,546 116,818 81305,56007 60572,64225
April 30
12,4
1,09 405,48 112,633 78392,80006 58402,63605
May 31
15,4
1,02 486,948 135,263 94143,28008 70136,74366
June 30
16,2
1 486 135,000 93960,00008 70000,20006
July 31
17,4
1,02 550,188 152,830 106369,6801 79245,41166
August 31
15,3
1,1 521,73 144,925 100867,8001 75146,51106
September 30
13,9
1,23 512,91 142,475 99162,60008 73876,13706
October 31
10,9
1,37 462,923 128,590 89498,44674 66676,34282
November 30
6,4
1,46 280,32 77,867 54195,20004 40375,42403
December 31
5,1
1,44 227,664 63,240 44015,04004 32791,20483
Table 4.5.9 Absorbed energy by 348 solar panels for each month.

Ht-daily: Energy inciding over one square meter of horizontal surface in one day
(MJ/m2).
Ht-monthly: Energy inciding over one square meter of inclined surface in one
month (MJ/m2).
Budapest University

66

IE/m2: Energy inciding over one square meter of inclined surface in one month
(Kwh/m2).
IE: Energy inciding over the collector field in one month (Kwh).
AE: Energy absorbed by the collector field (Kwh).

Working with this data and with the energy demands for each month, a solar
contribution table can be built:

Month Qa D1 k1 EL D2 f UE
Kwh AE/Qa Kwh EL/Qa

fQa
June
48029,0 1,4575 1,011 4943,343271 0,10292411 1,03919 49911,25
July
51340,0 1,5435 1,011 4882,314341 0,09509761 1,07748 55318,26
August
50524,1 1,4873 1,011 4821,285412 0,09542532 1,05304 53204,08
Sept.
44548,8 1,6583 1,011 4882,314341 0,10959474 1,12360 50055,12
Table 4.5.10: Solar contribution of 348 solar panels for summer months.

Qa: Heat needs for one month.
D1 Ratio between energy absorbed by the solar panel and the total heat load for
a month.
K1: Storage correction factor.
EL: Energy losses.
D2: Ratio between the panel losses for a temperature and the total heat load for
one month.
f: solar contribution to the demand.
UE: Useful energy generated.
*** All the parameters of this table are explained at the beginning of this
section.
Nevertheless, a surface that is capable of covering the highest peak of demand
does not have to be the most suitable. As seen, with 348 panels the demand of energy in
summer is obtained and even exceeded. Hence, the process of computing the solar
coverage and the energetic savings is iterative, obtaining the following results:

Budapest University

67

N f
Energy
savings
10 years
Cost of
panels
Savings-Cost
100 0,4 78912,87 789128,7 33848,88646 17933,33333 15915,55312
200 0,72 141433,8 1414338 60666,61417 35866,66667 24799,94751
250 0,86 167223,5 1672235 71728,84809 44833,33333 26895,51476
300 0,975 189726,7 1897267 81381,3707 53800 27581,3707
320 1,01 197868,2 1978682 84873,58571 57386,66667 27486,91904
330 1,037 201763,5 2017635 86544,43569 59180 27364,43569
340 1,05 205544,6 2055446 88166,30072 60973,33333 27192,96739
348 1,072 208488,7 2084887 89429,14298 62408 27021,14298
360 1,094 212772,9 2127729 91266,80773 64560 26706,80773
370 1,11 216224,6 2162246 92747,37992 66353,33333 26394,04659
400 1,16 225955,1 2259551 96921,18059 71733,33333 25187,84726
Table 4.5.11: Energy savings for different number of panels.

N: number of panels.
f: solar contribution for summer.
10 years: energy savings for 10 years (payback time of the solar panels).
: Energy savings in Euro, taking 0,042894/Kwh as the price of natural gas
13
.
Cost of panels: Cost of the solar panels. To do a simplified calculation only for
summer months (object of this project), the price was divided into 3, taking into
account that they will be used during all the year and not only for the 4 summer
months.

Plotting the evolution of the saving-cost parameter with respect to the number of
panels, it can be see easily that for more than 310 panels profitability declines sharply.
Moreover, not covering the peaks of load will suppose a better management during the
whole summer.

13
Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio: http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2009/12/31/pdfs/BOE-A-
2009-21176.pdf
Budapest University

68

Figure 4.5.8: Curve saving-cost depending of the number of panels.

The saving-cost curve has its maximum for 315 panels, in that conditions the
global solar contribution for summer is almost equal to 1, broken down month by
month:

Month Qa D1 k1 EL D2 f UE
Kwh AE/Qa Kwh EL/Qa fQa
June 48029,0 1,3192 1,011 4474,57796 0,0931640 0,97443 46800,91
July 51340,0 1,3972 1,011 4419,336257 0,0860797 1,012485 51980,99
August 50524,1 1,3463 1,011 4364,094554 0,0863763 0,988136 49924,77
Sept.
44548,8 1,5011 1,011 4419,336257 0,0992021 1,05885 47170,48
Table 4.5.12: Solar contribution of 315 solar panels for summer months.

V. Distance between collector rows.

As the roof of the building is flat, the collectors should be placed on supports for
the inclination of 30 . For this reason, it must set a suitable distance between the panels
to avoid shadows.

As it can be seen in the picture, the distance between collector rows must be:

13000
15000
17000
19000
21000
23000
25000
27000
29000
80 130 180 230 280 330 380
Savings-Cost
N - panels
Budapest University

69

height=Lcsen()

d kLcsen()

The inclination of the collectors to the horizontal is 30 . According to the
manufacturer, the Swiss collector XX-SEL has a length (Lc) of 2400 mm. Substituting
the actual values in the equation, we obtain a separation minimum between rows of
collectors 2079 mm (2,01 m).

VI. Surface for the solar panel field.

Knowing that the width of the panel is of 900 mm, the total surface needed to
install the solar collector field is:

S= (L
c
cos()+d) W
c
N= (2,4cos(30)+2,01)0,9315=1 150 m
2

4.5.2.4 Calculation of the auxiliary boiler.

Although the solar system is designed to be able to supply the required energy
for the activation of the absorption chiller most situations, it cannot cover the 100% of
demand the 365 days of the year. An auxiliary boiler must be installed in order to
supply the extra demand of energy needed in this extraordinary situations.
The auxiliary boiler has to be able to cover the demand of energy in the worst
situation for a solar air conditioning system: high temperatures with low radiation, as it
may occur on a cloudy day of summer. For that reason, a new calculation of the load is
done in order to compute the power of the auxiliary boiler, taking these considerations
Budapest University

70

into account. The result of the maximum load calculation
14
, disaggregated according to
the cause without radiation is:
Radiation Temperature Humidity Others Total
No-radiation
total
35534,485 31734,242 20,533 65845,126 133134,4 97599,9

So, the auxiliary boiler has to provide 97,6 KW. The selected model is a Ferroli
Pegasus N F2 102 boiler. The technical specifications are:
PEGASUS N F2 102
Heat output 102 KW
Rated heat input net 112 KW
Design flow rate @ liter/sec
2,21 l/s
Minimum flow rate 0,88 l/s
Boiler water content 34 l
Max. working pressure 4 Bar
Maximum electric input 20 W

4.5.2.5 Refrigeration tower.
The selected absorption chiller model does not need a refrigeration tower,
because it has an internal cooling water circuit.

4.6 Comparison between the two systems.
4.6.1 Economical comparison.
Although it is not the principal aim of the project, a simplified estimation of the
costs must be computed in order to determine the economic feasibility of the project,
establishing whether any of them is substantially better than the other from this point of
view. A superficial analysis might come to the false conclusion that the cheapest system

14
Theoretical calculation.
Budapest University

71

is also the more profitable over time, but this is not necessarily true. For this reason, the
method used for the economical comparison is the Life-Cycle Cost (LCC), which
includes all cost factors (first cost, operating cost, maintenance, replacement and
estimated energy use) and can be used to evaluate the total cost of the system over its
complete life.
4.6.1.1 Initial cost.
The initial cost of both systems should include the price of the components
(multi split systems, on the one hand, and absorption chiller plus heat generators, on the
other) but also the installation cost. The exact prices of labor, tools and works needed to
put on the installations are difficult to calculate. The physical size of the absorption
system is larger than the size of the vapor compression system; this increase in size
requires a larger building, moving equipment and support systems. This results in a
higher installation cost for the vapor absorption system. Nevertheless, decentralization
of the production of cold due to the use of multi split system also raises the prices. It can
be assumed that one effect cancels the other. Moreover, the installation costs are not
very relevant compared to equipment cost. Because of this, installation costs are not
taken into account for the comparison.

Vapor compression system
Element Price () Life (years)
13 Multisplit system Saunier-Duval 12-085
MC4NHO
133650 8
TOTAL
47450
Solar absorption system
Element Price () Life
(years)
Absorption chiller Thermax Cogenie LT-5 55.000 16
Auxiliary Boiler Pegasus N F2 102 3310 16
310Solar panel Swiss XX-SEL 310538 16
310Solar panel support structure 31045 16
Budapest University

72

10.000 liters storage tank ERG-SA/10000L BH 19.000 16
Other solar system devices (pumps, pipes, expansion
valves, accessories)
15.000
15
16
TOTAL
268 040

Nevertheless, it has to be taken into account that the solar installation will be
used during the whole year, and not only during summer months. To perform a
comparison only for summer air conditioning (object of this project) it makes no sense
to take the entire cost of the installation into account. For that reason, a simplification is
made: the price of the elements that would be used during all the year is divided into
3
16
.

TOTAL (with 1/3 Solar installation)
129 887

4.6.1.2 Operating cost.
The operating cost includes the costs of electricity, natural gas, employees
wages, supplies, water, and materials incurred by the operation of the system during its
life. All the costs related to the energy input (electricity, gas) are the most important and
are also easy to calculate, knowing the load suppositions. The employees wages for
operating labors could be reduced to zero, since solar absorption system is totally
automated and multi split vapor compression system is controlled by the users.
For evaluation the operating cost we will use two different suppositions. In
situation A, the building load is the one predicted by DP-CLIMA for each hour of the
summer, so it is a simulation method. In situation B, the system will condition the
building during all the summer time on average load conditions.

15
Estimated and increased from the analysis of several solar thermal projects.
16
The present study is only for the 4 months of summer but the solar installation is useful during the rest
of the year for heating and hot water. It is supposed that the savings during these months are similar to the
savings during the summer.
Budapest University

73

Vapor compression System
A: DP CLIMA simulation
Total consumption for summer [KWh] 194 442,012
COP [Nominal] 3,43
Electrical consumption [KWh] 56 688,63
Cost of electricity [/KWh] 0,14
17
Cost [] 7936,41
B: Theoretical calculation
Average cooling load [KW] 43409
Working hours summer 2928
COP [To=17,5; Tin=24] 4,5
Electrical consumption [KWh] 28244,78
Cost of electricity [/KWh] 0,14
Cost [] 3954,27

A: DP CLIMA simulation
Consumption [KWh] %Solar Aux. Boiler [KWh]
June 48029,01 0,97 1440
July
51340,03
1 0
August
50524,172
0,98 1010,48
September
44548,8
1 0
Total Boiler consumption [KWh] 2450,48
Natural gas heat of combustion [KWh/m
3
] 11,0485
Boiler efficiency 0,85
18
Natural gas consumption [m
3
] 260,88
Natural gas price [/Kwh] 0,042894
Cost[] 123,66

17
Union Fenosa; Tarifas de Suministro elctrico para 2010: 0,14 is a simplification, taking into account
that the price of electricity varies depending on the hour of the day.
18
Calculated for nominal conditions, P=112KW and energy input 11,8 m
3
/h of natural gas (11,0485
Kwh/m
3
).
Budapest University

74

B: Theoretical calculation
Average cooling load [KW] 43409
Working hours summer 2928
% Solar 1
Cost[0] 0

As seen, supposition A carries the worst results so it is the one to be used in the
comparison.

4.6.1.3 Maintenance cost.
Maintenance costs, for its part, are very difficult to calculate. They depend to a
large extent on the level of sophistication of the system and the relative ease of access to
plant, which is beyond this work. For example, the designed vapor compression system
has a lot of moving parts so the maintenance should be frequent but, at the same time,
the other system has a lot of different devices so the maintenance is more expensive.
Studies have shown that that the maintenance costs of the vapor absorption system
range from 0.6 to 1.25 times the maintenance costs of the vapor compression system
19
.
For this, taking into account that this kind of cost is not very high, differences between
the two systems can be despised.
4.6.1.4 Present worth comparison.
The present worth value of an amount of money over time is its value today. It is
determined by summing the present worth values of all individual items under
consideration, both future single payments (in this case, only the replacement cost of the
vapor compression system) and series of equal future payments (the operating cost in
both systems). When the alternatives have unequal lives, the time horizon for analysis
can be set by a common multiple of system lives, in this case 16 years. The cost of
money is a function of the available interest rate and the inflation rate.

19
A. Elsafty, A.J. Al-Daini; Economical comparison between a solar powered vapor absorption air-
conditioning system and a vapor compression system. Renewable Energy 25 (2002) 569583.
Budapest University

75

The present value of the operating cost is calculated with the equation:
P
opcutng
= A
op
_
(1 +i)
N
-1
i (1 +i)
N
_
Whiles the present worth value of the vapor compression system replacement is
obtained using:
P
cpIucng
= F
cp
_
1
(1 +i)
N
_
So, the total values for each system to be compared will be:
PWC
Abs
= Initial cost+ P
operating
PWC
VComp
= Initial cost+ P
operating
+ P
replacing
Solar absorption Vapor compression
Initial cost 129887 47450
Replacing cost 0 47450
P
replacing
0 44764,15
Operating cost 123,66 7936,41
Annual interest rate 0,06 0,06
P
operating
1249,67 80204,53

Total present worth
value
131 136,67 172 418,68

The solar absorption system saves more than a 20% according to the present
worth method, for the whole life of the system.
4.6.1.5 Equivalent annual cost comparison.
With this method, all the costs occurring over a period are converted to an
equivalent uniform yearly amount. Because of that it does not require the assumption of
replacement of the vapor compression system.
Budapest University

76

In EAC method, it is needed to calculate the amount of each future annuity
payment required to dissipate the initial cost of the systems, when the interest rate and
number of payments are known, for this the following equation is used:
E
AC
= P
c
_
i (1 +i)
N
(1 +i)
N
-1
_
This amount must to be added to the annual cost, so the equivalent annual cost
of each system will be:
EAC
abs
=EA
initial cost
+Annual operating cost.
EAC
vc
=EA
initial cost
+Annual operating cost.

Solar absorption Vapor compression
Initial cost 129887 47450
Annual interest rate 0,06 0,06
N 16 8
EA initial cost 12853 7641,155
Annual operating cost 123,66 7936,41

Total annual cost value 12 976,66 15 577,565

The solar absorption system saves around a 15% each year, according to the
equivalent annual cost comparison.

4.6.2 Ecological comparison.
The energy saved by using solar panels has a direct translation to the reduction of
pollutant emissions.
The generation of electric power produces a series of different gas emissions. The
type and amount of the pollutant emissions vary depending on the method of
generation. Traditional methods (thermal power plants) produce big amounts of CO
2

and also SO
2
and NO. Combined cycle power plants reduce significantly CO
2

emissions, and eliminate SO
2
and NO almost totally. Nuclear plants and renewable
Budapest University

77

energy plants, meanwhile, have no pollutant emissions directly related with the energy
generation process. For that reason the CO
2
emission per KWh in the electrical grid is
not a constant value, it varies depending on the generation technologies employed and
even on the considered moment (the contribution of each type of power plant is not
always the same). To make a rough estimate of the value, annual ratios are taken into
account.
Natural gas, for its part, is the fossil fuel with lower environmental impact
20
.
Composed primarily of methane, the main products of the combustion of natural gas are
carbon dioxide and water vapor. It also releases very small amounts of sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides and virtually no ash or particulate matter.

Vapor compression system
Electricity consumption CO
2
SO
2
NO
56 688,63 KWh
250 g/KWh 0,1 g/KWh 0,109 g/KWh
21

141,7216 Tm 5,669 Kg 6,18 Kg
Natural gas consumption CO
2
CO NO
28882,92 KWh
181,092 g/KWh 0,062 g/KWh 0,1424 g/KWh
22

5,23 Tm 1,791 Kg 4,113Kg

Therefore, all pollutant production are reduced. The most important reduction is
observed in the CO
2
emissions. Using the solar absorption system, savings of 136 tons
of CO
2
are obtained for each summer, this is a reduction of more than a 95%. This is a
huge amount of the pollutant gas, which reduction is a goal for all countries. In fact,
because of the Kyoto Protocol and the emissions trading, this pollutant reduction can be

20
http://www.naturalgas.org/environment/naturalgas.asp
21
WWF-ADENA, 2009
22
Fossil Fuel Emission Levels (Pounds per Billion BTU of Energy Input); Source: EIA - Natural Gas
Issues and Trends 1998.
Budapest University

78

measured in money. At the present time, a ton of CO
2
emissions is sold in international
markets for 12 . So the savings made by our system can be evaluated as 1632
23
.
Apart from this reduction in pollutants emission, the use of absorption system has
more ecological advantages. The refrigerant used on the selected vapor compression
system is R410A. Although this refrigerant does not contribute to ozone depletion, it
has a high global warming potential of 1725
24
. Moreover, the risk of leakage is high,
because it is a gas. In the absorption system, nevertheless, the refrigerant is only water.
4.6.3 Other points of interest.
Vapor compression units have 72 db noise production whiles the noise production
of the absorption chiller is lower, because it does not have moving parts. Moreover,
vapor compression units are distributed throughout the building so that this problem of
noise, together with vibration production, affects even more to users comfort.
Talking about maintenance, the presence of mobile parts in vapor compression
system makes them more expensive to maintain. For the same reason, the breakdowns
occurrence will be more frequent. About this, the absorption system centralization of
cold production has advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it will be easier
and cheaper to find and fix faults. On the other hand, a breakdown of the central chiller
will suppose the failure of the whole system, while in vapor compression it will only
affect one part of the building.
From the point of view of aesthetics, absorption system avoids the presence of
external units of the splits on the facade. It is also true that a huge solar collection
system does not beautify the building.

23
This is a theoretical supposition used to evaluate the economical advantages produced by a reduction of
emissions. The CO
2
market works in the whole of a nation and it makes no sense to evaluate it for an only
user.
24
1725 times the effect of CO
2
; Greenhouse Gas Protocol Iniciative.
Budapest University

79

5. Conclusions.

Due to the increasing electrical power consumption resulting from the cooling of
buildings in summer, it is necessary to investigate new ways to satisfy this
demand without affecting the environment and the electrical grid. In this line, it
is logical to think that the most appropriate renewable resource for this purpose
is the solar energy.

There are several methods to obtain air conditioning from solar energy. Research
in this field is evolving fast and many of these technologies are being extended
into a commercial level. Among them, the most popular nowadays is the solar
absorption air conditioning.

Although the COP of absorption systems is lower than the COP of traditional
vapor compression devices, the former can compete with the latter because the
energy input is heat and not electricity. Heat from sun is a free and unlimited
resource, so comparing the COP of different systems is not a way to define
which one is the best.

Solar absorption air conditioning can reduce dramatically the emissions of CO
2

derived from the electrical consumption of traditional cooling systems. For the
example case studied, a 95% reduction is obtained. Thus, the ecological
advantage is demonstrated.

Although solar absorption cooling systems have some economical disadvantages
(mainly caused by the initial cost) when compared with vapor compression
systems for the application on the studied example, it has been proved that the
first has a lower cost, both in the present worth and equivalent annual cost
comparisons. The economical savings are important by themselves, even not
taking into account the ecological advantages. In the example case economical
savings of 20% were obtained, considering the whole life of the system.

Budapest University

80

The installation of a solar absorption air conditioning is viable from all points of
view (economically, ecologically and practically) even in areas without much
sunlight, as is the case of Galicia. Moreover, these kind of systems can be used
during the winter to produce heat for heating, so its return time is lower.

These kind of actuations should be accompanied by other actions, with the aim
of reduce the cooling loads of the building. The most important among all is to
improve the building insulation.

Solar air conditioning must be promoted both from the administration and the
manufacturers because of its advantages and strategic importance.

Budapest University

81

6. Bibliography

B1. Books.

Carrier Air Conditioning Company. Handbook of air conditioning system design. New
York: McGraw Hill, 2008.

Miranda Barreras, ngel L. Nueva enciclopedia de la climatizacin, aire acondicionado.
Barcelona: Ediciones CEAC, 2000.

Trott, R. and Welch, T. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning. Burlington, MA:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.

Wang, Shan K. Handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration. New York: McGraw
Hill, 2001.

B2. Scientific and Technical papers.

Balaras, Constantino A. et al. Solar air conditioning in European overview.
ScienceDirect February 2005.

Bansal, P. K and Martin, A. Comparative study of vapour compression, thermoelectric
and absorption refrigerators. International Journal of Energy Research. No. 24, pp. 93-
107.2000.

Cano Marcos, J. M. Refrigeracin por absorcin. Inters energtico e impacto
Ambiental. Energuia.

Chaouki Ali, H et al. Dynamic modelling and simulation of a new air conditioning
prototype by solar energy ScienceDirect. February 2006.

Clito F. A, Afonso. Recent advances in building air conditioning systems.
ScienceDirect. March 2006.

Elsafty, A. and Al-Daini, A.J. Economical comparison between a solar powered
vapour absorption air-conditioning system and a vapour compression system in the
Middle East. Renewable Energy. No. 25, pp. 569583. 2002.

Garca Casals, X. Solar absorption cooling in Spain: Perspectives
and outcomes from the simulation of recent installations. ScienceDirect. October 2005

Henning, Hans Martin. Solar assisted air conditioning of buildings an overview.
ScienceDirect . September 2006.
Budapest University

82

Kaynakli, O. and Yamankaradeniz, R. Thermodynamic analysis of absorption
refrigeration system based on entropy generation. Current Science. Number 472 Vol.
92, No. 4, February 2007.

Marc Delorme, Reinhard Six et. al. Solar Air Conditioning. European Comision
publications. September 2004.

Mittal, V; Kasana, KS and Thakur, NS. The study of solar absorption air-conditioning
systems. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa. Vol 16, No 4. November 2005.

Riffat, S.B and Qiu, Guoquan. Comparative investigation of thermoelectric air-
conditioners versus vapour compression and absorption air-conditioners. Applied
Thermal Engineering. No. 24 , pp. 19791993. 2003.

Rodriguez Hidalgo, M.C et. al. Energy and carbon emission savings in Spanish
housing air-conditioning using solar driven absorption system. ScienceDirect.
November 2007.

Tsilingiris, P. T. Theoretical modeling of a solar air conditioning system for domestic
applications. Energy Convers. Mgmt. Vol. 34, No. 7, pp. 523-531, 1993

B3. University thesis.

Costa Sorolla, J. Instalacin de refrigeracin solar por absorcin en un conjunto de
viviendas adosadas. Thesis advisor: Cabeza Fabra, L.F. Universitat de Lleida, 2008.

Hernndez Gutirrez, J.I. Los sistemas de absorcin y su aplicacin en el
acondicionamiento de aire. Universidad de Guadalajara (Mxico), 2002.

Infante Ferreira, C.A and Kim, D.S. Air-cooled solar absorption air conditioning. Delf
University of Technology, Faculty of Design, Construction and Production, 2005.

Jimnez Caabete, J.F. Comparativa de eficiencia energtica y amortizacin en el
edificio Can Marcet de Sabadell entre distintas instalaciones de energas renovables.
Thesis advisor: Rodriguez Cantalapiedra, I. Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, 2009.

Martnez Snchez, R. Proyecto de dimensionamiento, montaje y anlisis del
funcionamiento de una instalacin de climatizacin basado en un sistema solar trmico
y una mquina de absorcin de pequea potencia. Universidad Politcnica de
Cartagena, 2007.

Martn de Agar y Ruz, A. Sistemas de produccin de fro por energa solar mediante
equipos de absorcin. Thesis advisor: Guerra Macho, Jos. ETSII de Sevilla, 2001.

Monsalvete lvarez-Uribarri, M. Acondicionamiento de edificios de alta ocupacin con
sistemas de absorcin accionados por energa solar trmica. Thesis advisor: Silva Prez,
M.A. ETSII de Sevilla, 2006.
Budapest University

83

B4. Normative and legislation.

AENOR. Limit weather conditions for projects. UNE 1000001. Madrid: AENOR,
2001.

IDAE. Pliego de condiciones tcnicas de instalaciones de baja temperatura. PET-
REV. Enero 2009.

Spain: CTE: Cdigo Tcnico de la edificacin. Real Decreto 314/2006. BOE 74 de
28/3/2006, page 11816.

Spain. RITE: Reglamento de Instalaciones trmicas de edificios. Real Decreto
1027/2007. BOE 9/8/2007, page. 35931.

Spain: Tarifa de ltimo recurso del gas natural. Resolucin del 28/12/2009. BOE
31/12/2009, page 112201.

B5. Websites.

AEMET- Agencia Estatal de Meteorologa. [ http://www.aemet.es ]
International Energy Agency. Solar Heating & Cooling programme. [ http://www.iea-
shc-task25.org ]
IDAE- Instituto para la diversificacin y el ahorro de energa. [http://www.idae.es]
REE- Red Elctrica Espaola. [ http://www.ree.es ]
Red Iberoamericana de Refrigeracin y Aire Acondicionado Solar. [ http://
www.riraas.net ]
SACE - Solar Air Conditioning in Europe. [ http://www.solair-project.eu ]
The climasol Project. [ http://raee.org/climatisationsolaire ]
Wikipedia: the free enciclopedia. [ http://www.wikipedia.com ]

B6. Manufacturers.

Energie Solaire Hispano Swiss SA. [http://www.energie-solaire.com]

Ergonalia [http://www.ergonalia.com]

Ferroli [http://www.ferroli.es]
Budapest University

84

Roca Solar Energy. [http://www.baxicalefaccion.com]

Thermomax Technologies. [http://thermomax.com]

Viessmann. [http://www.viessmann.es]

Saunier Duval [http://www.saunierduval.es]

Thermax [http://www.thermax-usa.com & http://www.absorpsistem.com]

Budapesti Mszaki s Gazdasgtudomnyi Egyetem
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Appendix

I. Plans of the example building.
II. Excel charts for load calculation.
III. DP CLIMA calculation sheets.

Plans of the example building

Excel
charts for load calculation

II.1
II.2
II.3
II.4
II.5
II.6
II.7
II.8
II.9
II.10
II.11
II.12
Summary of Building loads.
ROOM Surface Qsens Qlat SHR Qtotal Ocup Vvent Pelect
1 Pediatricnursing 21,730 1800,061 198,651 0,901 1998,711 3 782 140
2 Pediatricssurgery 21,730 1752,282 198,651 0,898 1950,932 3 782 140
3 PediatricsWC 7,200 332,976 0,150 1,000 333,126 0 180 60
4 Filestorage 35,400 1287,559 66,024 0,951 1353,583 1 29 580
5 Insta.Controlroom 4,930 263,572 0,015 1,000 263,587 0 18 144
6 Cleancloset 4,930 248,776 0,015 1,000 248,791 0 18 144
7 Soiledcloset 4,930 291,222 0,015 1,000 291,237 0 18 144
8 Reception 25,610 632,675 198,072 0,762 830,747 3 87 210
9 Ped.Waitingroom 45,350 4098,555 1822,155 0,692 5920,710 23 667 486
10 Lobby 44,790 6218,380 2060,187 0,751 8278,568 26 754 486
11 Multiporposeroom 20,000 1248,635 198,599 0,863 1447,234 3 720 140
12 Generalpractice 20,000 1272,311 198,599 0,865 1470,910 3 720 140
18 Infirmary 20,000 1272,311 198,599 0,865 1470,910 3 720 140
19 Femaletreatment 29,100 3065,951 198,871 0,939 3264,822 3 1048 180
20 Femaletreat.WC 6,000 483,814 0,150 1,000 483,964 0 180 60
21 Waitingroom 177,600 33386,275 7052,180 0,826 40438,455 89 2581 1458
22 Floor1WC 17,180 1316,646 0,150 1,000 1316,796 0 180 120
23 Library 31,330 2279,157 198,938 0,920 2478,095 3 1128 216
24 Corridor 21,700 1353,371 726,000 0,651 2079,371 11 0 108
25 Physioterapy 100,000 7635,326 200,994 0,974 7836,320 3 3600 400
26 Installations 77,950 808,384 66,233 0,924 874,617 1 281 288
27 Waitingroom 13,300 917,997 462,125 0,665 1380,121 7 150 144
28 Storeslobby 3,375 311,715 66,010 0,825 377,725 1 12 144
29 Basementstores 20,750 826,036 132,062 0,862 958,098 2 75 400
30 Dentalhygienist 24,200 1728,841 198,724 0,897 1927,565 3 871 140
II.13
Summary of Building loads.
31 Lectureroom 33,450 7354,485 1584,575 0,823 8939,060 24 691 236
32 Storage 5,900 210,030 66,018 0,761 276,048 1 21 60
33 Lockerroom 5,250 171,427 0,125 0,999 171,551 0 150 60
34 Waitingroom 24,800 4127,286 858,314 0,828 4985,600 13 377 486
35 Waitingroom 13,300 1470,191 462,169 0,761 1932,359 7 203 486
36 LockerroomM 6,700 130,940 0,051 1,000 130,990 0 61 60
37 LockerroomW 6,600 130,940 0,051 1,000 130,990 0 61 60
38 LockerroomMWC 5,600 191,192 0,150 0,999 191,342 0 180 60
39 LockerroomWWC 5,650 191,192 0,150 0,999 191,342 0 180 60
40 Fysiotherapypractice 12,200 876,929 132,365 0,869 1009,294 2 439 140
41 Managamentofficce 12,050 873,371 132,361 0,868 1005,732 2 434 140
42 Dentist 24,500 1542,415 198,733 0,886 1741,149 3 882 140
43 Basementlobby 25,700 1991,178 858,314 0,699 2849,491 13 377 400
44 Samplingextraction 20,000 1272,311 198,599 0,865 1470,910 3 720 140
45 Stairs 38,720 10224,980 1254,000 0,891 11478,980 19 0 60
WCandlockers TOTAL 133134 W
Floorsandofficces
Lobbiesandareasofpublicuse
Storages
II.14

DP CLIMA
calculation sheets
Solar cooling Project: RESULTS OF THE CALCULATIONS WITH DP

CLI MA

DP CLIMA v.1.3 J une 2000
J .R. Dur & J .M. Durazo
Universidad Politcnica de Valencia

*** This document is in Spanish because DP CLI MA only generates it in this language.

Autor : Diego Fecha : 19/04/2010

Cargas Trmicas Detalladas del Edificio

Cargas Trmicas de Refrigeracin Mximas Totales

Ubicacin y condiciones del exterior

Localidad : Santiago (Aeropuerto) Altitud: 316 m Latitud: 42,9
Oscilacin mxima anual (OMA): 30,6 C Velocidad del viento 6,8 m/s Temperatura del terreno : 8 C
Nivel percentil anual :0,4 % T seca : 29,5 C T hmeda : 20,7 C Oscilacin media diaria (OMD):
10,9 C
Materiales Circundantes: Estndar
Turbiedad de la atmsfera: Estndar

Edificio Hora de Clculo: 15 Mes de Clculo: Agosto

Superficie : 1119,34 m2
Condiciones exteriores Ts : 29,39 C Hr : 45 % W : 0,01161 Kg/Kg a.s. Temp. Terreno :
23,5

Zona: Todo el edificio
Local: 1 y 2
Condiciones interiores Ts : 24 C Hr : 50 %
N de locales iguales : 2
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 2,25 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: SurOeste
Radiacin transmitida ventana : 526 W/m2 Fraccin Soleada : 100 % SC : 1
C Sen. cond.: 31 W C Sen. inst. rad. : 360 W C Sen. almac. rad. : 322 W
C. Sensible : 713 W
Ocupantes:
N Mx. ocupantes: 3 Actividad: Sentado trab.muy ligero /De pie sin mov. 1.08 Met
Distribucin propia para la zona :
C Sen. inst. : 173 W C Sen. almac. : 40 W C Lat. inst. : 139 W
C. Latente : 139 W C. Sensible : 213 W
Local: 3
Local: 4
Ocupantes:
Local: 5
Cerramientos interiores:
Nombre: Medianera Peso : 331,75 Kg/m2
III.1
Superficie: 23,1 m2 K : 0,9 W/m2C T equivalente : 9,074 C
C. Sensible : -310 W
Local: 6
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 0,6 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: NorOeste
C. Sensible : 78 W
Local: 7
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 0,9 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: NorEste
C. Sensible : 104 W
Nombre: Pared Peso : 200 Kg/m2
C. Sensible : 1012 W
Local: 8
Ocupantes:
Local: 9
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 795 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 10
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
Local: 11
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 198 W
Ocupantes:
III.2
Local: 12-18
N de locales iguales : 7
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 280 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 19
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
Local: 20
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 1,95 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: SurEste
C. Sensible : 322 W
Local: 21
Ventanas:
Cerramientos al exterior:
Nombre : Muro exterior Peso : 287,88 Kg/m2 Orientacin : SurEste Color : Medio
Superficie : 7 m2 K : 0,93 W/m2C T equivalente : 228,7 C
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 28 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: SurOeste
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 553 W
Ventanas:
Nombre: Skylight Superficie: 0 m2 K : 6,5 W/m2C Orient.: Horizontal Sombra
Radiacin transmitida ventana : 141 W/m2 Fraccin Soleada : 0 % SC : 0,959
III.3
C. Sensible : 0 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 22
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 2 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: SurOeste
C. Sensible : 633 W
Local: 23
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 7 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: NorEste
C. Sensible : 819 W
C. Sensible : 663 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 24
Ventanas:
Nombre: Ventanas Superficie: 2 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: SurEste
C. Sensible : 331 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 25
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 663 W
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
III.4
Local: 26
C. Sensible : 638 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 27
Ocupantes:
Local: 29
Ocupantes:
Local: 28
Ocupantes:
Local: 30
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
Local: 31
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
Local: 32
III.5
C. Sensible : 645 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 33
Local: 34
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
Local: 35
Ocupantes:
Local: 36
Local: 37
Local: 38
Local: 39
Local: 40
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 842 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 41
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 842 W
Ocupantes:
III.6
Local: 42
Ventanas:
Ocupantes:
Local: 43
Ocupantes:
Local: 44
Ventanas:
C. Sensible : 280 W
Ocupantes:
Local: 45
Ventanas:
Nombre: Skylight II Superficie: 16,62 m2 K : 2,56 W/m2C Orient.: Horizontal Sombra
Radiacin transmitida ventana : 141 W/m2 Fraccin Soleada : 0 % SC : 0,959
Cerramientos al exterior:
Nombre : Muro exterior Peso : 287,88 Kg/m2 Orientacin : SurOeste Color : Medio
Superficie : 65,1 m2 K : 0,93 W/m2C T equivalente : 362,4 C
Ocupantes:
I luminacion incandescente :
Potencia Mxima : 480 W Potencia en ese instante : 240 W
Distribucin :
C Sen. almacenado : 94 W C Sen. instantaneo : 112 W
C. Sensible : 206 W
I luminacion fluorescente con reactancia incorporada o halgenas :
Potencia Mxima : 9609 W Potencia en ese instante : 4804 W
Distribucin :
III.7
C Sen. almacenado : 1179 W C Sen. instantaneo : 4170 W
Ventilacin: 3838 m3/h

Mayoracin Edificio : Coef Seguridad 5 (%)

SUMA: C. Latente: 21921 W C. Sensible: 109585 W
Factor de calor sensible =0,83 Calor Total =131506 W
Ratio : 117 W/m2
Fig. III. 1 Evolution of the cooling load in an average day of July (W).

Fig. III. 2 Evolution of the cooling load in the different summer months (W).
III.8
Hour J une J uly August September
Instant loads (W)
1 18363 21331 22201 19124
2 15540 18449 19249 16209
3 13417 16245 16878 13757
4 12072 14774 15158 11862
5 15656 16448 14029 10517
6 26266 26340 19654 9741
7 77661 77900 71096 58472
8 87989 88419 82070 69713
9 92225 92839 87166 75868
10 96305 97310 92930 84585
11 99082 101281 100336 95343
12 107234 110344 111768 109090
13 115361 119146 122137 120515
14 121603 125587 128829 126772
15 124995 128899 131506 127550
16 124413 128052 129372 122559
17 123235 126254 125293 113834
18 112495 114368 109704 95803
19 56941 58171 54943 48081
20 44214 46629 45982 40844
21 36875 39541 39635 35300
22 31030 33899 34390 30585
23 26099 29027 29773 26326
24 21896 24877 25713 22510
Energy requirements(KWh)
TOTAL
DAY
1600,967 1656,13 1629,812 1484,96
TOTAL
MONTH
48029,01 51340,03 50524,172 44548,8
Table III.1 Instant load for each hour of the summer and total energy requirements (KWh).

III.9

Complete Thesis PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Complete Thesis PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Budapesti Mszaki s Gazdasgtudomnyi Egyetem

Budapest University of Technology and Economics

charts for load calculation

Solar cooling Project: RESULTS OF THE CALCULATIONS WITH DP

You might also like