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Testing of Distance Protection Relays

Alexander Apostolov, Benton Vandiver OMICRON electronics I. INTRODUCTION Distance protection relays have changed dramatically in the last two decades from simple single function distance protection relays into multifunctional IEDs with primary transmission line protection functions based on classical or advanced operating principles. Testing of such devices requires the availability of a set of tools that will simplify the testing process, while at the same time will ensure the required high quality of that testing process. Testing of distance protection relays and IEDs is one of the key requirements to ensure their correct operation under short circuit faults during abnormal system conditions. Since protection technology is becoming more and more complex, with protective relays evolving to multifunctional devices with integrated pre-programmed control logic and additional functions like metering, fault and disturbance recording, programmable scheme logic, etc., ensuring that they are properly configured and implemented requires adequate testing of their functionality. At the same time the operation of the transmission systems close to their stability limit requires significant reduction in the fault clearing times that can be only achieved by using the advanced logic schemes available in modern transmission protection relays. In this case verification of the relay operating times through testing is critical. The relays are also used as a front end to the substation automation system and provide different logging functions for analysis of their operation or different power system events. That is why testing of such devices requires excellent understanding of the available protection and nonprotection functions, as well as the operational logic of the different schemes that require testing. The paper first analyzes the functionality of modern state-of-the-art distance protection relays. Several groups of functions are identified: Basic transmission line fault protection Advanced protection schemes Abnormal system conditions detection Automation Monitoring Recording Analysis

Considering the fact that there is a possibility for simultaneous occurrence of different types of abnormal system conditions, it is clear that it is necessary to be able to test the distance protection relays operation under such conditions. The requirements for the testing of all above

listed functions are presented in the paper. Different methods for testing are described, with special attention being paid to the testing tools for advanced transmission line protection functions and schemes. II. MODERN DISTANCE PROTECTION IED FUNCTIONS The main purpose of any multifunctional distance protection IED is to detect and clear as quickly as possible short circuit faults that can damage substation equipment or create conditions that adversely affect system stability or sensitive loads. This is achieved through the use of instantaneous distance elements or communications based protection schemes. The distance elements can be simple or complex, with different operating characteristics, with or without directional supervision.

Fig. 1 Distance protection block diagram The functions in the distance relay have a hierarchy that needs to be considered for the testing of the device (see Figure 1). First of all, the secondary currents and voltages that are applied to the distance protection relay are filtered and processed in the analog input module and provide instantaneous sampled values to the internal digital data bus of the IED. These sampled values can be logged when an abnormal system condition is detected or used to calculate various measurements (e.g. current and voltage phasors or superimposed components) used by the different protection functions. The outputs of the measurement elements become inputs to protection or other functional elements of the device. Each basic protection element operates based on a specific measured value phase or sequence current, voltage, frequency, etc. Measurements of active, reactive and apparent power or power factor are often available from the relays if required in the substation automation system. When a protection element detects an abnormal condition, it may operate and issue a trip command to clear a fault. It may also interact with other protection elements in a distance protection scheme used for acceleration or adaptation of the relay to changing configuration or system conditions. Some of the most common distance protection logic schemes are: Permissive Underreaching

Permissive Overreaching Blocking Scheme Directional Comparison Weak Infeed Echo Logic Current Reversal Breaker Failure Protection The multifunctional distance protection relays also perform automatic functions such as multishot reclosing and local backup protection such as breaker failure protection. Several distance protection relay functions can be used for separation of different parts of the system during wide area disturbances or to prevent that in parts of the system where it will further deteriorate the system conditions. The successful detection and clearing of any abnormal system condition is affected not only by the correct configuration and operation of the protection elements, but it needs healthy secondary current and voltage circuits, as well as breaker trip or close circuits. This requires the relays to also perform monitoring functions, such as trip circuit supervision, current and voltage circuit supervision or different breaker monitoring functions.

Fig. 2 Distance relay configuration

Last, but not least, the relays are also used as the first level in the hierarchy of a substation or system analysis function. Based on the pre-fault and fault currents and voltages they calculate the location of the fault, magnitude and angle of the currents and voltages before and after the fault, duration of the fault and other parameters. In case of double circuit transmission lines the relays may have mutual current compensation that improves the performance of the fault location functions. The interaction of different logical and functional elements needs to be well understood, since there are differences between the implementation of some protection functions in electromechanical and microprocessor based distance protection relays. For example, a directional ground overcurrent protection is a single electromechanical device, while in the microprocessor-based relay it is achieved as combination of overcurrent and directional elements. Figure 2 shows the configuration of a distance protection relay with the different available functions that can be enabled or disabled depending on the requirements of the specific application. This is something that needs to be carefully considered before, during and after the testing of a distance protection relay. TESTING OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL DISTANCE PROTECTION DEVICES When we analyze the complexity of modern multifunctional distance protection devices it is clear that their testing requires the use of advanced tools and software that can simulate the different system conditions and status of primary substation equipment and other multifunctional IEDs. The test system should be able to replay COMTRADE files from disturbance recorders or produced from electromagnetic transient analysis programs. It should be able to apply user defined current and voltage signals with settable phase angles, as well as execute a sequence of pre-defined pre-fault, fault and post-fault steps.

Fig. 3 Test system block diagram The testing of the different IED elements has to start from the bottom of the functional hierarchy and end with the most complex logic schemes implemented in the device.

Protective relays with such schemes operate based on the state of multiple monitored signals such as permissive or blocking signals, breaker status signals, and relay status signals. Time coordination of these signals and synchronization with the pre-fault and fault analog signals is required in order to perform adequate testing of these types of schemes.

Fig. 4 Testing of distance protection IED Figure 4 shows in a simplified way the need for the test device to be able to properly simulate the distance protection environment from Figure 1, as well as to monitor the operation of the relay under the simulated conditions. As can be seen from the figure, the testing should include any visible behavior of the tested distance relay. This requirement is taken into consideration in the following sections of the paper. 1) Testing of the analog signal processing The analog signal processing is the first critical step in the testing of a distance protection relay because if any problems exist at this level, they will be reflected at any other step up the functional hierarchy. The only problem is that the data bus of the IED is usually not directly accessible or visible through the relay communications or user interface. That is why an indirect method is recommended. If we configure the testing software to generate pure sinusoidal waveforms of balanced currents and voltages with their nominal values and no phase shift (zero degrees) between the currents and voltages in the same phases (as shown in Figure 5) and record the applied waveforms with the tested relay, extracting and analyzing the records will allow us to evaluate if there is any problem with the analog signal processing. Using any COMTRADE viewer to analyze the waveform record extracted from the relay will immediately show us if there are any deviations from the expected sine waveform, if there is any phase shift or if the amplitude is different from the expected value.

Fig. 5 Test configuration for analog signal processing and measurement functions tests COMTRADE viewers are usually readily available as part of the relay software or the testing software itself. They also typically calculate and display the magnitude and phase angles of the currents and voltages, so just by looking at these values and comparing them with the expected nominal values and balanced phase angles it is quite easy to determine if there are problems with the analog signal processing of the tested device. This step does not have to be used every time because it takes some time and it also requires the availability of COMTRADE viewer and communications with the relay in order to extract the recorded waveforms. A much easier way of detecting potential problems in the analog signals processing is the testing of the measurements as described in the next section. 2) Testing of the measurement functions The testing of the measurement functions of the relay is the next step. It can use the same set up as described in the previous section, at least as the initial measurements test condition. The nice thing about this test is that it does not require the use of relay communications, since the relay measurements are normally available through the front panel user interface. The measured phase currents and voltages in this case need to be as close as possible to the nominal balanced values applied to the relay by the test device (within the accuracy range specified by the relay manufacturer). The positive sequence measurements should be within tolerance of the phase values. Since the applied phase currents and voltages are balanced, the measured negative and zero sequence values should be close to zero (again within the expected tolerance range). At the same time the power factor should be close to 1 and the frequency close to the nominal frequency of the applied signals to the relay. Depending on the measurements available in the tested relay, it is quite simple to calculate the nominal balanced values and to compare and see if the measured values are within the expected range and tolerance.

If we are interested to check the accuracy of the relay measurements at sub-nominal levels, we can configure the test software to apply 10% or 1% of the nominal values and follow a similar procedure to the one described above. 3) Testing of the main protection functions As discussed earlier, the main protection functions of a distance protection relay are the phase and ground distance elements. The testing of the instantaneous and time delayed elements is different and also should follow a specific order. When testing in a conventional fashion the individual protection elements, it is very important that they are the only enabled protection function (if all protection elements share the same relay output). If the IED has multiple relay outputs and different protection elements are mapped to different outputs, we need to make sure that the test device monitors the correct relay output during the test. For a modern test system, such mappings shouldnt be necessary. A good fault model will correctly generate a system condition that the relay should distinguish, indicate, and trip correctly for based on the enabled protection element characteristic. If we (based on the measurement functions tests) assume that the relay measures accurately the applied current and voltage signals, the testing of the distance elements should not provide any surprises from the accuracy point of view, but will rather give us an indication of what is the characteristic of the tested zone and expected relay operating time when the apparent impedance seen by the distance element based on the applied currents and voltages is within the operating characteristic.

Fig. 6 Phase comparator based distance characteristic The test system should be configured to apply currents and voltages with magnitudes and phase angles calculated based on the apparent impedance, type of fault and testing method selected. It should measure the time between the start of the test and the sensing of the operation of the relay

output when connected to a binary input of the test system. This time should be less than the maximum operating time in the technical specification of the tested relay. It also depends on the time delay setting of the distance zone. Constant voltage and constant current methods may be used for the distance characteristics testing. This is acceptable for electromechanical and solid state relays, as well as for some microprocessor based relays that use distance elements based on the same principles, i.e. the relationship of current and voltage phasors as shown in Figure 6. The operating principles used in the distance relay also need to be taken into consideration in the testing process. While the above described tests are related to checking the distance characteristic of the relay, they may not be suitable for the testing of the relay tripping time. This is especially important for Zone 1. If the relay uses superimposed components for the fault detection, faulted phase selection (Figure 7) or directional detection, the ramping of the current or voltage in some of the conventional test methods is not going to be seen as a fault condition and the relay under test is not going to operate as expected.

Fig. 7 Superimposed components based faulted phase selection In such cases dynamic testing will be required. We still need to be careful with regard to the understanding of this term. In some cases a state change from pre-fault to fault condition may be sufficient. However, if this is represented as a step change in the fault injection to the distance relay under test, it still may result in an operating time slower than expected due to the fact that the current waveform is not realistic. That is why electromagnetic transient simulation is the best way to generate the signals used for the testing of the distance element. The testing of distance elements with complex characteristics also requires accurate modeling of the distance characteristic as part of the test configuration process. Evaluation of the distance element operation for multiple points on the selected characteristic is typically required. Figure 8 shows the configuration for the testing of a distance relay with a complex characteristic.

Depending on the tested element the user should be able to configure the type of fault as singlephase-to-ground, phase-to-phase or three-phase and also select the testing method.

Fig. 8 Distance characteristic test configuration If the results from the testing of the distance characteristics and the operating time are within the expected range, the next step is the testing of the different communications based schemes. III. TESTING OF DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEMES The testing of distance protection schemes [1] is the final step in the testing of a distance relay and it is based on the assumption that all individual protection elements distance, overcurrent, directional, faulted phase selection, etc. have already been tested and proven to be operating correctly. An important consideration is the purpose of the test. If the test of a distance scheme is performed as part of a relay acceptance test, the complete test can be performed by the simulation of the analog and binary signals that the relay is going to measure or monitor under the specific test case conditions. However, if the test is part of the commissioning of the protection system of a transmission line before it is put in service, it may be necessary to test the complete protection system, including the communications channel. End-to-end testing using GPS synchronization is the preferred method in this case. The conventional test process requires the programming of the test system to perform pre-fault, fault and post-fault steps simulating the changing power system conditions to evaluate the performance of the selected transmission line protection scheme logic. There is a need for different options for testing of distance protection logic schemes based on the purpose of the test. Three typical cases are:

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Complete evaluation: all logic schemes are selected in a point-and-click manner and the test software automatically executes a series of predefined tests, measures the relays response, analyses the results and prepares the test report. Testing of a specific logic scheme: automatically executes all tests required for the selected logic scheme, measures the relays response, analyses the results and prepares the test report. Testing of a specific logic scheme for a specific condition: automatically executes a single test required for the selected logic scheme, measures the relays response, analyses the results and prepares the test report. Different control signals are required by the distance protection logic schemes and must be considered in the test definition in order to verify the functionality and the correct settings of such schemes. The simulation of the relay environment is also affected by the location of the fault. A. What Should be Tested? The testing of communication aided distance protection schemes is intended to evaluate the performance of the relay under different fault, system and communication channel conditions. Different tests are designed to monitor the relay operation for the following fault conditions: Zone 1 fault Zone 2 fault on the protected line Zone 2 fault outside of the protected line Reverse faults Faults on a parallel circuit of a double-circuit line No fault Because we are testing communication based schemes, the relay reaction to the receiving of correct and noise control signals under the above listed fault conditions is tested as well. Some more advanced communication aided schemes monitor not only the receiving of a control signal, but also the availability of the carrier signal, which may be lost if the fault is on the phase used by the communication channel. The combined effect of carrier signal and control signal received also has to be tested. When communication aided schemes are used in complex system configurations, including double circuit transmission line or transmission line loops with or without mutual coupling, sequential tripping of faults on adjacent lines may result in incorrect operation of the accelerated schemes. It is required to develop test sequences simulating such conditions to verify that the protective relay is going to operate correctly. B. How are the Tests Performed? The fundamental requirement for advanced testing solutions in todays utility environment is a combination of efficiency and ease of use. The goal is to achieve maximum results with a

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minimum effort. That is why, the test configuration, execution efforts and analysis of the results from a series of tests in most cases should be limited to a point-and-click action. The testing of communication aided schemes should be performed in a way that as closely as possible matches real life power system conditions. The sequence of steps in a test is different as a function of the requirements for the specific scheme and system condition. For example, if the test is for a Direct Transfer Trip scheme and the test conditions are normal system with a noise triggered Carrier Receive signal, the sequence will include only three steps: pre-fault with breaker in a closed position, nominal voltage and normal load current receive of Direct Transfer Trip signal post-trip condition with breaker opened, nominal voltage(assuming that bus voltage is applied to the relay) and no current

If a more complex scheme is tested, the number of steps will increase accordingly. For example if a Permissive Overreaching Scheme is tested, and a fault on an adjacent line with sequential breaker opening is simulated, the test will have to include the following steps: pre-fault with breaker in a closed position, nominal voltage and normal load current initial fault condition with current flowing in reverse direction receive of Permissive Trip signal current reversal fault condition (simulating the opening of the breaker by the Zone 1 trip of the relay on the adjacent line) post-fault condition with breaker closed, nominal voltage and normal load current

The test device is used to simulate both the analog and the digital signals received by the relay in the field. At the same time its inputs are used to monitor the operation of different relay elements as required by the scheme under test. C. Test Results Analysis The results from each test performed are automatically analyzed by the test software. The analysis is based on an expert system comparing the operating time of a combination of monitored protection elements that have picked-up during the test.

Fig. 9 Single-phase fault with current reversal simulation

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The operating time of the monitored protection elements is defined based on the protective relay manufacturers technical specifications. The results are displayed in a graphical format in the user interface and in detail in an automatically generated test report. The test system is used to simulate both the analog and the digital control signals received by the relay in the field. At the same time its inputs are used to monitor the operation of different relay elements as required by the scheme under test. IV. END-TO-END TESTING The next step in the Distance Protection Scheme testing is the extension of the same test cases described above into the full operational protection system test. This is commonly referred to as End-to-End Testing or System Testing. These tests depend on two critical factors, first the coordination of the test cases for both ends of the line to be tested must be the same and a mirror of the fault being simulated. In other words, both ends must see the same Zone 1 fault so the scheme logic will respond accordingly. If the local terminal sees a Zone 1 fault at 30% of line length, then the remote end must see it at 70% of the line length. But care has to be taken to make sure the test cases are structured properly to provide the correct prefault conditions and prefault to fault transition to correctly simulate the system condition of the test case. A simple step change transition can only test the gross performance of the protection scheme; most modern distance relays utilize complex algorithms to detect real system events. The step change may invoke additional logic that would conflict with the scheme logic being tested, resulting in an undesired or unexpected response. Second, playback synchronization accuracy is very important. A synchronization error of 1ms at 60 Hz produces a 21.6 error between two referenced vectors. For successful end-to-end testing, synchronization has to be better than 10s, which produces a phase error of 0.216. The best test equipment in the world today achieves a synchronization accuracy of 1s, which is more than adequate to test even traveling wave relays (a 0.0216 phase error). Today, GPS systems can provide this level of timing to the test set; (Figure 10) one must ensure that the output of the test set is as accurate and more importantly consistently repeatable. In addition to the positive test cases where a response from the distance relay is expected, in endto-End testing it is even more important to have a suitable set of negative test cases where the distance relay or communication system is verified it does not miss-operate. This requires an in depth knowledge of the entire protection scheme and understanding of when it should not trip. Many utilities are moving to system testing as their normal maintenance test procedure for many reasons. A few of these are: Understanding and verification of the entire protection system is critical to utility operations A digital relays reliability, once functionally verified, is seldom enhanced with additional element testing except in the case of settings or firmware changes System testing reveals more in depth data and pinpoints problems faster with proper test cases

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Costs for system testing can actually be less, with better trained personnel, as compared to conventional routine testing System testing requires development of good testing habits resulting in more consistent testing

Fig. 10 Testing of the Communication based Power System Protection Schemes using GPS satellite system for the test synchronization V. CONCLUSIONS Testing of multifunctional distance protection relays requires complete understanding of their functionality, operating principles of the individual elements and different distance protection schemes. Software and hardware tools to appropriately simulate the test conditions and the permissive, blocking or other status signals received from the relay under test are essential for successful logic scheme performance evaluation. The testing should follow the functional hierarchy of the distance protection relay. It should start with testing of the analog signal processing and measurements, followed by individual protection or other elements and finish with the distance protection logic schemes. Testing of complex distance characteristics using different methods for single-phase-to-ground, phase-to-phase or three phase faults is an important step in the overall testing process of distance relays. The operating principles and algorithms implemented in the relay should be taken into consideration when selecting the fault simulation method. Testing for internal and external faults, as well as faults on a parallel circuit (if an application on a double circuit line is tested) should be included in the test cases.

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Automatic rules based expert system relay performance analysis and test report generation significantly improves the efficiency and further simplifies the overall testing process. V. REFERENCES Automated Testing of Communications Based Schemes in Transmission Line Protection Relays, A. Apostolov, B. Vandiver Power Industry Computer Applications PICA 2001, Sydney, Australia, May 2001 VI. BIOGRAPHIES Alexander Apostolov received MS degree in Electrical Engineering, MS in Applied Mathematics and Ph.D. from the Technical University in Sofia, Bulgaria. He has worked for fourteen years in the Protection & Control Section of Energoproject Research and Design Institute, Sofia, Bulgaria. From 1990-94 he was Lead Engineer in the Protection Engineering Group, New York State Electric & Gas. 1994-95 he was Manager of Relay Applications Engineering at Rochester - Integrated Systems Division. 1995-96 he was Principal Engineer at Tasnet. !996-2006 he was Marketing Segment Leader and Principal Application Engineer for AREVA T&D Automation He is presently Principal Engineer for OMICRON electronics in Los Angeles, CA. He is a Senior Member of IEEE and Member of the Power Systems Relaying Committee and Substations C0 Subcommittee. He is Chairman of the Relay Communications Subcommittee, serves on several IEEE PES Working Groups. He is Chairman of Working Group C9: Guide for Abnormal Frequency Load Shedding and Restoration. He is member of IEC TC57 WG 10, 17, 18, 19 and CIGRE WG B5.7, B5.11.and Convener of WG B5.13. He is Chairman of the Technical Publications Subcommittee of the UCA International Users Group, holds three patents and has authored and presented more than 200 technical papers.

Benton Vandiver III received BSEE from the University of Houston in 1979. He began his career with the Substation Division of Houston Lighting & Power, in 1978 engineering relay protection systems for all levels of transmission, distribution, and generation. His main interests were in computer design automation of protection schemes and substation projects. He developed extensive knowledge in the application, setting, testing, modeling, and design of traditional and digital relaying systems used in all types of power system protection, control, and monitoring. In 1991 he joined Multilin Corp. as a Project Manager on a team responsible for designing and developing the hardware and software for a new family of utility grade digital relays. In 1995 he joined OMICRON electronics as a Sales & Application Engineer with primary responsibilities of sales, training, and promotion of the revolutionary CMC Universal Test Set to North & South America.

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He is currently Technical Director for OMICRON Electronics Corp. USA in Houston, TX. He is a long time member of IEEE and is Chairman of Working Group H5-C Common Data Format for IED Sampled Data. He holds a US Patent and has authored or co-authored numerous technical papers for various conferences in North America.