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VSRD-IJEECE, Vol. 1 (8), 2011, 478-489

R RE ES SE EA AR RC CH H L LE ET TT TE ER R

Study of Fault Detecting Techniques in Electrical Machine

1

Lovi Kaushal Agrawal* and 2SBL Tripathi

ABSTRACT
In the present scenario, to decrease machine down time and improve stability are the main focus of the manufacturers of electric drives. Prodigious improvement in signal processing hardware and software has made this possible. One of these techniques is MCSA (Motor Current Signature Analysis) which depends upon locating specific harmonic components in the line current. These harmonic currents may sometimes give similar signatures for different types of faults which may mislead to the wrong analysis. So not being only dependent on current harmonics, some other variables such as speed, torque, noise, vibration etc., are also explored for their frequency contents. Some techniques such as thermal measurements, chemical analysis, etc., are also employed to find out the nature and the degree of the fault. Automated tools such as expert systems, neural networks, and fuzzy logic based systems are replacing slowly the actual fault detection decision making. So there is a vast scope in this area for future research. Hence a study of different types of faults and their signature analysis (either current or speed or torque etc.) will indeed help for a review of this area. The study of diagnosis schemes of different signatures is presented in this paper. Keywords : Insulation Faults, Bearing Faults, End-Ring Faults.

1. INTRODUCTION
The fault detection and protection are as historic as machines themselves. Over-current, over-voltage, earth-fault are the examples of those simple protections on which earlier, manufacturers and users of machines used to rely upon. But with growing complexities of machine uses, their control (like speed control) with new technologies, it is now very necessary to find out the faults at their very initial point to minimize the downtime of machine to avoid the financial losses due to crossing of deadlines to meet the project.

____________________________ 1 2

Research Scholar, Department of Electrical Engineering, JJTU University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, INDIA. Professor & Head, Department of Electrical Engineering, JJT University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, INDIA. *Correspondence : lovikaushal@rediffmail.com

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The major faults of electrical machines can broadly be classified as the following [58]: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Stator faults resulting in the opening or shorting of one or more of a stator phase winding; Abnormal connection of the stator windings; Broken rotor bar or cracked rotor end-rings; Static and/or dynamic air-gap irregularities; Bent shaft (akin to dynamic eccentricity) which can result in a rub between the rotor and stator, causing serious damage to stator core and windings; 6) 7) Shorted rotor field winding; Bearing and gearbox failures.

Increased torque pulsations, increased losses and reduction in efficiency, excessive heating, unbalanced air-gap voltages and line currents and decreased average torque are some symptoms of these faults. Many diagnostic methods involving different types of fields of sciences and technologies have been developed so far for diagnosing these faults. The following chapter deals with some faults and their detection techniques.

2. REVIEW OF DIFFERENT DETECTION TECHNIQUES OF ARMATURE INSULATION FAULTS

These faults start as turn to turn faults[66]. These faults are generally known as phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults. Approximate one third of induction motor faults fall in this category [66]. Armature or stator insulation failure may occur due to many reasons like high temperature, short circuit, electrical discharge etc.[67]. For large machines stator winding rated 4KV and above online Partial Discharge (PD) test methods give very reliable results to detect these faults [68]. Even a portable test instrument called TGA-B is also available for this purpose. By analyzing the axial flux component of the machine using a large coil wound concentrically around the shaft of the machine [69], the turn to turn faults for small voltage machines, can be detected. By mounting four coils symmetrically in the four quadrants of the motor at a radius of about half the distance from the shaft to the stator end winding, the fault can be located also. The frequency components to detect in the axial flux component are given by: fs = {k +/- n(1-s) / p}f where p is the number of pole pairs, f is the mains frequency, k=1,3 and n=1,2,3,....(2p-1) and s is the slip. Even in the presence of supply harmonics as in the case with VSI-driven induction motors [70], the flux detection technique works well. These faults result in asymmetry in the machine impedance causing the machine to draw unbalanced phase currents. This fact has been proven through modelling and experimentation [71]. This is the result of negative-

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sequence currents flowing in the line as also have been shown in [72] and [73]. However, negative-sequence currents can also be caused by voltage unbalance, machine saturation, etc. Kliman et al. [66] model these unbalances which also includes instrument asymmetries. It is reported that with these modifications, it is possible even to detect a one turn bolted fault out of a total 648 turns. A similar technique has been used in [74] with a power decomposition technique (PDT) to reduce harmonic effects and negative- sequence reactance to reduce temperature and slip variation effects on negative-sequence current measurement. The difference between the positive sequence of current under the faulty and the healthy conditions divided by the positivesequence current under the healthy conditions is also reported to an effective diagnostic index [75]. Statistical process control (SPC) techniques have also been applied to detect stator faults [76]. A model to estimate and to detect stator turnturn short-circuit faults in time domain, has been reported in [77]. In [1], a fuzzy fault detector using Concordia patterns to detect stator unbalance and open-circuit faults has been developed. The patterns were derived from the current Concordia vector based on a three-phase to two-phase transformation of line current in stationary coordinates. A few MCSA-based techniques for inter-turn stator fault detection have been reported [2], [3]. Both low- and high-frequency components, almost similar to those observed with eccentricity- related faults, are shown to be present. However, the physics behind the existence of such components are not clearly explained. Also, issues such as voltage unbalance, constructional imperfections that produce similar effects, are not addressed. Stator fault detection using external signal injection is discussed in [4]. Angular fluctuation of the stator current space vector [5] has been monitored in detecting stator inter-turn faults, rotor faults. The phase-angle variations are analyzed in frequency domain. The Goertzel algorithm is used for real-time implementation. A strong thirdharmonic component can also be found in line current with stator inter-turn faults [6]. Monitoring the change in positive-sequence current using the multiple reference frame theory was additionally suggested in [6] and [7] for detection. Nandi and Toliyat [8] have observed that the shorted stator turns act as a search coil to pick up rotor magnetomotive-force (mmf) harmonics in a squirrel cage machine given by: k(R/p) +/- 1, k=1,2,3,......; and R= no. of rotor bars

These components can be detected by motor current signature analysis, but they may be confused with voltage unbalance in some machines. However, they can be unambiguously detected at the terminal voltages of the machine just after switching it off. The experimental results are shown in Fig. 1. In a healthy machine, the pole pair number associated with this time particular harmonic does not match that of a symmetrical three-phase winding. Hence, it is not detectable. Detection of stator voltage unbalances and single phasing effects using traditional and advanced signal-processing techniques have been described in [9] and [10].

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Fig. 1 : Experimental plots of normalized line voltage spectra of a 44-rotor bar, four-pole motor under healthy (top), unbalanced supply voltage (5%,2.5%) (middle) and stator inter-turn short (5/324) (bottom). The 21st harmonic increases by almost 10 dB only with stator fault.

3. REVIEW OF DIFFERENT DETECTION TECHNIQUES OF BEARING FAULTS

Maximum electrical machines use ball or rolling element bearings. Even under normal operating conditions with balanced load and good alignment, fatigue failures may take place. These faults may lead to increased vibration and noise levels. Flaking or spalling of bearings might occur when fatigue causes small pieces to break loose from the bearing. Bearing can be spoiled by internal as well as external causes. Vibration, inherent eccentricity, and bearing currents [60] due to solid state drives are some examples of internal causes and contamination and corrosion, improper installation of bearing, improper lubrication etc are some examples of external causes. Approximately half of the faults of machines are bearing related to this category. The ball bearing related defects can be categorized as [58] outer bearing race defect, inner bearing race defect, ball defect, and train defect. The experimental results were presented [61] for rather extensive bearing damage (such as a hole in the outer race of the bearing; brinelling induced by a vibration table). The implementation of an unsupervised online detection of these faults using artificial neural networks (ANNs) has also been described in [62]. An adaptive, statistical time frequency method for the detection of bearing faults, have been reported [63]. Experiments were conducted on defective bearings with scratches on the outer races and bearing balls and cage defects. It has been claimed that all defective measurements were correctly classified as defective. However, the detection procedure required extensive training for feature extraction. Detection of bearing faults using vibration signals is affected by machine speed [64], particularly when the bearing condition is deteriorating. The machine

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vibration may decrease even though failure is imminent. The bearing life is also influenced by variable machine speed. The advantage of envelope detection techniques over traditional spectrum analysis is demonstrated in detecting these faults [65]. Reference [65] also presents the fundamentals of bearing fault detection techniques in a very simplified manner.

4. REVIEW OF DIFFERENT DETECTION TECHNIQUES OF BROKEN ROTOR BAR AND END-RING FAULTS
Due to modern design of rotors only 5-10% of total faults are due to rotor failures. Earlier Cast cage rotors were used for small machines but with the advent of cast ducted rotors, it become possible to use them for large machine up to 3000KW. And fabricated rotors are used for larger or special machines. Cast rotors are more rugged than fabricated but can not be repaired once a fault like crack is developed in them. Magnetic stresses caused by electromagnetic forces, unbalanced magnetic pull, electromagnetic noise, and vibration; residual stresses due to manufacturing problems; thermal stresses due to thermal overload and unbalance, hot spots, or excessive losses, sparking (mainly fabricated rotors); mechanical stresses due to loose laminations, fatigued parts, bearing failure; environmental stresses caused by for example contamination and abrasion of rotor material due to chemicals or moisture and dynamic stresses arising from shaft torques, centrifugal forces, and cyclic stresses are some reasons for rotor bar and end-ring breakage. Spectrum analysis of machine line current (MCSA) to detect broken bar faults was used by [12],[13],[14] & [15]. Elkasabgy et al. [15] has also shown that broken bar faults can also be detected by time- and frequencydomain analysis of induced voltages in search coils placed internally around stator tooth tip and yoke and externally on the motor frame. The frequency components are given by (63) with k=1, Torque and speed signals also contain 2sf and 4sf frequency components with broken rotor bars [14], [15]. Following the works of Penman [17], detection of these faults is also possible by frequency-domain analysis of shaft flux or more generally axial leakage flux which is monitored by using an external search coil wound around the shaft of a machine. The frequency components are still given by (63) with k=1,2,3...The modeling of rotor bar and endring faults has been described in [71]. Broken bar detection using state and parameter estimation techniques have also been reported [18]. However, the current spectrum and the parameter estimation approach has been compared and the former has been found to be more efficient [19]. Masoud and Toliyat [20] proposed using pattern recognition to detect broken rotor bars. The rotor speed is estimated from stator current and then the featured vector is extracted as an input to Bayes classifier. The timestepping coupled Finite element-state space (TSCFE-SS) method has been used [21] to compute core losses and copper losses with broken-bar faults in variable speed drives. Time-series data mining (TSDM) in conjunction with the TSCFE-SS method has been used to extract broken bar information from torque data [22], [23]. Interestingly, while literature abounds with MCSA-based fault detection, it is shown in [24] that spectral components related to broken bar faults are stronger in per-phase partial power and total power than in stator line currents. The best result is obtained with partial power. As suggested in [25], interbar currents are present in uninsulated rotor cages, where the contact between the rotor core and the bars are good. Interbar currents reduce [26] the magnetic imbalance caused by broken bars. This makes detection of broken bars more difficult,

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particularly at early stages. Significant interbar current is present with broken bars even in double-cage induction motors [27]. Axial vibration spectra can also be used to diagnose rotor bar faults [28]. The axial vibration arises out of the axial force generated by the interaction of the interbar current and stator flux. Experimental results have been given for copper cage rotors with one broken bar.

5. REVIEW OF DIFFERENT RELATED FAULTS

DETECTION

TECHNIQUES

OF

ECCENTRICITY

When unequal air-gap exists between stator and rotor, it is called condition of eccentricity. Unbalanced radial forces or unbalanced magnetic pull or UMP caused due to large eccentricity, can cause stator to rotor rub, and this can result in damage of the stator and rotor. Static and dynamic air gap eccentricity are the two types of eccentricity. The center of the rotor is not at the center of the rotation and the position of minimum air-gap rotates with the rotor, this is a case of dynamic eccentricity. This misalignment may be caused due to several factors such as a bent rotor shaft, bearing wear or misalignment, mechanical resonance at critical speed, etc. Dynamic eccentricity in a new machine is controlled by the total indicated reading (TIR) or runout of the rotor (Barbour and Thomson [33]). An air-gap eccentricity of up to 10% is permissible. However, manufacturers normally keep the total eccentricity level even lower to minimize UMP and to reduce vibration and noise. In the case of the static air-gap eccentricity, the position of the minimal radial air-gap length is fixed in space. Static eccentricity may be caused by the ovality of the stator core or by the incorrect positioning of the rotor or stator at the commissioning stage. If the rotor-shaft assembly is sufficiently stiff, the level of static eccentricity does not change. An inherent level of static eccentricity exists even in newly manufactured machines due to manufacturing and assembly method, as has been reported by Dorrell et al. [34]. This causes a steady UMP in one direction. With usage, this may lead to bent rotor shaft, bearing wear and tear etc. This might result in some degree of dynamic eccentricity. Unless detected early, these effects may snowball into a stator to rotor hub causing a major breakdown of the machine [33].

6. AI-BASED MACHINE CONDITION MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS

Artificial neural networks (ANNs), fuzzy, or neuro-fuzzy systems are now used extensively for speed, torque estimation, and solid-state drive control of both dc and ac machines. They are particularly suited for ac machines applications where the relationships between motor current and speed are nonlinear. These AI techniques are now being extended as a decision making tool to MCSA results for condition monitoring and fault detection of machines [62], [14], [51]-[54].

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ANN-based Fault Diagnosis The preprocessor extracts the frequency components of the sampled current data. Using the rule-based frequency filters, these frequency components are classified into four categories with a decreasing level of importance. Based on these rules, a neural network, which has been trained for all possible operating conditions of the machine, is used to classify the incoming data. A spectral signature that falls outside the trained clusters is marked as a potential motor fault. In order to prevent false diagnosis, the postprocessor sends an alarm only when fault signatures are observed persistently. This function is performed by maintaining a time history of the motor being monitored. Such a scheme has been successfully implemented [62] to diagnose bearing and unbalanced rotor faults of induction motors. References [55] and [56] describe a neural-network-based fault prediction scheme that does not require any machine parameter or speed information. Speed is estimated from measured terminal voltage and current. Induction machines of different power ratings can be accommodated using minimal tuning of the neural network. Detection effectiveness of 93% or more is achieved. Similarly, fuzzy-logic-based systems have been used [53] to classify broken-bar-related faults by categorizing the two side-band components (63) around the fundamental of the induction motor line current by a set of nine rules. Denoting the sidebands as A1 and A2, which are the two inputs of the system, and the number of broken bars as the output of the system, an example of these rules is If A1 is small and A2 is large, n equals one broken bar. The fuzzy logic system considered is the Mamdani type. The fuzzy inference is obtained by using the fuzzy implication min-max methods and the centroid defuzzification technique. The membership functions for A1 and A2 are small, medium, and large. Other examples of motor fault detection using neural networks and fuzzylogic techniques can be found in [57].

7. CONCLUSION
A brief review of bearing, stator, rotor, and eccentricity-related faults and their diagnosis has been presented in this paper. It is clear from various literatures that non-invasive MCSA is by far the most preferred technique to diagnose faults. However, theoretical analysis and modeling of machine faults are indeed necessary to distinguish the relevant frequency components from the others that may be present due to time harmonics, machine saturation, etc. Other techniques for fault detection based on axial flux-based measurements, vibration analysis, transient current, and voltage monitoring, etc. have also been discussed. A section on automated fault detection has also been included.

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