The Use of the Cartesian and Polar Coordinate

System to Display Two-Dimensional Motion of a

Point-mass with a Radial Variation of Direction to
Velocity and Acceleration

Word Count:3479

Abstract:
In this essay I will attempt to use the formulas developed by Newton for single dimensional kinematics to
develop a model indicating where a point-mass may travel given a two dimensional coordinate system
and the laws of mechanics. In this essay I will allow for variations in the direction of the velocities and
accelerations in order to develop a more detailed picture of the possible motions of the point-mass. I
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utilize Newton’s formulas with some slight changes, so that the formula may be applied to two
dimensions at the same time. I will take Newton’s equation of motion and add a second gravity term so
that the point-mass experiences a secondary acceleration in addition to a first acceleration (which can be
attributed to thrust). Furthermore, I will derive the exact equations necessary to graph the circular shape
in which the particle. Theequations used will then be able to have values plugged into the equation for
the accelerations etc so that the formula may actually have a physical significance to them. The equations
derived will then formulated to fit in to the Cartesian style of graphing.
An alternative method to this parametric solution will be made using the polar coordinate system.
It will provide the same image merely given a different set of coordinates. The two formula methods will
design the same image for the point-mass. These two methods’ solutions will provide a formulation for
the comprehension of this motion.
From this point the two methodologies will be compared to see if there are any similarities
between the two.
Word Count: 259

Acknowledgements:
I would like thank my mentor _______who ensured the paper’s direction and content were up to
par and for his time to make sure that my paper was completed and finished by the deadline.. To Wolfram
for all their help via the online integration calculator and the programming team behind it that allowed me
to check my mathematics. I would also like to thank ______ and ___________ for proof-reading my
essay.

Table of Contents:
Abstract pg 2

Acknowledgements pg 2

Extended Essay pg 4
Statement of the Problem pg 4
Introduction pg 4
Explanation of the Problem pg 4
1st Approach to Problem pg 5

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 Developing the Axis pg 5
Defining the Equations pg 6
The Gravity Term pg 9
Conversion to Cartesian pg 10
Conclusion 1 pg 14
2nd Approach to Problem pg 14
Development of the Axis pg 14
Deriving the Formula pg 15
Conclusion 2 pg 16
Comparison of Methods pg 16
Analysis pg 17
Conclusion 3 pg 18

Appendix A pg 19
Expanding the Problem 1 pg 19
Conclusion 1 pg 21
Expanding the Problem 2 pg 21
Conclusion 2 pg 22
Expanding the Problem 3 pg 22
Conclusion 3 pg 24
Expanding the Problem 4 pg 24
Conclusion 4 pg 25
Expansion of the Problem 5 pg 26
Conclusion 5 pg 27

Appendix B pg 29
Glossary pg 29
List of Variables and Constants pg 29

Appendix C pg 31
Formulas Developed
pg 31

Citations pg 34

Bibliography pg 34

Notes pg 35

Statement of the Problem:

Given a two-dimensional coordinate system, two point-masses, one with a fixed location, the other placed
at the origin and given the ability to move such that the point-mass at the origin has a velocity and
acceleration. This velocity and acceleration are subject to change not in directions but in magnitude. In
addition, as there are two point-masses, there is a gravitational field in between them. Write an equation
to represent the shape of the motion of this point-mass given the changing nature of its velocity and
acceleration, the second fixed point-mass and a period of time in which the point-mass may travel. For the
purposes of this paper, only Euclidean geometry will be considered.

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Introduction:
The proposed idea is to use Newton's equations of motion to allow a physical depiction of what
the motion of a point-mass, that may move in any particular direction may look like. The nature of motion
has been described by physics multiple times, yet the plethora of possible motion scenarios available
cannot be merely explained by a single path that a particle may take, as there are many others that it could
take. This is true even given a specific set of variables that are used to predict the future motion of a
point-mass, given a set of equations presented by Newton. Additionally there is an inability of these
equations to provide physicists with more than a 1 dimension view of the event. This paper will provide
an overview of that motion through analysis of velocity and accelerations, the accelerations being the
result of caused by thrust and by gravity.

Explanation of the Problem:

If the point-mass has a velocity and acceleration with a changing direction, the motion of the particle may
be thought of as a vector:

Yet as the magnitude of this vector is constant, its length remains constant. Yet, the vector’s direction is
permitted to change as stated by the radial, such that the vector may also look like any of the following:

Therefore it is necessary to provide the point-mass a shape, such that the motion of the point-mass may
appear in all directions. The shape that can best represent this variation is direction, as the magnitude is
constant, is a circle, simply because the nature of the radius of a circle is that if it were to be rotated in any
direction it would still be touching the circumference (outer-edge) of the circle.

Thus, the circle best represents the change in the direction of the velocity and the acceleration
experienced by the point mass.

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Ergo, the formula for a circle will be applied to the point-mass in order to obtain the motion desired.

When the second point-mass is placed in the coordinate plane, the situation becomes a little different due
to the nature of the point-masses. The gravitational force occurs between the two point-masses and pulls
them closer together. As the second point-mass is fixed in space, it is possible only for the point-mass at
the origin to move to meet it.

Since there is a force on the point-mass, it is necessary to account for the acceleration that the point-mass
experiences. Yet this acceleration is different from the one from earlier, as the gravitational acceleration
is caused by another point-mass at a fixed point, so there is no change in direction for this acceleration.
Yet, due to the nature of gravity: as distance decreases force increases, it is necessary for the magnitude of
this acceleration to change. Thus, the motion for the point-mass may be different then a circle yet as the
velocity and acceleration of the point-mass still vary in direction, then the circle formula may still be
applied to this problem.

From this point, it is possible to begin solving for the equation.

1st Approach to the Problem:

The first methodology is graphing the event on a Cartesian plane by manipulating the formula through the
parametric system and back to the Cartesian system.

Developing the Axis:

Traditionally used is a version of the Cartesian method in which the function representing the point-
masses movement is described by a given arc, using a single equation, i.e.an equation of the form Y=f(x).
The methodology used herein takes the same motion, and applies the parametric of graphing, then
proceed to return to the Cartesian method. Parametric graphing exists in an n dimensional coordinate
system using a multi-equation system where the movements are described in terms of time (t) in all
dimensions. The figure below shows when t is described in terms of the x dimension:

Fig 1

and then the Y dimension:

Fig 2 y

and the resulting graph is the summation of the two movements combined:

Fig 3
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x

The result is that Newton's equations of one dimension kinematics may be applied to a two dimensional
scenario.

Defining the Equation:

The Newtonian equation derived from Newton’s laws that will be used is one that contains elements of
both velocity and acceleration. The formula is “d=vit+12at2” 1 or st=vit+12at2 (for mathematical
notation), where dx and s(t) represent the distance, vi represents the initial velocity, a is the acceleration, t
is time.

In the formula above, the point-mass would already possess a velocity at t=0 as well as an acceleration.
The acceleration has no physical basis, as would done that is the result of a field, it is attributed to thrust
the point-mass possesses. Terms can be added to see how the point-mass would react under certain
situations.

The way the formula may be used to project all the possible motion of the point-mass that, if the point-
mass were to be given a position, for example at the origin (0,0), is as follows:

Point-mass at (0,0)

Given the point-mass at the origin, conceive a vector originating at the point-mass and extending
outwards, representative of the motion possible by the point-mass. In order to predict all possible motion
of the point-mass it is necessary to account for all the possible directions the ball can travel, this results in
a slight modification to the formula we used previously to: dx=±(vit+12at2) or st=±(vit+12at2).

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The positive and negative give us all the possible directions that the particle could travel along a single
axis.

Now that the movement for the particle over a single axis is established, a translation of this motion to a
two dimensional system rather than the one-dimensional system used for the Newtonian equation above
can occur. This change requires an alteration in the type of graphing from typical Cartesian to the
parametric system.

This change to the parametric graph we make results in the addition of the same formula to the separate y-
axis. This change results in two uses of the equation creating a system of equations which is modeled
below:

x=sxt=dx=±vixt+12 axt2

y=syt=dy=±(viyt+12ayt2)

Note that for the purposes of the graph, that the velocity and acceleration on both
the x and y axis are equal. This causes the vectors to appear as straight lines at 45˚
to the x and y axis.

The set of equations on a parametric graph would look as follows:

Where is the x component of the motion, is the y component of the motion, and
represents the resultant motion of the two components.

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The graph possesses 4 different forms of the same motion, yet this does not show a complete picture, of
all the motion.

In essence an area in which the point-mass could move in a given amount of time. Such motion would
look like the following: y

The red radius of the circle is represents the resultant of the two component motions. The circle
itself is representative of the maximum distance that the point-mass can travel given a specific amount of
time. The area inside the circle is area that the point-mass can travel in as well. This means the point-mass
can travel anywhere within the circle, yet in order to create such a shape in the parametric form using the
formulas established, it is necessary to derive a new equation to fit the shape, as the current formula
results in the graph with 4 resultant arrows, one for each quadrant.

The Gravity Term:

Yet before we reach that point, it is necessary to add another term in order to understand how
forces such as gravity, will affect the shape of the graph. Forces acts as thrust of the point-mass, but the
cause of the field that generates the acceleration, a second point-mass,has a fixed point. Thus the
acceleration does not occur in all directions complicating the formulation of the problem to a slight
degree.

If another point-mass of a very large magnitude is located a given distance from the point-mass whose
motion is being anazlyzed, the gravitational force will have an effect on the shape of the resulting graph.
It may have a shape like the following:

It could look like the above or something similar depending on the magnitude of the gravitational
force caused by the point-mass.

The gravity term may be formulated from Newton’s law of universal gravitation and several other
formulas for forces(2,3,4):

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Fg=Gm1m2r2; Fg=mg; Fnet=ma; Fnet= Fg

Setting equal

Fg=Fg=Fnet

Substitution of variables

Gm1m2r2=m1g=m1a

Canceling m1,

Gm2r2=g=a

By this substitution a gravity term may be placed into the equation, yet since the gravity operates only
towards the second point-mass, it receives no ± that the other terms do, making the new equation look as
following:

dx=±vixt+12 axt2+Gmt22rx2

dy=±viy+12ayt2+Gmt2ry2
Using the gravity term in its current state poses a problem. The reason is that as the formula calculates the
distance, it requires the distance between the two point-masses be calculated. The difficulty results from
having to use the distance between the point-masses to calculate the acceleration. So each time the point-
mass moves an infinitely small amount a new recalculation is required. The result is an infinite number of
calculations occur to cover even an infinitely small area; neither people nor computers are process a
magnitude of calculations that great. A solution is, as most programs have a step in the calculations this
can be added, so that the function only calculates for certain values. There is a way of structuring the
functions so that when added to the graph they result in the form desired.

The system of equations looks like the following:

x=sxt=dx=±vixt+12 axt2+axg(t)t2

y=syt=dy=±viyt+12ayt2+ayg(t)t2

Where:

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2;t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

This set of functions allows a definition for the motion; otherwise, a continuous loop forms where, the
change is gravity is dependent on the movement of the first point-mass, which requires a calculation using
the gravity constant to solve. This addition gives the function specific bounds so that it is possible to
avoid this infinite loop.

Conversion to Cartesian:

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With the structure of the equation complete, to ensure that the equation applies to the full radius of the
circle, a slight addition must be made to the equation, a statement that states the bounds of the function.

The system of equations:

x=sxt=dx=±vixt+12 axt2+axgtt2; 0≤vix≤viand 0≤ax≤a

y=syt=dy=±viyt+12ayt2+aygtt2;0≤viy≤viand 0≤ay≤a

Where:

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2;t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

This gives the equation for the full circular form in parametric graphing.

The equation in order to work in a Cartesian fashion must be applied to circle geometry

The accepted function for the formulation of a circle is the equation3:

x2+y2=r2

fy(t)2+fx(t)2=r2

For the radius of the circle, the radius is the resultant motion in both directions from the origin:

fy(t)

fx(t) x

The radius being the sum of the two motions is equivalent to dt. Therefore using the equations for the
motion in combination with the circular function:

dt2=dx2+dy2

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As this equation is reminiscent of the Pythagorean Theorem, it is possible to use the same methodology to
find the formula to best describe the motion of the point-mass.

To restate the formulas used:

dt2=dx2+dy2

Where:
x=sxt=dx=±vixt+12 axt2+axgtt2; 0≤vix≤viand 0≤ax≤a

y=syt=dy=;0≤viy≤viand 0≤ay≤a

And

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

Substitution of variables

dt2=(±vixt+12 axt2+axgtt2)2+(±viyt+12ayt2+aygtt2)2

Expanding the equation

dt2=±vixt+12 axt2+axgtt2±vixt+12
axt2+axgtt2+(±viyt+12ayt2+aygtt2)(±viyt+12ayt2+aygtt2)

Multiplying the factors

dt2=vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt4

Taking the square root

dt=±vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2

Using the functions

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

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aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t,

It is then possible to create equations on a 1 functional variable system by the use of four equations, just
as the parametric version would also use four equations. Four equations are used for the positive and
negative functions given as to distinguish both sides of the circle.

Therefore, as seen below are as seen below

Note :( the variable t can be replaced with x)

Y1=+vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated from t1
to t2

Y2=-vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated from t1
to t2

Y3=axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change ,evaluated from t1 to t2

Y4=aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change , evaluated from t1 to t2

Conclusion 1:
The formulas apply several of the systems of nature in a fashion so that they may act on the point-mass
cohesively and been seen as the subject of a net force and not just an individual forces. The combination
of all the forces results in a circular-like structure, with a changing radius depending on the influence of
gravity, and time. So it is possible to go meander through parametric graphing to obtain projected motion
in the second dimension. The use of the Cartesian method provides a difficult solution as there are
multiple equations to graph both sides of the circle. The problem that arises from this complexity is
resultant of the fact that a function when displayed through Cartesian means cannot have 2 outputs for 1
input and therefore a second function is needed to display the other side of the function.

The formula can be applied to multiple values for the point-masses, velocities etc. The same process may
be similarly used for several different forces such as the electromagnetic force as they act in a similar
fashion on the point object (electromagnetism uses charge as the subject of its force) if it is given the
qualities that force responds to i.e. charge, etc. The applications of this are quite vast due to the nature of
the mathematics of mechanics can be applied to anything that experiences motion.

Alternative Method:
For the second approach the formulas developed above are applicable and must merely be ‘fitted’ to this
secondary methodology, therefore the terms need not be re-discovered and solutions already found will
not be redundantly repeated.

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Development of the Axis:
The development of the above formula may be solved for using a different methodology. Before a
parametric means create the final image in a Cartesian coordinate plane, in this second method, the polar
coordinate system will be used.

The use of the polar coordinate system works well because it takes the concept of a radius, and uses it in
tandem with an angular variable such that given a radius equals r, that the angle is θ, so that the radius is
revolved around origin in the coordinate system:

(For picture Credit see Appendix C)

The use of this system allows for the development of a circle given a radius so that the shape of the
particle’s motion is summarized to:

r=dmax

Deriving the Formula:

As the motion for the point-mass had to be broken down for the parametric graphing, it is possible for the
formulae from the parametric graphing to be applied through the Pythagorean Theorem to the polar graph.

Given the displacement of the point massis a vector quantity placed at an angle to the x and y-axis such
that its ∡AOB ≠ n90°, n∈Z when ∡AOB is as represented as below:

O B

And given that line segment AO = dx ∡OBA=90°; line segment AB=dy; line segment
OB=dmax; and the Pythagorean Theorem,

The formula calculation has already been done for finding the equation for the circle. In this case, the
formula describing the equation for the circle is the same as the formula for the equation for the radius.

dmax2=dx2+dy2

Therefore that equation may be used.

The equation would be as follows:

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r1=vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated at t2

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in t

As the radius of a specific length generates a circle, it is necessary to use only one single value for t to
obtain the graph desired, otherwise the resultant graph would not be the circular shape. Therefore to
obtain the circle’s size the equation should be evaluated for the upper bound of t (t at its highest value).

The resulting shape, with t evaluated from one point to another would generate an area, not a circle; the
area would look like a doughnut as seen as follows if not evaluated at one bound.

T2

Π 0

T1

Therefore it is necessary to just solve the equation for the higher bound and to generate a circle.

Conclusion 2:
The use of the polar coordinate system makes it easy to establish the circular shape desired for the
equations using some integration techniques and the use of the Pythagorean Theorem. The arc length
becomes complex due to the nature of the square root and how it affects the development of the curve, yet
the curve designed works as an example of the radius and therefore meets the initial requirements as
stated in the problem and the equation maps well the motion of the point-mass in all possible directions
within the two-dimensional system. This coordinate formula may then be applied to spherical geometry
and a spherical coordinate system.

Comparisons of Methods:
The methodologies used herein find the same picture of the same event. The parametric to Cartesian
method possesses a lot of ‘bumps’ in its development due to the nature of functionality in the Cartesian
coordinate system. The shape that is desired to be created requires two separate functions to describe the
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image and then two more two describe the functionality of the gravitational acceleration. The polar
method had a more smooth progression due to the nature of the radius being rotated in a full circle.

Analysis:
The two methodologies are quite similar as they both provide the same inage and are based off of the
radius of the circle. The similarity can be seen if we consider the Cartesian point (x,y) and the polar
coordinate (r,θ) which are both on the respective circles developed by the equations for each
methodology.For the purposes of the analysis the points in the Cartesian and Polar planes can be
considered equivalent. The graphs for each are displayed below:

(x,y) (r,θ)

x π 0

The formula applies to the radius as it sweeps across the graph of the circle, for the Cartesian graph each
point represents a different part of the x and y values as determined by the variable t. The polar graph
experiences the shape as a result of the θ, taking the radius and rotating it about the origin for a full 2π
radians or 360°.

Therefore the two methodologies use the same formula for the same image, the difference between the
two merely being the one graph requiring a positive and negative notation in order to describe the motion
in a full circle while the other merely requires a single formula to describe the motion effectively.

The two methods may be equivalated conceptually to one another through the use of the ± symbol:

Y1=+vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated from t1
to t2

Y2=-vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated from t1
to t2

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r1=vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated at t2

If Y1 and Y2 are considered part of the same equation the resulting equation will be called Y3 and is the
combination of the two motions into a single function:

Y3=±vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated from t1
to t2

Now that the motion encompasses the complete circle it can be rendered equal to the polar version simply
stated below:

r1=Y3

Conclusion 3:
From the above two methods it is possible to see, due to the equivalence of the formulas, that the two
represent the same motion of the point-mass located at the origin. Yet the two methods use different
coordinate systems to display the data and as the two systems cannot easily be mathematically
equivalated as one method uses the time from t1 to t2 while the other uses the maximum range located at t2.
Yet the two methods describe the motion of the point-mass with accuracy, showing that multiple
coordinate systems can be used to explain the same mathematical and physical events.

Appendix A:
Expanding the Problem 1:
A method to finding the circumference of the circle (polar coordinates) is the use of the technique of arc
length.

Since the length of the curve is equivalent to the Pythagorean Theorem method when the situation of the
ax and ay are equal as well vix and the viy.

This can be illustrated by the following:

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Where the curve represents a generic parametric function and the red arrow represents a secant on the
curve and green and blue arrows represent the x and y components of the secant. This shows a curve
where the arc length is not equivalent due to differing accelerations in the x and y components, the ay > ax

The following curve shows when ay = ax:

Now the arc length for the curve can be found using the formula4 L=t1t2(dxdt)2+(dydt)2dt where

x=±vixt+12 axt2+axgtt2and y=±(viyt+12ayt2)+aygtt2

Where

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change , nt≯rmax

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change , nt≯rmax

Taking the derivative

dxdt=±vix+2axt+2axgttand dydt=±(viy+2ayt)+ 2aygtt

Substituting into the arc length formula

L=t1t2(±vix+2axt+2axgtt)2+(±(viy+2ayt)+ 2aygtt)2dt

Expansion of the equation

L=r1r2±vix+2axt+2axgtt(±vix+2axt+2axgtt)+±(viy+2ayt)+ 2aygtt)±(viy+2ayt)+
2aygtt)dt

Multiplication of factors

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 L=t1t2(vix2+4vixaxt+4vixaxgtt+8axaxgtt2+4ax2t2+4axg2tt2+viy2+4viyayt+4viy
aygtt+4ay2t2+8ayaygtt2+4ayg2(t)t2dt

Integration

L=vixax+vixaxgt+viyay+viyaygt+2ax2+4axaxgt+2axg2t+2ay2+4ayaygt+2ayg2vi
x2+viy2+4vixaxt+4vixaxgtt+4viyayt+4viyaygtt+4ax2t2+8axaxgtt2+4axg2tt2+4a
y2t2+8ayaygtt2+4ayg2tt24ax2+8axaxgt+4axg2t+4ay2+8ayaygt+4ayg2t+((viyax
+viyaxgt-
vixay+vixaygt)2*log(vixax+axgt+viyay+aygt+2ax2t+4axaxgtt+2axg2tt+2ay2t+4a
yaygtt+2ayg2tt+ax2+2axaxgt+axg2t+ay2+2ayaygt+ayg2t+vix2+viy2+4vixtax+a
xgt+4viytay+aygt+4t2(ax+axgt2+ay+aygt2)4ax2+8axaxgt+4axg2(t+4ay2+8ayay
gt+4ayg2(t)3/2

Thus from this integration the arc length has been established giving an equation for the circumference of
the circle.

Conclusion 1:
The circumference of the circle developed is a close relation to the elements of the area of the circle etc;
the circumference is also equivalent to 2πr where r is the radius so that the arc length and this are
equivalent to one another. This formula has application to all the shapes generated by the equation
including those with a nonzero gravitational acceleration such that the resulting shape is not a circle but
an ellipse, where the formula for the circumference of a circle does not apply.

Expanding the Problem 2:

The development of the formula may create a circle and show the general shape of the motion yet what
were to occur if there was a summation of all the possible movement of the point-mass? The following
shows all the motion of the point-mass in the circular (elliptical) function as a single valu:

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The area inside the circle is the total amount of distance the point-mass travels given a specific interval of
time. Therefore the integral of the equations used in the single variable function graphing will yield the
answer we seek.

Since the function:

Y1=vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2

only yields half of the circle, then the integral will give half of the circle’s integral. Therefore it is
necessary to double the area obtained to get the area of the full circle. Therefore the integral is:

A=2t1t2vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2dx

And the formula once integrated

A=2ax2t520+axg2tt55+axaxgtt55+vixaxt48+vixaxgtt42+vix2t33+ay2t520+ayg2t
t55+ayaygtt55+viyayt48+viyaygtt42+viy2t33;evaluated from t1 to t2

Where

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in , nt≯rmax

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in , nt≯rmax

Conclusion 2:
The area in the circle is comprised of all the possible motion of the point-mass, resulting in the greatest
two dimensional volumesthat the point-mass can take up. Understanding this projected area is beneficial
as it gives value of the space that the point-mass will be in given a specific time interval which can be
used as a definable field in which the object can travel given a net force. Also note the symmetry the
formula possesses in relation to its x and y terms, this is resultant of the symmetry in x and y terms before
integration.

Expanding the Problem 3:

Finding the area in two dimensions allows can then be expanded into three dimensions by using a simple
technique.

Using the calculus technique of volumes of revolution it is possible to find the three dimensional area of a
sphere whose great circle is the circle generated by the formulas.

There technique of the methodology of volumes of revolution that will be used is typically called the
disk/washer method. The axis of revolution would then be the y axis. The formula for the volume5 is:

Vy-axis=πt1t2f2(t)dx

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The formula would then give a three dimensional volume for the equation. Again as there will only be
integration of a semicircle it is important to double the volume obtained.

The integral is as follows:

2πt1t2vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2dx

Once integrated the result is:

V=2π16(ax2+4axaxgt+axg2t+4ayg2t+4ayayg2t+ay22t99+vixax+4vixaxgt+4viya
ygt+viyayax2+4axaxgt+4axg2t+ayg2t+4ayaygt+ay2t82+473vix2ax2+24vix2axg
2t+8vix2ayg2t+16vix2axaxgt+8vix2ayaygt+2vix2ay2+8vixviyaxay+32vixviyaxgta
ygt+2vixviyaxay+8vixviyayaxgt+2viy2ax2+8viy2axg2t+8viy2axaxgt+24viy2ayg2t
+16viy2ayayg+3viy2ay2t7+3vix2+viy2vixax+4vixaxg+t4viyaygt+viyayt68+16vix
2+viy2t55

Thus is the volume of a sphere whose greatest circle is the circle generated by the formula previously
established.

Conclusion 3:
From the development of the volume of revolution it is possible to establish a volume of a three-
dimensional sphere, which is valuable as the third-dimension has real world applications. This solution
may also be possible to come by using a third axis the z axis in parametric graphing and assigning the
equation to that axis as well, thus resulting in a sphere volume, whose volume of revolution would equal a
hyper-spheroid’s area. With the establishment of all the previous formulas it is possible to plug in any
values and obtain answers for the volumes, arc lengths, and areas.

Expanding the Problem 4:

If the gravity were to be considered a single element of the polar coordinate system rather than the
parametric then it would need to undergo a similar transformation that was experienced by the equation in
the alternative method to solving the problem.
From this methodology, it is possible to create an equation for the gravitational force experienced between
two point-masses on a polar coordinate system.

Using the Pythagorean Theorem

(Fg)2=(Fgx)2+ (Fgy)2
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Substituting variables,

(Gm1m2rg2)2=(Gm1m2rx2)2+(Gm1m2ry2)2

Squaring and canceling like terms G, m1, and m2

1rg4=1rx4+1ry4

Creating a like denominator

1rg4=ry4rx4ry4+rx4rx4ry4

Adding the fractions

1rg4=rx4+ry4rx4ry4

Raising each side to the -1/4 power

(1rg4)-14=(rx4+ry4rx4ry4)-14

Resulting in a definition of rg

rg=rxry41rx4+ry4

Conclusion 4:
The formula above explains the creation of the radius developed between two point masses, or in other
words the distance, the reason it is referred to as radius is that at that any point in space that same distance
away from the second fixed point-mass if the first point-mass is located on that locus of points it will
experience the same magnitude of acceleration as it is the same distance away from the second fixed
point-mass.

Expansion of the Problem 5:

The circumference of the radius between the two point masses may be found through the technique of
arc-length except that in this case, a multivariable solution is required.

Note (Second point-mass fixed) y

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Note: (Graph of Distance) rg

Thus as rg (rg is defined as the distance between the two point-masses experiencing a gravitational force),
is equivalent to the length of the arc. Where the first point-mass is at the origin and the second point-mass
is fixed to the end of the red arrow. T

This is the parametric form of arc length6: L=r1r2(dxdr)2+(dydr)2dr Yet, nature is such that there
is a set of two variables in the equation, and it is necessary to use a double integral. So the formula
changes ever so slightly to:L=rx1rx2ry1ry2(dxdr)2+(dydr)2drxdry

Thus is we assume that x=(Gm1m2rx2)2 and y=(Gm1m2ry2)2 therefore

dxdr=-3Gm1m21rx3 And dydr=-3Gm1m2ry3

Substitutions of variables

L=rx1rx2ry1ry2-3Gm1m2rx32+-3Gm1m2ry32drxdry

Creating like denominators

L=rx1rx2ry1ry2-3Gm1m2ry3rx3ry32+-3Gm1m2rx3ry3rx32drxdry

Adding fractions

L=rx1rx2ry1ry2(-3Gm1m2ry3)+(-3Gm1m2rx3)rx3ry32drxdry

Using principle of distribution in reverse for simplification purposes

L=rx1rx2ry1ry2ry3+rx3(-3Gm1m2)rx3ry32drxdry

Changing the notation of the powers

L=rx1rx2ry1ry2ry3+rx3(-3Gm1m2)rx3ry322drxdry

Simplifying powers

rx1rx2ry1ry2ry3+rx3(-3Gm1m2)rx3ry3drxdry

Factoring out of constants

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L=(-3Gm1m2)rx1rx2ry1ry2ry3+rx3)rx3ry3drxdry

Integration of ry

L= (-3Gm1m2) rx1rx2ryrx3-12ry2

Integration of rx

C=L=-3Gm1m2ry4+rx32ry3rx2;evaluatedfromrx1 to rx2andfrom ry1to ry2

And there we find the formula for the circumference of the circle created by said radius.

Conclusion 5:
Through the methodology used above it was possible to establish the circumference of the locus of points
r meters away from the second fixed point-mass. As a result of this development it is possible to use the
function to describe the exact length of the circumference of the perfect circle along which the
gravitational acceleration is the same. The equation as the distance will always result in a circular shape
may have formula 2πr applied to it where the r equals the distance between the two point-masses as
established in the last expansion of the problem. These comparisons may be made between the two
equations.

Appendix B:
Glossary:
Point-mass: a mass concentrated into a one-dimensional area, the mass may move in a coordinate system
but is not affected by spacial qualities such as radius etc

Velocity: the ratio of change in the displacement of an object to the change in time during which the
object was moving

Acceleration: the ratio of the change in velocity of an object to the change in time during which the object
was accelerating

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Gravitation force- the force experienced by two objects with masses drawing them together where the
magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the masses of the objects and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them

Electromagnetic force-The fundamental force that is associated with electric and magnetic fields and is
responsible for atomic structure, chemical reactions, the attractive and repulsive forces associated with
electrical charge and magnetism, and all other electromagnetic phenomena. It is carried by the photon.7

Force- A quantitive description of the interaction between two physical bodies, the force is proportional to
the masses of the objects8 F=ma

List of Variables and Constants

vix- the initial velocity experienced by the point mass along the x-axis

viy- the initial velocity experienced by the point mass along the y-axis

ax- the acceleration experienced by the point mass along the x-axis

ay- the acceleration experienced by the point mass along the y-axis

axg(t)- formula for the acceleration due to gravity along the x-axis

ayg(t)- formula for the acceleration due to gravity along the x-axis

t- the time during which the point-mass moves

G- the universal gravitational constant; G=6.67 x 10-11 N*m*kg-1

rx- the radius between the two point-masses due to gravity in the polar coordinate system, used with
parametric equation for axg(t)

ry- the radius between the two point-masses due to gravity in the polar coordinate system, used with
parametric equation for ayg(t)

m1- the mass of the point-mass located at the origin

m2 the mass of the point-mass fixed in space located at (rx,ry) in terms of cartesian coordinates

dx- distance the point-mass moved along the x-axis

dy- distance the point-mass moved along the y-axis

x- see dx

y- see dy

L – the length of a curve specified from one specific bound to another

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Appendix C:
Formulas Developed:
Parametric Radius:
x=sxt=dx=±vixt+12 axt2+axgtt2; 0≤vix≤viand 0≤ax≤a

y=syt=dy=±viyt+12ayt2+aygtt2;0≤viy≤viand 0≤ay≤a

Where:

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2;t∈Z,n=a constant change , nt≯rmax

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change , nt≯rmax

Cartesian Radius:
Y1=+vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
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nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated from t1
to t2

Y2=vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt412 ; evaluated from t1
to t2

Y3=axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change , nt≯rmax ,evaluated from t1 to

t2

Y4=aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change , nt≯rmax , evaluated from t1

to t2

Polar Radius:
r=((v_ix a_x+v_ix a_xg (t)+v_iy a_y+v_iy a_yg (t)+2a_x^2+4a_x a_xg (t)+2a_xg^2
(t)+2a_y^2+4a_y a_yg (t)+2a_yg^2 ) √(v_ix^2+v_iy^2+4v_ix a_xt+4v_ix a_xg
(t)t+4v_iy a_y t+4v_iy a_yg (t)t+4a_x^2 t^2+8a_x a_xg (t) t^2+4a_xg^2 (t)
t^2+4a_y^2 t^2+8a_y a_yg (t) t^2+4a_yg^2 (t) t^2 ))/((4a_x^2+8a_x a_xg
(t)+4a_xg^2 (t)+4a_y^2+8a_y a_yg (t)+4a_yg^2 (t) ) )+〖(((v_iy a_x+v_iy a_xg
(t) )-(v_ix a_y+v_ix a_yg (t) ))〗^2*(log⁡〖(v_ix (a_x+a_xg (t) )+v_iy (a_y+a_yg (t) )
+2a_x^2 t〗+4a_x a_xg (t)t+2a_xg^2 (t)t+2a_y^2 t+4a_y a_yg (t)t+2a_yg^2
(t)t+√(a_x^2+2a_x a_xg (t)+a_xg^2 (t)+a_y^2+2a_y a_yg (t)+a_yg^2 (t) )
+√(v_ix^2+v_iy^2+4v_ix t(a_x+a_xg (t) )+4v_iy t(a_y+a_yg (t) )+4t^2 ((a_x+a_xg
(t) )^2+(a_y+a_yg (t) )^2 )))
/〖4ax2+8axaxgt+4axg2t+4ay2+8ayaygt+4ayg2t32;evaluated at t2

Polar Circumference:
C=vix2t2+vixax2t3+ax24t4+2vixaxgtt3+12
axaxgtt4+axg2tt4+viy2t2+viyay2t3+ay24t4+2viyaygtt3+12ayaygtt4+ayg23gesia
nfashionaphinssuethemotionofthepoint-mass. henunderthtt41/2; evaluated at t2

Circle Area:
A=2ax2t520+axg2tt55+axaxgtt55+vixaxt48+vixaxgtt42+vix2t33+ay2t520+ayg2t
t55+ayaygtt55+viyayt48+viyaygtt42+viy2t33;evaluated from t1 to t2

Where

axgt= Gmrmax-nt2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in , nt≯rmax

aygt=Gm(rmax-nt)2; t∈Z,n=a constant change in , nt≯rmax

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Volume of Revolution:
V=2π16(ax2+4axaxgt+axg2t+4ayg2t+4ayayg2t+ay22t99+vixax+4vixaxgt+4viya
ygt+viyayax2+4axaxgt+4axg2t+ayg2t+4ayaygt+ay2t82+473vix2ax2+24vix2axg
2t+8vix2ayg2t+16vix2axaxgt+8vix2ayaygt+2vix2ay2+8vixviyaxay+32vixviyaxgta
ygt+2vixviyaxay+8vixviyayaxgt+2viy2ax2+8viy2axg2t+8viy2axaxgt+24viy2ayg2t
+16viy2ayayg+3viy2ay2t7+3vix2+viy2vixax+4vixaxg+t4viyaygt+viyayt68+16vix
2+viy2t55

Gravity Radius:
rg=rxry41rx4+ry4

Gravitational Circumference

=L=-3Gm1m2ry4+rx32ry3rx2;evaluatedfromrx1 to rx2andfrom ry1to ry2

Citations:
1. Pg. 37 (Cutnell)

2. Pg 96 (Cutnell)

3. Pg 98 (Cutnell)

3. Pg 92 (Cutnell)

4.Pg 672 (Larson)

5. Pg 665 (Larson)

6. Pg 230 (Barron’s)

7. Pg 665 (Larson)

8. Article (Answer.com)

9. Article (Jones)

Bibliography
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Cutnell, John D., and Kenneth W. Johnson. Physics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2006.

Hockett, Shirley O., and David Bock. How to Prepare for the AP Calculus Exam. Danbury: Barron's
Educational Series, Incorporated, 2005.

Larson, Roland E., Bruce H. Edwards, and Robert P. Hostetler. Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.

Newton, Isaac. The Principia - Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Trans. I. Bernard Cohen
and Anne Whitman. New York: University of California P, 1999.

Jones, Andrew Z. "Force - definition of force." Physics. 27 Dec. 2008

<http://physics.about.com/od/glossary/g/force.htm>.

"Electromagnetic force: Definition from Answers.com." Answers.com - Online Dictionary, Encyclopedia

and much more. 27 Dec. 2008 <http://www.answers.com/topic/electromagnetic-force>

Notes:
Integration was done using a Ti89 Calculator and checked via the Wolfram Online Integration Calculator
which may be found at: http://integrals.wolfram.com/index.jsp

For the purposes of this paper graphs denoted by mere functions of x displayed as f(x)= or y= will be
referred to as the Cartesian graphing technique.

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