Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics

Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics:

Ideal Flow Theory
Introductory Course on Multiphysics Modelling
TOMASZ G. ZIELI

NSKI
(after: D.J. ACHESONs Elementary Fluid Dynamics)
Institute of Fundamental Technological Research
Warsaw Poland
http://www.ippt.gov.pl/~tzielins/
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Outline
1
Introduction
Mathematical preliminaries
Preliminary ideas and denitions
Convective derivative
2
Ideal ow theory
Ideal uid
Incompressibility condition
Eulers equations of motion
Bernoulli theorems
Vorticity
3
Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Fluid circulation round a wing
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Concluding remarks
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Outline
1
Introduction
Mathematical preliminaries
Preliminary ideas and denitions
Convective derivative
2
Ideal ow theory
Ideal uid
Incompressibility condition
Eulers equations of motion
Bernoulli theorems
Vorticity
3
Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Fluid circulation round a wing
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Concluding remarks
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Outline
1
Introduction
Mathematical preliminaries
Preliminary ideas and denitions
Convective derivative
2
Ideal ow theory
Ideal uid
Incompressibility condition
Eulers equations of motion
Bernoulli theorems
Vorticity
3
Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Fluid circulation round a wing
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Concluding remarks
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Outline
1
Introduction
Mathematical preliminaries
Preliminary ideas and denitions
Convective derivative
2
Ideal ow theory
Ideal uid
Incompressibility condition
Eulers equations of motion
Bernoulli theorems
Vorticity
3
Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Fluid circulation round a wing
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Concluding remarks
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Mathematical preliminaries
Theorem (The divergence theorem)
Let the region V be bounded by a simple surface S with unit outward
normal n. Then:
_
S
f n dS =
_
V
f dV; in particular
_
S
f n dS =
_
V
f dV.
Theorem (Stokes theorem)
Let C be a simple closed curve spanned by a surface S with unit
normal n.
n
S
C
Then:
_
C
f dx =
_
S
_
f
_
n dS.
Greens theorem in the plane may be viewed as a special case of
Stokes theorem (with f =
_
u(x, y), v(x, y), 0
_
):
_
C
u dx+v dy =
_
S
_
v
x

u
y
_
dxdy.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Mathematical preliminaries
Theorem (The divergence theorem)
Let the region V be bounded by a simple surface S with unit outward
normal n. Then:
_
S
f n dS =
_
V
f dV; in particular
_
S
f n dS =
_
V
f dV.
Theorem (Stokes theorem)
Let C be a simple closed curve spanned by a surface S with unit
normal n.
n
S
C
Then:
_
C
f dx =
_
S
_
f
_
n dS.
Greens theorem in the plane may be viewed as a special case of
Stokes theorem (with f =
_
u(x, y), v(x, y), 0
_
):
_
C
u dx+v dy =
_
S
_
v
x

u
y
_
dxdy.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Preliminary ideas and denitions
A usual way of describing a uid ow is by means of the ow
velocity dened at any point x =(x, y, z) and at any time t:
u=u(x, t) =
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), w(x, t)
_
.
Here, u, v, w are the velocity components in Cartesian coordinates.
Denition (Steady ow)
A steady ow is one for which
u
t
=0, that is, u=u(x) =
_
u(x), v(x), w(x)
_
.
Denition (Two-dimensional ow)
A two-dimensional ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Denition (Two-dimensional steady ow)
A two-dimensional steady ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x), v(x), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Preliminary ideas and denitions
u=u(x, t) =
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), w(x, t)
_
.
Denition (Steady ow)
A steady ow is one for which
u
t
=0, that is, u=u(x) =
_
u(x), v(x), w(x)
_
.
Denition (Two-dimensional ow)
A two-dimensional ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Denition (Two-dimensional steady ow)
A two-dimensional steady ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x), v(x), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Preliminary ideas and denitions
u=u(x, t) =
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), w(x, t)
_
.
Denition (Steady ow)
A steady ow is one for which
u
t
=0, that is, u=u(x) =
_
u(x), v(x), w(x)
_
.
Denition (Two-dimensional ow)
A two-dimensional ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Denition (Two-dimensional steady ow)
A two-dimensional steady ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x), v(x), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Preliminary ideas and denitions
u=u(x, t) =
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), w(x, t)
_
.
Denition (Steady ow)
A steady ow is one for which
u
t
=0, that is, u=u(x) =
_
u(x), v(x), w(x)
_
.
Denition (Two-dimensional ow)
A two-dimensional ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Denition (Two-dimensional steady ow)
A two-dimensional steady ow is of the form
u=
_
u(x), v(x), 0
_
where x =(x, y) .
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
Denition (Streamline)
A streamline is a curve which, at any particular time t, has the same
direction as u(x, t) at each point. A streamline x =x(s), y =y(s), z =z(s)
(s is a parameter) is obtained by solving at a particular time t:
dx
ds
u
=
dy
ds
v
=
dz
ds
w
.
Example
Consider a two-dimensional ow described as follows
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
where u
0
and a are positive constants. Now, notice that:
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
Denition (Streamline)
A streamline is a curve which, at any particular time t, has the same
direction as u(x, t) at each point. A streamline x =x(s), y =y(s), z =z(s)
(s is a parameter) is obtained by solving at a particular time t:
dx
ds
u
=
dy
ds
v
=
dz
ds
w
.
For a steady ow the streamline pattern is the same at all times,
and uid particles travel along them.
In an unsteady ow, streamlines and particle paths are usually
quite different.
Example
Consider a two-dimensional ow described as follows
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
where u
0
and a are positive constants. Now, notice that:
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
Denition (Streamline)
A streamline is a curve which, at any particular time t, has the same
direction as u(x, t) at each point. A streamline x =x(s), y =y(s), z =z(s)
(s is a parameter) is obtained by solving at a particular time t:
dx
ds
u
=
dy
ds
v
=
dz
ds
w
.
Example
Consider a two-dimensional ow described as follows
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
where u
0
and a are positive constants. Now, notice that:
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
x
y
t =0
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
x
y
t =t
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
x
y
t =2t
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Streamlines and particle paths (pathlines)
u(x, t) =u
0
, v(x, t) =at, w(x, t) =0,
x
y
t =0
t =t
t =2t
in this ow streamlines are (always) straight lines,
uid particles follow parabolic paths: x(t) =u
0
t, y(t) =
at
2
2
y =
ax
2
2u
2
0
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
Let f (x, t) denote some quantity of interest in the uid motion.
Note that
f
t
means the rate of change of f at a xed
position x in space.
The rate of change of f following the uid is
Df
Dt
=
d
dt
f
_
x(t), t
_
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
t
f
x
dx
dt
=(u)f .
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
Let f (x, t) denote some quantity of interest in the uid motion.
Note that
f
t
means the rate of change of f at a xed
position x in space.
The rate of change of f following the uid is
Df
Dt
=
d
dt
f
_
x(t), t
_
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
t
f
x
dx
dt
=(u)f .
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
Let f (x, t) denote some quantity of interest in the uid motion.
Note that
f
t
means the rate of change of f at a xed
position x in space.
The rate of change of f following the uid is
Df
Dt
=
d
dt
f
_
x(t), t
_
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
t
where x(t) =
_
x(t), y(t), z(t)
_
is understood to change with time at
the local ow velocity u, so that
dx
dt
=
_
dx
dt
,
dy
dt
,
dz
dt
_
=
_
u, v, w
_
.
Therefore,
f
x
dx
dt
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
y
dy
dt
+
f
z
dz
dt
=(u)f .
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
Let f (x, t) denote some quantity of interest in the uid motion.
Note that
f
t
means the rate of change of f at a xed
position x in space.
The rate of change of f following the uid is
Df
Dt
=
d
dt
f
_
x(t), t
_
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
t
where x(t) =
_
x(t), y(t), z(t)
_
is understood to change with time at
the local ow velocity u, so that
dx
dt
=
_
dx
dt
,
dy
dt
,
dz
dt
_
=
_
u, v, w
_
.
Therefore,
f
x
dx
dt
=
f
x
u+
f
y
v+
f
z
w=(u)f .
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
Let f (x, t) denote some quantity of interest in the uid motion.
Note that
f
t
means the rate of change of f at a xed
position x in space.
The rate of change of f following the uid is
Df
Dt
=
d
dt
f
_
x(t), t
_
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
t
f
x
dx
dt
=
f
x
u+
f
y
v+
f
z
w=(u)f .
Denition (Convective derivative)
The convective derivative (a.k.a. the material, particle,
Lagrangian, or total-time derivative) is a derivative taken with
respect to a coordinate system moving with velocity u (i.e., following
the uid):
Df
Dt
=
f
t
+(u )f .
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
Denition (Convective derivative)
The convective derivative (a.k.a. the material, particle,
Lagrangian, or total-time derivative) is a derivative taken with
respect to a coordinate system moving with velocity u (i.e., following
the uid):
Df
Dt
=
f
t
+(u )f .
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Convective derivative
By applying the convective derivative to the velocity components u, v,
w in turn it follows that the acceleration of a uid particle is
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+(u )u.
Example
Consider uid in uniform rotation with angular velocity , so that:
u =y, v =x, w=0.
The ow is steady so
u
t
=0, but
Du
Dt
=
_
y

x
+x

y
_
_
y, x, 0
_
=
2
_
x, y, 0
_
.
represents the centrifugal acceleration
2
_
x
2
+y
2
towards the
rotation axis.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Outline
1
Introduction
Mathematical preliminaries
Preliminary ideas and denitions
Convective derivative
2
Ideal ow theory
Ideal uid
Incompressibility condition
Eulers equations of motion
Bernoulli theorems
Vorticity
3
Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Fluid circulation round a wing
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Concluding remarks
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Ideal uid
Denition (Ideal uid)
Properties of an ideal uid:
1
it is incompressible: no uid element can change in volume as
it moves;
2
it has constant density: is the same for all uid elements and
for all time t (a consequence of incompressibility);
3
it is inviscid, so that the force exerted across a geometrical
surface element nS within the uid is
pnS,
where p(x, t) is a scalar function of pressure, independent on the
normal n.
Remarks
All uids are to some extent compressible and viscous.
Air, being highly compressible, can behave like an
incompressible uid if the ow speed is much smaller than
the speed of sound.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Ideal uid
Denition (Ideal uid)
Properties of an ideal uid:
1
it is incompressible: no uid element can change in volume as
it moves;
2
it has constant density: is the same for all uid elements and
for all time t (a consequence of incompressibility);
3
it is inviscid, so that the force exerted across a geometrical
surface element nS within the uid is
pnS,
where p(x, t) is a scalar function of pressure, independent on the
normal n.
Remarks
All uids are to some extent compressible and viscous.
Air, being highly compressible, can behave like an
incompressible uid if the ow speed is much smaller than
the speed of sound.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Ideal uid
Denition (Ideal uid)
Properties of an ideal uid:
1
it is incompressible: no uid element can change in volume as
it moves;
2
it has constant density: is the same for all uid elements and
for all time t (a consequence of incompressibility);
3
it is inviscid, so that the force exerted across a geometrical
surface element nS within the uid is
pnS,
where p(x, t) is a scalar function of pressure, independent on the
normal n.
Remarks
All uids are to some extent compressible and viscous.
Air, being highly compressible, can behave like an
incompressible uid if the ow speed is much smaller than
the speed of sound.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Ideal uid
Denition (Ideal uid)
Properties of an ideal uid:
1
it is incompressible: no uid element can change in volume as
it moves;
2
it has constant density: is the same for all uid elements and
for all time t (a consequence of incompressibility);
3
it is inviscid, so that the force exerted across a geometrical
surface element nS within the uid is
pnS,
where p(x, t) is a scalar function of pressure, independent on the
normal n.
Remarks
All uids are to some extent compressible and viscous.
Air, being highly compressible, can behave like an
incompressible uid if the ow speed is much smaller than
the speed of sound.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Incompressibility condition
S
V
S
n
u
Let S be a xed closed surface drawn
in the uid, with unit outward
normal n, enclosing a region V.
Fluid enters the enclosed region V at
some places on S, and leaves it at
others.
The velocity component along the
outward normal is u n, so the
volume of uid leaving through a
small surface element S in unit time
is u nS.
The net volume rate at which uid is
leaving V equals
_
S
u n dS
and must be zero for an
incompressible uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Incompressibility condition
S
V
S
n
u
Let S be a xed closed surface drawn
in the uid, with unit outward
normal n, enclosing a region V.
Fluid enters the enclosed region V at
some places on S, and leaves it at
others.
The velocity component along the
outward normal is u n, so the
volume of uid leaving through a
small surface element S in unit time
is u nS.
The net volume rate at which uid is
leaving V equals
_
S
u n dS
and must be zero for an
incompressible uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Incompressibility condition
S
V
S
n
u
Let S be a xed closed surface drawn
in the uid, with unit outward
normal n, enclosing a region V.
Fluid enters the enclosed region V at
some places on S, and leaves it at
others.
The velocity component along the
outward normal is u n, so the
volume of uid leaving through a
small surface element S in unit time
is u nS.
The net volume rate at which uid is
leaving V equals
_
S
u n dS
and must be zero for an
incompressible uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Incompressibility condition
S
V
S
n
u
Let S be a xed closed surface drawn
in the uid, with unit outward
normal n, enclosing a region V.
Fluid enters the enclosed region V at
some places on S, and leaves it at
others.
The velocity component along the
outward normal is u n, so the
volume of uid leaving through a
small surface element S in unit time
is u nS.
The net volume rate at which uid is
leaving V equals
_
S
u n dS
and must be zero for an
incompressible uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Incompressibility condition
S
V
S
n
u
Now, using the divergence theorem and
the assumption of the smoothness of
ow (i.e., continuous velocity gradient)
gives
Incompressibility condition
For all regions within an incompressible
uid
_
S
u n dS =
_
V
u dV=0
which (assuming that u is continuous)
yields the following important constraint
on the velocity eld:

u=0
(everywhere in the uid).
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Eulers equations of motion
The net force exerted on an arbitrary uid element is

_
S
pn dS =
_
V
p dV
(the negative sign arises because n points out of S). Now, provided
that p is continuous it will be almost constant over a small
element V. The net force on such a small element due to the
pressure of the surrounding uid will therefore be
pV.
The principle of linear momentum implies that the following forces
must be equal for a uid element of volume V:
_
p+g
_
V the total (external) net force acting on the
element in the presence of gravitational body force per unit
mass g
_
N
kg
=
m
s
2
_
(the gravity acceleration),
V
Du
Dt
the inertial force, that is, the product of the elements
mass (which is conserved) and its acceleration.
This results in the Eulers momentum equation for an ideal uid.
Another equation of motion is the incompressibility constraint.
Eulers equations of motion for an ideal uid
Du
Dt
=
1

p+g, u=0
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Eulers equations of motion
The net force exerted on an arbitrary uid element is

_
S
pn dS =
_
V
p dV
(the negative sign arises because n points out of S). Now, provided
that p is continuous it will be almost constant over a small
element V. The net force on such a small element due to the
pressure of the surrounding uid will therefore be
pV.
The principle of linear momentum implies that the following forces
must be equal for a uid element of volume V:
_
p+g
_
V the total (external) net force acting on the
element in the presence of gravitational body force per unit
mass g
_
N
kg
=
m
s
2
_
(the gravity acceleration),
V
Du
Dt
the inertial force, that is, the product of the elements
mass (which is conserved) and its acceleration.
This results in the Eulers momentum equation for an ideal uid.
Another equation of motion is the incompressibility constraint.
Eulers equations of motion for an ideal uid
Du
Dt
=
1

p+g, u=0
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Eulers equations of motion
The principle of linear momentum implies that the following forces
must be equal for a uid element of volume V:
_
p+g
_
V the total (external) net force acting on the
element in the presence of gravitational body force per unit
mass g
_
N
kg
=
m
s
2
_
(the gravity acceleration),
V
Du
Dt
the inertial force, that is, the product of the elements
mass (which is conserved) and its acceleration.
This results in the Eulers momentum equation for an ideal uid.
Another equation of motion is the incompressibility constraint.
Eulers equations of motion for an ideal uid
Du
Dt
=
1

p+g, u=0
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Eulers equations of motion
Boundary and interface-coupling conditions
Impermeable surface. The uid cannot ow through the boundary
which means that the normal velocity is constrained
(no-penetration condition):
u n= u
n
.
Here, u
n
is the prescribed normal velocity of the impermeable
boundary ( u
n
=0 for motionless, rigid boundary).
Free surface. Pressure condition (involving surface tension effects):
p =p
0
2T
mean
.
Here: p
0
is the ambient pressure,
T is the surface tension,

mean
is the local mean curvature of the free surface.
Fluid interface. The continuity of normal velocity and pressure at the
interface between uids 1 and 2:
_
u
(1)
u
(2)
_
n=0, p
(1)
p
(2)
=02
_
T
(1)
+T
(2)
_

mean
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Eulers equations of motion
Boundary and interface-coupling conditions
Impermeable surface. The uid cannot ow through the boundary
which means that the normal velocity is constrained
(no-penetration condition):
u n= u
n
.
Here, u
n
is the prescribed normal velocity of the impermeable
boundary ( u
n
=0 for motionless, rigid boundary).
Free surface. Pressure condition (involving surface tension effects):
p =p
0
2T
mean
.
Here: p
0
is the ambient pressure,
T is the surface tension,

mean
is the local mean curvature of the free surface.
Fluid interface. The continuity of normal velocity and pressure at the
interface between uids 1 and 2:
_
u
(1)
u
(2)
_
n=0, p
(1)
p
(2)
=02
_
T
(1)
+T
(2)
_

mean
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Eulers equations of motion
Boundary and interface-coupling conditions
Impermeable surface. The uid cannot ow through the boundary
which means that the normal velocity is constrained
(no-penetration condition):
u n= u
n
.
Here, u
n
is the prescribed normal velocity of the impermeable
boundary ( u
n
=0 for motionless, rigid boundary).
Free surface. Pressure condition (involving surface tension effects):
p =p
0
2T
mean
.
Here: p
0
is the ambient pressure,
T is the surface tension,

mean
is the local mean curvature of the free surface.
Fluid interface. The continuity of normal velocity and pressure at the
interface between uids 1 and 2:
_
u
(1)
u
(2)
_
n=0, p
(1)
p
(2)
=02
_
T
(1)
+T
(2)
_

mean
.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Bernoulli theorems
The gravitational force, being conservative, can be written as the
gradient of a potential:
g = where =gz
_
m
2
s
2
_
,
and the momentum equation
u
t
+ (u ) u
. .
(u)u+(
1
2
u
2
)
=
_
p

+
_
can be cast into the following form
u
t
+(u) u=H where H=
p

+
1
2
u
2
+.
For steady ow (
u
t
=0): (u) u=H
u

(u ) H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli streamline theorem)
If an ideal uid is in steady ow, then H is constant along a
streamline.
Denition (Irrotational ow)
A ow is irrotational if u=0.
For steady irrotational ow:

H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli theorem for irrotational ow)
If an ideal uid is in steady irrotational ow, then H is constant
throughout the whole uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Bernoulli theorems
The gravitational force, being conservative, can be written as the
gradient of a potential:
g = where =gz
_
m
2
s
2
_
,
and the momentum equation
u
t
+ (u ) u
. .
(u)u+(
1
2
u
2
)
=
_
p

+
_
can be cast into the following form
u
t
+(u) u=H where H=
p

+
1
2
u
2
+.
For steady ow (
u
t
=0): (u) u=H
u

(u ) H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli streamline theorem)
If an ideal uid is in steady ow, then H is constant along a
streamline.
Denition (Irrotational ow)
A ow is irrotational if u=0.
For steady irrotational ow:

H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli theorem for irrotational ow)
If an ideal uid is in steady irrotational ow, then H is constant
throughout the whole uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Bernoulli theorems
u
t
+(u) u=H where H=
p

+
1
2
u
2
+.
For steady ow (
u
t
=0): (u) u=H
u

(u ) H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli streamline theorem)
If an ideal uid is in steady ow, then H is constant along a
streamline.
Denition (Irrotational ow)
A ow is irrotational if u=0.
For steady irrotational ow:

H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli theorem for irrotational ow)
If an ideal uid is in steady irrotational ow, then H is constant
throughout the whole uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Bernoulli theorems
u
t
+(u) u=H where H=
p

+
1
2
u
2
+.
For steady ow (
u
t
=0): (u) u=H
u

(u ) H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli streamline theorem)
If an ideal uid is in steady ow, then H is constant along a
streamline.
Denition (Irrotational ow)
A ow is irrotational if u=0.
For steady irrotational ow:

H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli theorem for irrotational ow)
If an ideal uid is in steady irrotational ow, then H is constant
throughout the whole uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Bernoulli theorems
u
t
+(u) u=H where H=
p

+
1
2
u
2
+.
For steady ow (
u
t
=0): (u) u=H
u

(u ) H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli streamline theorem)
If an ideal uid is in steady ow, then H is constant along a
streamline.
Denition (Irrotational ow)
A ow is irrotational if u=0.
For steady irrotational ow:

H=0 .
Theorem (Bernoulli theorem for irrotational ow)
If an ideal uid is in steady irrotational ow, then H is constant
throughout the whole uid.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity: rotational and irrotational ow
Denition (Vorticity)
Vorticity is a concept of central importance in uid dynamics; it is
dened as
=u
_
1
s
_
.
Interpretation of vorticity (in 2D)
For two-dimensional ow (when u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
):
=
_
0, 0,
_
where =
v
x

u
y
.
A B
C
x
y
u
x
x
v
x
x
u
y
y
v
y
y
average angular velocity:

AB
+
AC
2
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
=

2
Thus, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation, or spin,
of uid elements.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity: rotational and irrotational ow
Denition (Vorticity)
Vorticity is a concept of central importance in uid dynamics; it is
dened as
=u
_
1
s
_
.
For an irrotational ow: =0.
Vorticity has nothing directly to do with any global rotation of the
uid.
Interpretation of vorticity (in 2D)
For two-dimensional ow (when u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
):
=
_
0, 0,
_
where =
v
x

u
y
.
A B
C
x
y
u
x
x
v
x
x
u
y
y
v
y
y
average angular velocity:

AB
+
AC
2
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
=

2
Thus, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation, or spin,
of uid elements.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity: rotational and irrotational ow
Denition (Vorticity)
Vorticity is a concept of central importance in uid dynamics; it is
dened as
=u
_
1
s
_
.
For an irrotational ow: =0.
Vorticity has nothing directly to do with any global rotation of the
uid.
Interpretation of vorticity (in 2D)
For two-dimensional ow (when u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
):
=
_
0, 0,
_
where =
v
x

u
y
.
A B
C
x
y
u
x
x
v
x
x
u
y
y
v
y
y
average angular velocity:

AB
+
AC
2
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
=

2
Thus, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation, or spin,
of uid elements.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity: rotational and irrotational ow
Denition (Vorticity)
Vorticity is a concept of central importance in uid dynamics; it is
dened as
=u
_
1
s
_
.
For an irrotational ow: =0.
Vorticity has nothing directly to do with any global rotation of the
uid.
Interpretation of vorticity (in 2D)
For two-dimensional ow (when u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
):
=
_
0, 0,
_
where =
v
x

u
y
.
Then, at any point of the ow eld

2
represents the average angular
velocity of two short uid line-elements that happen, at that instant,
to be mutually perpendicular.
A B
C
x
y
u
x
x
v
x
x
u
y
y
v
y
y
average angular velocity:

AB
+
AC
2
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
=

2
Thus, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation, or spin,
of uid elements.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity: rotational and irrotational ow
Interpretation of vorticity (in 2D)
For two-dimensional ow (when u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
):
=
_
0, 0,
_
where =
v
x

u
y
.
A B
C
x
y
u
x
x
v
x
x
u
y
y
v
y
y
average angular velocity:

AB
+
AC
2
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
=

2
Thus, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation, or spin,
of uid elements.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity: rotational and irrotational ow
Interpretation of vorticity (in 2D)
For two-dimensional ow (when u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
):
=
_
0, 0,
_
where =
v
x

u
y
.
A B
C
x
y
u
x
x
v
x
x
u
y
y
v
y
y
average angular velocity:

AB
+
AC
2
=
1
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
=

2
Thus, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation, or spin,
of uid elements.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Line vortex ow and uniformly rotating ow
Flow may be written in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z):
u=u
r
e
r
+u

+u
z
e
z
.
Consider the following steady, two-dimensional ows (with u

=u

(r),
u
r
=u
z
=0, and being a constant):
Line vortex ow: u=

r
e

although the uid is clearly rotating in a

global sense the ow is in fact irrotational since =0 (except at
r =0, where neither u nor is dened);
Uniformly rotating ow: u=re

here, =
_
0, 0, 2
_
and a
vorticity meter is carried around as if embedded in a rigid body.
u=u

1
r
u

r
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Line vortex ow and uniformly rotating ow
Flow may be written in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z):
u=u
r
e
r
+u

+u
z
e
z
.
Consider the following steady, two-dimensional ows (with u

=u

(r),
u
r
=u
z
=0, and being a constant):
Line vortex ow: u=

r
e

although the uid is clearly rotating in a

global sense the ow is in fact irrotational since =0 (except at
r =0, where neither u nor is dened);
Uniformly rotating ow: u=re

here, =
_
0, 0, 2
_
and a
vorticity meter is carried around as if embedded in a rigid body.
u=u

1
r
u

r
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Line vortex ow and uniformly rotating ow
Flow may be written in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z):
u=u
r
e
r
+u

+u
z
e
z
.
Consider the following steady, two-dimensional ows (with u

=u

(r),
u
r
=u
z
=0, and being a constant):
Line vortex ow: u=

r
e

although the uid is clearly rotating in a

global sense the ow is in fact irrotational since =0 (except at
r =0, where neither u nor is dened);
Uniformly rotating ow: u=re

here, =
_
0, 0, 2
_
and a
vorticity meter is carried around as if embedded in a rigid body.
u=u

1
r
u

r
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Line vortex ow and uniformly rotating ow
Flow may be written in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z):
u=u
r
e
r
+u

+u
z
e
z
.
Consider the following steady, two-dimensional ows (with u

=u

(r),
u
r
=u
z
=0, and being a constant):
Line vortex ow: u=

r
e

although the uid is clearly rotating in a

global sense the ow is in fact irrotational since =0 (except at
r =0, where neither u nor is dened);
Uniformly rotating ow: u=re

here, =
_
0, 0, 2
_
and a
vorticity meter is carried around as if embedded in a rigid body.
u=u

1
r
u

r
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Line vortex ow and uniformly rotating ow
Flow may be written in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z):
u=u
r
e
r
+u

+u
z
e
z
.
Consider the following steady, two-dimensional ows (with u

=u

(r),
u
r
=u
z
=0, and being a constant):
Line vortex ow: u=

r
e

although the uid is clearly rotating in a

global sense the ow is in fact irrotational since =0 (except at
r =0, where neither u nor is dened);
Uniformly rotating ow: u=re

here, =
_
0, 0, 2
_
and a
vorticity meter is carried around as if embedded in a rigid body.
u=u

1
r
u

r
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Rankine vortex
Denition (Rankine vortex)
Rankine vortex is a steady, two-dimensional ow described as
u=u

with u

=
_
_
_
r for r a (uniformly rotating ow),
a
2
r
for r >a (line vortex ow),
where and a are constants.
Therefore,
=e
z
with =
1
r
(ru

)
r
_

_
1
r
(r
2
)
r
=2 for r a (vortex core),
1
r
(a
2
)
r
=0 for r >a (irrotational).
r
u

a
a
u

=
_
_
_
r for r a
a
2
r
for r >a
r

2
a
=
_
_
_
2 for r a
0 for r >a
The Rankine vortex serves as a simple idealized model for a
real vortex.
Real vortices are typically characterized by fairly small vortex
cores (a is small) in which, by denition, the vorticity is
concentrated.
Outside the core the ow is irrotational.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Rankine vortex
Denition (Rankine vortex)
Rankine vortex is a steady, two-dimensional ow described as
u=u

with u

=
_
_
_
r for r a (uniformly rotating ow),
a
2
r
for r >a (line vortex ow),
where and a are constants. Therefore,
=e
z
with =
1
r
(ru

)
r
_

_
1
r
(r
2
)
r
=2 for r a (vortex core),
1
r
(a
2
)
r
=0 for r >a (irrotational).
r
u

a
a
u

=
_
_
_
r for r a
a
2
r
for r >a
r

2
a
=
_
_
_
2 for r a
0 for r >a
The Rankine vortex serves as a simple idealized model for a
real vortex.
Real vortices are typically characterized by fairly small vortex
cores (a is small) in which, by denition, the vorticity is
concentrated.
Outside the core the ow is irrotational.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Rankine vortex
r
u

a
a
u

=
_
_
_
r for r a
a
2
r
for r >a
r

2
a
=
_
_
_
2 for r a
0 for r >a
The Rankine vortex serves as a simple idealized model for a
real vortex.
Real vortices are typically characterized by fairly small vortex
cores (a is small) in which, by denition, the vorticity is
concentrated.
Outside the core the ow is irrotational.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity equation
u
t
+u=H

t
+(u) =0

t
+(u ) ( ) u+ u
. .
0
u
. .
0
=0.
Here, the fourth term vanishes because the uid is incompressible
while the fth term vanishes because =0.
Vorticity equation

t
+(u ) =( ) u, or
D
Dt
=( ) u.
The vorticity equation is extremely valuable: as a matter of fact, it
involves only u since the pressure has been eliminated and =u.
In the two-dimensional ow (u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
, =
_
0, 0, (x, t)
_
)
of an ideal uid subject to a conservative body force g the vorticity
of each individual uid element is conserved:
D
Dt
=0.
In the steady, two-dimensional ow of an ideal uid subject to a
conservative body force g the vorticity is constant along a
streamline:
(u ) =0.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity equation
u
t
+u=H

t
+(u) =0

t
+(u ) ( ) u+ u
. .
0
u
. .
0
=0.
Here, the fourth term vanishes because the uid is incompressible
while the fth term vanishes because =0.
Vorticity equation

t
+(u ) =( ) u, or
D
Dt
=( ) u.
The vorticity equation is extremely valuable: as a matter of fact, it
involves only u since the pressure has been eliminated and =u.
In the two-dimensional ow (u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
, =
_
0, 0, (x, t)
_
)
of an ideal uid subject to a conservative body force g the vorticity
of each individual uid element is conserved:
D
Dt
=0.
In the steady, two-dimensional ow of an ideal uid subject to a
conservative body force g the vorticity is constant along a
streamline:
(u ) =0.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity equation
Vorticity equation

t
+(u ) =( ) u, or
D
Dt
=( ) u.
The vorticity equation is extremely valuable: as a matter of fact, it
involves only u since the pressure has been eliminated and =u.
In the two-dimensional ow (u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
, =
_
0, 0, (x, t)
_
)
of an ideal uid subject to a conservative body force g the vorticity
of each individual uid element is conserved:
D
Dt
=0.
In the steady, two-dimensional ow of an ideal uid subject to a
conservative body force g the vorticity is constant along a
streamline:
(u ) =0.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Vorticity equation
Vorticity equation

t
+(u ) =( ) u, or
D
Dt
=( ) u.
The vorticity equation is extremely valuable: as a matter of fact, it
involves only u since the pressure has been eliminated and =u.
In the two-dimensional ow (u=
_
u(x, t), v(x, t), 0
_
, =
_
0, 0, (x, t)
_
)
of an ideal uid subject to a conservative body force g the vorticity
of each individual uid element is conserved:
D
Dt
=0.
In the steady, two-dimensional ow of an ideal uid subject to a
conservative body force g the vorticity is constant along a
streamline:
(u ) =0.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Outline
1
Introduction
Mathematical preliminaries
Preliminary ideas and denitions
Convective derivative
2
Ideal ow theory
Ideal uid
Incompressibility condition
Eulers equations of motion
Bernoulli theorems
Vorticity
3
Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Fluid circulation round a wing
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Concluding remarks
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Steady ow past a wing at small angle of attack (incidence) is
typically irrotational.
There are no regions of closed streamlines in the ow; all the
streamlines can be traced back to .
The vorticity is constant along each streamline, and hence equal on
each one to whatever it is on that particular streamline at .
As the ow is uniform at , the vorticity is zero on all streamlines
there; hence, it is zero throughout the ow eld around the wing.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Steady ow past a wing at small angle of attack (incidence) is
typically irrotational.
There are no regions of closed streamlines in the ow; all the
streamlines can be traced back to .
The vorticity is constant along each streamline, and hence equal on
each one to whatever it is on that particular streamline at .
As the ow is uniform at , the vorticity is zero on all streamlines
there; hence, it is zero throughout the ow eld around the wing.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Steady ow past a wing at small angle of attack (incidence) is
typically irrotational.
There are no regions of closed streamlines in the ow; all the
streamlines can be traced back to .
The vorticity is constant along each streamline, and hence equal on
each one to whatever it is on that particular streamline at .
As the ow is uniform at , the vorticity is zero on all streamlines
there; hence, it is zero throughout the ow eld around the wing.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Steady ow past a wing at small angle of attack (incidence) is
typically irrotational.
There are no regions of closed streamlines in the ow; all the
streamlines can be traced back to .
The vorticity is constant along each streamline, and hence equal on
each one to whatever it is on that particular streamline at .
As the ow is uniform at , the vorticity is zero on all streamlines
there; hence, it is zero throughout the ow eld around the wing.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Typical measured pressure distribution on a wing in steady ow:
the pressures on the upper
surface are substantially lower
than the free-stream value p

;
the pressures on the lower
surface are a little higher
than p

;
in fact, the wing gets most of its
lift from a suction effect on its
upper surface.
Why the pressures above the wing are less than those below?
The ow is irrotational and the Bernoulli theorem states that
H=p+
1
2
u
2
is constant throughout 2D irrotational ows.
Explaining the pressure differences, and hence the lift on the
wing, thus reduces to explaining why the ow speeds above the
wing are greater than those below.
An explanation is in terms of the concept of circulation.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Steady ow past a xed wing
Typical measured pressure distribution on a wing in steady ow:
the pressures on the upper
surface are substantially lower
than the free-stream value p

;
the pressures on the lower
surface are a little higher
than p

;
in fact, the wing gets most of its
lift from a suction effect on its
upper surface.
Why the pressures above the wing are less than those below?
The ow is irrotational and the Bernoulli theorem states that
H=p+
1
2
u
2
is constant throughout 2D irrotational ows.
Explaining the pressure differences, and hence the lift on the
wing, thus reduces to explaining why the ow speeds above the
wing are greater than those below.
An explanation is in terms of the concept of circulation.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Fluid circulation round a wing
Denition (Circulation)
The circulation round some closed curve C lying in the uid region
is dened as
=
_
C
u dx
_
m
2
s
_
.
If S is the region enclosed by the curve C then the Stokes theorem
gives
=
_
C
u dx =
_
S
(u) n dS,
or in the two-dimensional context
=
_
C
u dx+v dy =
_
S
_
v
x

u
y
_
dxdy.
Notice that in the surface integrals vorticity terms appear.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Fluid circulation round a wing
=0 if the closed curve C is spanned by a surface S which lies
wholly in the region of irrotational ow, that is, =0 for any
closed curve not enclosing the wing.
This cannot be stated for any closed curve that does enclose
the wing. What can be stated is that such circuits have the
same value of .
Therefore:
circulation round a wing is permissible in a steady irrotational ow.
Yet, two questions still arise:
1
Why there should be any circulation?
2
Why it should be negative, corresponding to larger ow speeds
above the wing than below?
The answers are given by the KuttaJoukowski condition.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Fluid circulation round a wing
=0 if the closed curve C is spanned by a surface S which lies
wholly in the region of irrotational ow, that is, =0 for any
closed curve not enclosing the wing.
This cannot be stated for any closed curve that does enclose
the wing. What can be stated is that such circuits have the
same value of .
Proof.
Consider two arbitrary closed curves, ABCA and DFED, enclosing a wing.
0 =
ABCADEFDA
=
ABCA
+
AD
+
DEFD
+
DA
=
ABCA
+
AD

DFED

AD

ABCA
=
DFED
Therefore:
circulation round a wing is permissible in a steady irrotational ow.
Yet, two questions still arise:
1
Why there should be any circulation?
2
Why it should be negative, corresponding to larger ow speeds
above the wing than below?
The answers are given by the KuttaJoukowski condition.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Fluid circulation round a wing
=0 if the closed curve C is spanned by a surface S which lies
wholly in the region of irrotational ow, that is, =0 for any
closed curve not enclosing the wing.
This cannot be stated for any closed curve that does enclose
the wing. What can be stated is that such circuits have the
same value of .
Therefore:
circulation round a wing is permissible in a steady irrotational ow.
Yet, two questions still arise:
1
Why there should be any circulation?
2
Why it should be negative, corresponding to larger ow speeds
above the wing than below?
The answers are given by the KuttaJoukowski condition.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Consider a steady, irrotational ow of uid round a wing. According to
ideal ow theory, the drag on the wing (the force per unit length of
wing parallel to the oncoming stream) is zero. What is the lift (the
force per unit length of wing perpendicular to the stream) is stated by
the following theorem.
Theorem (Kutta-Joukowski lift theorem)
Let be the uid density and U the ow speed at innity. Then, the
lift of the wing is
F
y
=U
_
N
m
_
,
where is the uid circulation around the wing.
Thin, symmetrical wings
For a thin and symmetrical wing of length L, making an angle
with the oncoming stream, the critical value of circulation is

K
UL sin.
Using this formula for the lift
theorem gives the following result
F
y
U
2
L sin,
which is in excellent accord with
experiment provided that the
angle of attack is small, that is
only a few degrees, depending on
the shape of the wing.
F
y

c
Inviscid theory
<
c
612

Experiment
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Theorem (Kutta-Joukowski lift theorem)
Let be the uid density and U the ow speed at innity. Then, the
lift of the wing is
F
y
=U
_
N
m
_
,
where is the uid circulation around the wing.
Obviously, of a great importance is here the fact that =0. In the
case of a wing with a sharp trailing edge this can be explained as
follows: one good reason for non-zero circulation is that there would
otherwise be a singularity (innity) in the velocity eld. This is stated
by the KuttaJoukowski condition.
=0 =
K
<0
Thin, symmetrical wings
For a thin and symmetrical wing of length L, making an angle
with the oncoming stream, the critical value of circulation is

K
UL sin.
Using this formula for the lift
theorem gives the following result
F
y
U
2
L sin,
which is in excellent accord with
experiment provided that the
angle of attack is small, that is
only a few degrees, depending on
the shape of the wing.
F
y

c
Inviscid theory
<
c
612

Experiment
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Obviously, of a great importance is here the fact that =0. In the
case of a wing with a sharp trailing edge this can be explained as
follows: one good reason for non-zero circulation is that there would
otherwise be a singularity (innity) in the velocity eld.
=0 =
K
<0
KuttaJoukowski condition/hypothesis
The circulation is such that the ow leaves the trailing edge
smoothly, or, equivalently, that the ow speed at the trailing
edge is nite.
The ow speed is nite at the trailing edge only for one value
of the circulation around the wing: the critical value
K
. This
particular ow will correspond to the steady ow that is actually
observed.
Thin, symmetrical wings
For a thin and symmetrical wing of length L, making an angle
with the oncoming stream, the critical value of circulation is

K
UL sin.
Using this formula for the lift
theorem gives the following result
F
y
U
2
L sin,
which is in excellent accord with
experiment provided that the
angle of attack is small, that is
only a few degrees, depending on
the shape of the wing.
F
y

c
Inviscid theory
<
c
612

Experiment
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
KuttaJoukowski condition/hypothesis
The circulation is such that the ow leaves the trailing edge
smoothly, or, equivalently, that the ow speed at the trailing
edge is nite.
The ow speed is nite at the trailing edge only for one value
of the circulation around the wing: the critical value
K
. This
particular ow will correspond to the steady ow that is actually
observed.
The critical value
K
depends on the ow speed at innity U, and on
the size, shape, and orientation of the wing.
Thin, symmetrical wings
For a thin and symmetrical wing of length L, making an angle
with the oncoming stream, the critical value of circulation is

K
UL sin.
Using this formula for the lift
theorem gives the following result
F
y
U
2
L sin,
which is in excellent accord with
experiment provided that the
angle of attack is small, that is
only a few degrees, depending on
the shape of the wing.
F
y

c
Inviscid theory
<
c
612

Experiment
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
KuttaJoukowski theorem and condition
Thin, symmetrical wings
For a thin and symmetrical wing of length L, making an angle
with the oncoming stream, the critical value of circulation is

K
UL sin.
Using this formula for the lift
theorem gives the following result
F
y
U
2
L sin,
which is in excellent accord with
experiment provided that the
angle of attack is small, that is
only a few degrees, depending on
the shape of the wing.
F
y

c
Inviscid theory
<
c
612

Experiment
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Concluding remarks
KuttaJoukowski hypothesis provides a rational explanation for
the circulation round a wing in steady ight.
It says nothing about the dynamical process by which that
circulation is generated when a wing starts from a state of rest.
Question: Is a starting vortex theoretically explicable?
A legitimate conclusion on the basis of ideal ow theory:
If the wing and uid are initially at rest, the vorticity is initially zero
for each uid element.
It remains zero since the vorticity is conserved for each uid
element.
Therefore there should be no starting vortex.
An explanation of the starting vortex:
Ideal ow theory accounts well for the steady ow past a wing.
The explanation of how that ow became established involves
viscous effects in a crucial way.
But air, in some sense, is hardly viscous at all! Yet, viscous
effects are sufciently subtle that shedding of the vortex, which
is an essentially viscous process, occurs no matter how small
the viscosity of the uid happened to be.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Concluding remarks
KuttaJoukowski hypothesis provides a rational explanation for
the circulation round a wing in steady ight.
It says nothing about the dynamical process by which that
circulation is generated when a wing starts from a state of rest.
Starting vortex
The circulation is generated by the so-called starting vortex, which
is a concentration of vorticity which forms at the trailing edge of
a wing as it accelerates from rest in a uid. It leaves the wing (which
now has an equal but opposite bound vortex round it), and rapidly
decays through the action of viscosity.
Question: Is a starting vortex theoretically explicable?
A legitimate conclusion on the basis of ideal ow theory:
If the wing and uid are initially at rest, the vorticity is initially zero
for each uid element.
It remains zero since the vorticity is conserved for each uid
element.
Therefore there should be no starting vortex.
An explanation of the starting vortex:
Ideal ow theory accounts well for the steady ow past a wing.
The explanation of how that ow became established involves
viscous effects in a crucial way.
But air, in some sense, is hardly viscous at all! Yet, viscous
effects are sufciently subtle that shedding of the vortex, which
is an essentially viscous process, occurs no matter how small
the viscosity of the uid happened to be.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Concluding remarks
KuttaJoukowski hypothesis provides a rational explanation for
the circulation round a wing in steady ight.
It says nothing about the dynamical process by which that
circulation is generated when a wing starts from a state of rest.
Starting vortex
The circulation is generated by the so-called starting vortex, which
is a concentration of vorticity which forms at the trailing edge of
a wing as it accelerates from rest in a uid.
Question: Is a starting vortex theoretically explicable?
A legitimate conclusion on the basis of ideal ow theory:
If the wing and uid are initially at rest, the vorticity is initially zero
for each uid element.
It remains zero since the vorticity is conserved for each uid
element.
Therefore there should be no starting vortex.
An explanation of the starting vortex:
Ideal ow theory accounts well for the steady ow past a wing.
The explanation of how that ow became established involves
viscous effects in a crucial way.
But air, in some sense, is hardly viscous at all! Yet, viscous
effects are sufciently subtle that shedding of the vortex, which
is an essentially viscous process, occurs no matter how small
the viscosity of the uid happened to be.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Concluding remarks
Question: Is a starting vortex theoretically explicable?
A legitimate conclusion on the basis of ideal ow theory:
If the wing and uid are initially at rest, the vorticity is initially zero
for each uid element.
It remains zero since the vorticity is conserved for each uid
element.
Therefore there should be no starting vortex.
An explanation of the starting vortex:
Ideal ow theory accounts well for the steady ow past a wing.
The explanation of how that ow became established involves
viscous effects in a crucial way.
But air, in some sense, is hardly viscous at all! Yet, viscous
effects are sufciently subtle that shedding of the vortex, which
is an essentially viscous process, occurs no matter how small
the viscosity of the uid happened to be.
Introduction Ideal ow theory Basic aerodynamics
Concluding remarks
Question: Is a starting vortex theoretically explicable?
A legitimate conclusion on the basis of ideal ow theory:
If the wing and uid are initially at rest, the vorticity is initially zero
for each uid element.
It remains zero since the vorticity is conserved for each uid
element.
Therefore there should be no starting vortex.
An explanation of the starting vortex:
Ideal ow theory accounts well for the steady ow past a wing.
The explanation of how that ow became established involves
viscous effects in a crucial way.
But air, in some sense, is hardly viscous at all! Yet, viscous
effects are sufciently subtle that shedding of the vortex, which
is an essentially viscous process, occurs no matter how small
the viscosity of the uid happened to be.