UNIT

I
History of Database Systems
The brief history of the database systems are 1950s and early 1960s: Magnetic tapes were developed for data storage. Data processing tasks such as payroll were automated, with data stored on tapes. Processing of data consisted of reading data from one or more tapes and writing data to a new tape. Tapes could be read only sequentially, and data sizes were much larger than main memory. o Late 1960s and 1970s: widespread use of hard disks in the late 1960s changed the scenario for data processing greatly, since hard disks allowed direct access to data. Unlike files hard disk supports random access of files. This feature was used to develop network and hierarchical database. Disadvantages: - Related data is required to be stores in consequent blocks of memory. For example Student marks record were required to be stored very next to the student details record. This provide efficient original query responses but fails to provide solutions for new complex queries - Data reorganization is time consuming - Every query has to be programmed. o 1980s: Relational data were not in practice until 1960s and 1970s. with the development of system R, the implementation of relational database improved drastically, system R, is an IBM research product based on SEQUEL/2, provides to validate feasibility of relational model. SQL/DS,IBM DB2,Oracle, Ingres, DEC Rdb are some of earlier relational data systems. Advantages: - Easy implementations - Programmer relieved from low level implementation details - Queries need not be coded in procedural fashion - Programmers work only at logical level 1990s : SQL language was developed in early 1990s. this is designed for query intensive applications. o

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Databases and Database systems are an essential component of everyday life in modern society. Daily most of us encounter several activities that involve some interaction with a database. For example, if we go to the bank to deposit or withdraw funds, if we make a hotel or airline reservation, if we access a computerized library catalog to search for a bibliographic item, or if we purchase something online such as a book, toy or computer chances are that our activates will involve someone or some computer program accessing a database. Even purchasing items at a supermarket in many cases, automatically updates the database that holds the inventory of grocery items.

Data vs Information
The terms Data and Information are important to the design of Databases; it is better understanding the difference between them.

What is Data?
Data are raw facts. The word raw indicates that the facts have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning.

What is Information?
Information is the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning. To reveal meaning, information requires context. For example an average temperature reading of 105 degrees does not mean much unless you also know its context: Is this in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius? Is this a machine temperature, a body temperature, or an outside air temperature? Information can be used as the foundation for decision making. Data are the foundation of information, which is the bedrock of knowledge that is, the body of information and facts about a specific subject. Knowledge implies familiarity, awareness, and understanding to an environment. A key characteristic of knowledge is that new knowledge can be derived from old knowledge. Lets summarize some key points: Data constitute the building blocks of information Information is produced by processing data. Information is used to reveal the meaning of data. Accurate, relevant, and timely information is the key to good decision making Good decision making is the key to organizational survival in a global environment.

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Introducing the Database and the DBMS

A Database is a collection of data. A database can be of any size and complexity. For example, the list of names and address referred to earlier may consist of only a few hundred records, each with simple structure. An example of a large commercial database is Amazon.com. It contains data for over 20 million books, CDs, videos, DVDs, games, electronics apparel, and other items. The database occupies over 2 terabytes (a terabyte is 1012 bytes worth of storage) and is stores on 200 different computers (called servers). About 15 million visitors access Amazon.com each day and use the database to make purchases. The database is continually updated as new books and other items are added to the inventory and stock quantities are updated as purchases are transacted. About 100 people are responsible for keeping the Amazon database up-to-date. A Database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications. The DBMS serves as the intermediary between the end user and the database by translating user requests into the complex computer code. The end user interacts with the DBMS through an application program. The application program may be written by a programmer, using a programming language such as COBOL, or it may be created through the use of DBMS utility programs

Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and constraints of the data to be stored in the database. The database definition or descriptive information is also stores in the database in the form of a database catalog or dictionary; it is called meta-data. Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on some storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS. Manipulating a database includes functions such as querying the database retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect changes in the miniworld, and generating reports

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from the data. Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the database simultaneously. Users/Programmers

Database System

Application Programs/Queries

DBMS Software

Software to Process Queries/Programs

Software to Access Stored Data

Stored Database Definition (Meta-Data)

Stored Database

Why Database Design Is Important

Database design is such a crucial aspect of working with databases. Database design refers to the activities that focus on the design of the database structure that will be used to store and manage end-user data. A database that meets all user requirements does not just happen; its structure must be designed carefully. Proper database design requires the designer to identify exactly the databases expected use. A well-designed database facilitates data management and generates accurate and valuable information. A poorly designed database is likely to become a breeding ground for difficult-to-trace errors that may lead to bad decision making and bad decision making can lead to the failure of an organization.

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Files and File System

A file system is a method of storing and organizing computer files and their data. The File-Based System is supported by a conventional operating system. The system stores permanent records in various files, and it needs different application programs to extract records in various files, and add records to, the appropriate files.

Basic File Terminology

Term Data Field Record File Definition Raw facts, such as a telephone number, a birth date, a customer name etc.. A character or a group of characters (alphabetic or numeric) that has a specific meaning. A field is used to define and store data. A logically connected set of one of more fields that describes a person, place, or thing. A collection of related records.

Problems with File System Management

The file system method of organizing and managing data was a definite improvement over a manual system, and the file system served a useful purpose in data management for over two decades a very long time in the computer era. However many problems and limitations became evident in this approach. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Data Redundancy Data Inconsistency Difficulty in Accessing Data Data Isolation Data Integrity Data Dependence Atomicity Problems Concurrent Accessing Problems Security Problems

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Data Redundancy
In File-Based Systems, each application has its own set of files. Each application creates and stores data just for the use of that application. For example, in a bank, there could be three separate applications- one for current accounts, one for savings accounts, and another one for loan account, if a bank customer has a current account, a savings account, and a loan account, data about that customer such as name and address are kept separately in each of these applications. There is unnecessary and uncontrolled duplication of the same data in the banks computer files. Obviously, data duplication results in wasted storage space. Current Account File
CAcc 101 102 103 CName Suresh Ramu Srinivas Loca Chennai Nellore Chennai 101 102 103

Saving Account File

SAcc SName Sindhu Ramu Ajay Loca Tirupati Nellore Chittor

Loan Account File

LAcc 101 102 103 LName Suresh Ramu Srinivas Loca Chennai Nellore Chennai

Data Inconsistency
Data redundancy or duplication of data in your computer files can cause serious inconsistency in the data. Suppose a bank customer has both current and savings accounts. If that persons name, address, or both are different in the two accounts, the data about that customer are inconsistent in the banks files. Which set of data is correct? It is possible that the name of that customer in one system is correct and the address as recorded in the other application is correct. Inconsistency of data is a direct result of data duplication. Saving Account File
CAcc 101 102 CName Suresh Sindhrui Loca Chennai Nellore LAcc 101 102

Loan Account File

LName Suresh Sindhrui Loca Nellore Chennai

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Difficulty in Accessing Data

Suppose that one of the university clerks needs to find out the names of all students who live within a particular postal-code area. The clerk asks the data-processing department to generate such a list. Because the designers of the original system did not anticipate this request, there is no application program on hand to meet it. There is, however, an application program to generate the list of all students. The university clerk has now two choices: either obtain the list of all students and extract the needed information manually or ask a programmer to write the necessary application program. Both alternatives are obviously unsatisfactory. The point here is that conventional fileprocessing environments do not allow needed data to be retrieved in a convenient and efficient manner.

Data Isolation
Data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.

Data Integrity
The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain types of constraints. Suppose the any Bank maintains an Savings Bank Account, and records the balance amount may never fall below zero. Developers enforce these constraints in the system by adding appropriate code in the various application programs. However, when new constraints are added, it is difficult to change the programs to enforce them. The problem is compounded when constraints involve several data items from different files.

Data Dependence
The physical structure and storage of the data files and records are defined in the application code. This means that changes to an existing structure are difficult to make. For example, increasing the size of the Customer Address field from 40 to 41 characters sounds like a simple change, but it requires the creation of a one-off program (i.e a program that is run only once and can then be discarded) that converts the Customer file to the new format. This program has to: o Open the original Customer file for reading; o Open a temporary file with the new structure; o Read a record from the original file, convert the data to conform to the new structure, and write it to the temporary file. Repeat this step for all records in the original file; o Delete the original Customer file; o Rename the temporary file as Customer.

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Atomicity Problems
A computer system, like any other device, is subject to failure. In many applications, it is crucial that, if a failure occurs, the data be restored to the consistent state that existed prior to the failure. Consider a program to transfer $500 from the account balance of A to the account balance of B. if a system failure occurs during the execution of the program. It is possible that the $500 was removed from the balance of A but was not credited to the balance of B. that is, the funds transfer must be atomic. It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a conventional file-processing system.

A
$1000

-$500

+$500

B
$200

Concurrent Accessing Problems

For the sake of overall performance of the system and faster response, many systems allow multiple users to update the data simultaneously. In traditional File-System it is not possible access a file simultaneously.

FILE

User 1

User 2

Security Problems
Information is a corporate asset and, therefore, must be protected through proper security controls. In file-oriented systems, security controls cannot be established easily. Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data. For example, in a university, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the database that has financial information. They do not need access to information about academic records. But, since application programs are added to the file-processing system such security constraints is difficult.

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Roles in the Database Environment or Actors on the Scene

For a small personal database, one person typically defines, constructs, and manipulates the database, and there is no sharing. However in large organizations, many people are involved in the design, use, and maintenance of a large database with hundreds of users. We identify the people whose jobs involve the day-to-day use of a large database; we can identify mainly 4 peoples. 1. 2. 3. 4. Database Administrator(DBA) Database Designer End Users System Analysts and Application Programmers (Software Engineers)

Database Administrator (DBA)

In any Organization where many people use the same resources, there is a need for a chief administrator to oversee and manage these resources. In a database environment, the primary resource is the database itself, and the secondary resource is the DBMS and related software. Administrating these resources is the responsibility of the Database Administrator (DBA). The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the database, coordinating and monitoring its use, and acquiring software and hardware resources as needed.

Database Designer
Database Designers are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database and for choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this data. These tasks are mostly undertaken before the database is actually implemented and populated with data. It is responsibility of database designers to communicate with all prospective database users in order to understand their requirements and to createdesign that meets these requirements.

End Users
End Users are the people whose jobs require access to the database for querying, updating and generating Reports; the database primarily exists for their use.

System Analysts and Application Programmers

System Analysts determine the requirements of end users and develop specifications for that meet these requirements. Application Programmers implement these specifications as programs. Such analysts and programmers commonly referred to as software developers or Software Engineers.

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Database Systems
The problems inherent in file systems make using a database system very desirable. Unlike the file system, with its many separate and unrelated files, the database system consists of logically related data stored in a single logical data repository. The current generation of DBMS software also takes care of defining, storing, and managing all required access paths to those components. Remember that the DBMS is just one of several crucial components of a database system. The DBMS may even be referred to as the database systems heart. The term database system refers to an organization of components that define and regulate the collection, storage, management and use of data within a database environment. The database system is composed of the five major parts i.e. 1. Hardware 2. Software 3. People 4. Procedures 5. Data
Writes

DBA
Manages

Database Designer
Designs

HARD WARE

Procedures

End Users Application Programs

Programmer

Use

Write DBMS Utilities Access

DBMS

DATA

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Hardware
Hardware refers to all of the systems physical devices. The hardware can range from a single personal computer, to a single mainframe, to a network of computers. For example, computers, storage devices, printers, network devices (hubs, switches, routers, fiber optics) and other devices.

Software
The software component comprises the DBMS software itself and the application programs together with the operating system. To make the database system function fully, three types of software are needed. Operating System: Software manages all hardware components and makes it possible for all other software to run on the computers. Examples of operating system software include Microsoft Windows, Linux etc. DBMS Software manages the database within the database system. Some examples of DBMS software include Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Corporations Oracle, MySQL, etc. Application programs and utility software are used to access and manipulate data in DBMS and to manage the computer environment in which data access and manipulation take place. Application programs are most commonly used to access data found within the database to generate reports, tabulations, and other information.

People
This component includes all users of the database system. Here we identify four types users in a database system. 1. Database Administrator(DBA) 2. Database Designer 3. System Analysts and Application Programmers 4. End Users Database Administrator(DBA): manage the DBMS and ensure that the database is functioning properly. Database Designer : To design the database Strucutre. System Analysts and Application Programmers: Design and implement the application programs. They design and create the data entry screens,reports and procedures through which end users access and manipulate the databases data. End Users Are the people who use the application programs to run the organizations daily operations.

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Data
The most important component of the DBMS environment, certainly from the end-users point of view. We observe that the data acts as bridge between the machine components and the human components. The database contains both the operational data and the metadata.

Procedures
Procedures are the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database system. The users of the system and the staff that manage the database require documented procedures on how to use or run the system. These may consist of instructions on how to: o Log on the DBMS; o Use a particular DBMS facility or application program; o Start and Stop the DBMS; o Make backup copies of the database; o Handle hardware or software failures. This may include procedures on how to identify the failed component, how to fix the failed component. How to recover the database. o Change the structure of a table, reorganize the database across multiple tasks, improve performance, or archive data to secondary storage.

Disadvantages of DBMS Complexity The provision of the functionality we expect of a good DBMS makes the DMBS an extremely complex piece of software. Database designers and developers, the data and database administrators, and end-users must understand this functionality to take full advantage or it. Failure to understand the system can lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an organization. Size The complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an extremely large piece of software, occupying many megabytes of disk space and requiring substantial amounts of memory to run efficiently. Cost of DMBSs The cost of DBMSs varies significantly, depending on the environment and functionality provided. For example, a single-user DBMS for a personal computer may only cost US$100. However, a large mainframe multi-user DBMS servicing hundreds of users can be extremely expensive, perhaps US$100,000 or even US$1,000,000.
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Additional hardware costs

The disk storage requirements for the DBMS and the database may necessitate the purchase of additional storage space. Furthermore, to achieve the required performance, it may be necessary to purchase a larger machine, perhaps even a machine dedicated to running DBMS.

Performance
A file-based system is written for a specific application, such as invocing. As a result, performance is generally very good. However, the DBMS is written to be more general, to cater for many applications rather than just one. The effect is that some applications may not run as fast as they used to.

***** Review Questions 1. Discuss each of the following terms: a. Data b. Field c. Record d. File 2. What is data redundancy, and which characteristics of the file system can lead to it? 3. What is a DBMS, and what are its functions? 4. Explain the difference between data and information? 5. What is the role of a DBMS, and what are its advantages? What are its disadvantages? 6. What is metadata? 7. Explain why database design is important? 8. Explain the Disadvantages of File-Based System? 9. What are the responsibilities of the DBA and the database designers? 10. Define the following terms: data, database, DBMS, database system, DBA, meta-data. 11. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of DBMS.

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Data Modeling
Database design focuses on how the database structures will be used to store and manage end-user data. Data modeling, the first step in designing a database, refers to the process of creating a specific data model for a determined problem domain. (A problem domain is a clearly defined area within the real world environment, with well defined scope and boundaries that is to be systematically addressed). A data model is a relatively simple representation, usually graphical, of more complex real-world data structures. In general terms, a model is an abstraction of a more complex real-world object or event. A models main function is to help you understand the complexities of the real-world environment. Within the database environment, a data model represents data structures and their characteristics, relations, constraints, transformations, and other constructs with the purpose of supporting a specific problem domain. Data modeling is an iterative, progressive process. You start with a simple understanding of the problem domain, and as your understanding of the problem domain increases, so does the level of detail of the data model. Done properly, the final data model is in effect a blueprint containing all instructions to build a data that will meet all end-user requirements. This blueprint is narrative and graphical in nature. Database designers relied on good judgment to help them develop a good data model.

Data Models
A data model is a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a database. By structure of a database, we mean the data types, relationships, and constraints that should hold for the data. Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals and updates on the database.

The following list of data models are

o o o o o o o Hierarchical Data Model Network Data Model Entity-Relational Data Model Relational Data Model Object Oriented Data Model Extended Relational Data Model XML Data Model

The Hierarchical Model

The hierarchical model was developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects such as the Apollo rocket that landed on the moon in 1969. Its basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down tree. The
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hierarchical structure contains levels, or segments. A segment is equivalent of a file systems record type. Within hierarchy, the top layer (the root) is perceived as the parent of the segment directly beneath it. For example, the following figure the root segment is the parent of the level 1. The segments below other segments are the children of the segment above. In short the hierarchical model shows a set of one-tomany (1:M) relationships between a parent and its children segments.

Root Segment Level 1 Segments (Root Children) Component A Level 2 Segments (Level 1 Children) Assembly A

Final Assembly

Component B

Component C

Assembly B

Assembly C

Part A Level 3 Segments (Level 2 Children)

Part B

Part C
A hierarchical Structure

Part D

Part E

The hierarchical data model yielded many advantages over the file system model. In fact, many of the hierarchical data models features formed the foundation for current data models. However, the hierarchical model had limitations: it was complex to implement, it was difficult to manage.

The Network Model

The network model was created to represent complex data relationships more effectively than the hierarchical model, to improve database performance, and to impose a database standard. The lack of database standards was troublesome to programmers and application designers because it made database designs and applications less portable.

Relational Model
The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique name. tables are also known as relations. The relational model is an example of record-based model. Record based models are so named because the

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database is structured in fixed-format records of several types. Each record type defines a fixed number of fields, or attributes.

Entity-Relationship Model
The entity-relationship (E-R) data model uses a collection of basic objects, called entities and relationships among these objects. An entity is a thing or object in the real world. The entity-relationship model is widely used in database design.

Object-Based Data Model

Object-oriented programming has become the dominant software-development methodology. This led to the development of an object-oriented data model that can be seen as extending the E-R model with notations of encapsulation, methods and object identity. The object-relational data model combines features of the objectoriented data model and relational data model.

Semistructured Data Model

The semistructured data model permits the specification of data where indicidual data items of the same type may have different sets of attributes. This is in contrast to the data models mentioned earlier, where every data item of a particular type must have the same set of attributes. The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is widely used to represent semistructured data.

Schemas and Instances

The overall description of the database is called the database schema. There are three different types of schema in the database and these are defined according to the levels of abstraction of the three-level architecture. At the highest level, we have multiple external schemas (also called subschema) that correspond to different views of the data. At the conceptual level, we have the conceptual schema, which describes all the entities, attributes, and relationships together with integrity constraints. At lowest level of abstraction we have the internal schema, which is a complete description of the model, containing the definitions of stored records, the methods of one conceptual schema and one internal schema per database. Databases change over time as information is inserted and deleted. The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an instance of the database.

The Importance of Data Models

Data models can facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the end users. A well-developed data model can even further improved understanding of the organization for which the database design is developed. In short, data models are a communication tool. The importance of data
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modeling cannot be overstated. Data constitute the most basic information units employed by a system. Applications are created to manage data and to help transform data into information. But data are viewed in different ways by different people. The data environment requires an overall database blueprint based on an appropriate data model. Keep in mind that a house blueprint is an abstraction; you cannot live in the blueprint. Similarly, the data model is an abstraction; you cannot draw the required data out of the data model. Just as you are not likely to build a good house without a blueprint, you are equally unlikely to create a good database without first creating an appropriate data model.

Data Models Basic Building Blocks

The basic building blocks of all data models are entities, attributes, relationships, and constraints. An entity is anything (a person, a place, a thing, or an event) about which data are to be collected and stored. An entity represents a particular type of object in the real world. An attribute is a characteristic of an entity. For example, a CUSTOMER entity would be described by attributes such as customer last name, customer first name, customer phone, customer address and customer credit limit. Attributes are the equivalent of fields in file systems. A relationship describes an association among entities. For example, a relationship exists between customers and agents that can be described as follows: an agent can serve many customers and each customer may be served by one agent. Data models use three types of relationships: one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many. Database designers usually use the shorthand notations 1:1 or 1..1, 1:M or 1..* and M:N or *..* or M:M, respectively.

Business Rules
A business rule is a policy, procedure or standard that an organization has adopted. Business rules are very important in database design because they dictate controls that must be placed upon the data. Most business rules can be enforced through manual procedures that employees are directed to follow or logic placed in the application programs. However, each of these can be circumvented employees can forget or can choose not to follow a manual procedure. Business rules can be implemented in the database as constraints, which are formally defined rules that restrict the data values in the database in some way.

The Evolution of Data models

The request for better data management has led to several different models that attempt to resolve the file systems critical shortcomings. This section gives an overview of the major data models in roughly chronological order.

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Evolution of Major Data Models Generation Time Model Examples Comments

First

1960s 1970s

File System Hierarchical and Network Data Models

Second

1970s

Third

Mid-1970s to Relational present Data Model

ObjectOriented Fourth Mid-1980s to present Extended Relational

Next Present to Generation future

XML

Used mainly on IBM mainframe systems Early database IMS systems ADABAS Navigation IDS-II alaccess Conceptual simplicity DB2 Entity Oracle Relationship(ER) MS SQL-Server modeling and MySQL support for relational data modeling Support complex data Versant Extended relational FastObjects.Net products support Objectivity/DB objects and data DB/2 UDB warehousing Oracle 10g Web databases become common. Oraganization and dbXML management of Tamino unstructured data DB2 UDB Relational and Oracle 10g object models add MS SQL Server support for XML document VMS/VSAM

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Data Abstraction
For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data efficiently. The need for efficiency has led designers to use complex data structures to represent data in the database. Since many database-system users are not computer trained, developers hide the complexity from users through several levels of abstraction, to simplify users interactions with the system:

The Three-Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC), produced a similar terminology and architecture in 1975. ANSISPARC recognized the need for a three-level approach with a system catalog. 1. Physical Level or Internal Level 2. Logical Level or Conceptual Level 3. View Level or External Level

View Level View 1 View 2

...

...

View N

Logical Level

Physical Level
The Three levels of Data Abstraction

The objective of the three-level architecture is to separate each users view of the database from the way the database is physically represented. There are several reasons why this separation is desirable: Each user should be able to access the same data, but have a different customized view of the data. Each user should be able to change the way he or she views the data, and this change should not affect other users.

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Users should not have to deal directly with physical database storage details. In other words a users interaction with the database should be independent of storage considerations. The Database Administrator (DBA) should be able to change the database storage structures without affecting the users views.

Physical Level or Internal Level The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are actually stored. The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in details. The internal level is concerned with such things as: o o o o Storage space allocation for data and indexes; Record descriptions for storage (with stored sizes for data items) Record placement; Data compression and data encryption techniques

Logical Level or Conceptual Level The middle level in the three-level architecture is the conceptual level describes what data are stored in the database, and what relationships exist among those data. The logical level thus describes the entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures. The Conceptual level represents: o o o o All entities, their attributes, and their relationships; The constraints on the data; Semantic information about the data; Security and integrity information.

View Level or External Level The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire database. Even though the logical level used simpler structures, complexity remains because of the variety of information stored in a large database. Many users of the database system do not need all this information; instead, they need to access only a part of the database. The view Level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with the system. The system may provide many views for the dame database.

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Database System Structure

1. A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the responsibilities of the overall system. 2. The functional components of a database system can be broadly divided into the storage manager and the query processor components. 3. The storage manager is important because databases typically require a large amount of storage space. 4. Corporate databases range in size from hundreds of gigabytes to, for the largest databases, terabytes of data. A gigabyte is 1000 megabytes (1 billion bytes), and a terabyte is 1 million megabytes (1 trillion bytes). 5. Since the main memory of computers cannot store this much information, the information is stored on disks. 6. The query processor is important because it helps the database system simplify and facilitate access to data. 7. High-level views help to achieve this goal; with them, users of the system are not be burdened unnecessarily with the physical details of the implementation of the system. 8. However, quick system to translate updates and queries is important. 9. It is the job of the database system to translate updates and queries written in a nonprocedural language, at the logical level, into an efficient sequence of operations at the physical level.

Storage Manager
1. A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. 2. The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by a conventional operating system. 3. The storage manager translates the various DML statements into low-level filesystem commands. Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the database. The storage manager components include: o o Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of users to access data. Transaction manager, which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state regard less of system failures, and that concurrent transaction Executions proceed without conflicting. File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the

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data structures used to represent information stored on disk. o Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory, and deciding what data to cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the database system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes that are much larger than the size of main memory.

The storage manager implements several data structures as part of the physical system implementation: o Data files, which store the database itself. o Data dictionary, which stores metadata about the structure of the database, in particular the schema of the database. o Indices, which provide fast access to data items that hold particular values. The Query Processor The query processor components include DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the data dictionary. DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query language into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine understands. query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation plans that all give the same result. The DML compiler also performs Query optimization, that is, it picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the alternatives. Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions generated by the DML compiler.

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Application Architectures
Most users of a database system today are not present at the site of the database system, but connect to it through a network. We can therefore differentiate between client machines and server machines, on which the database system runs. Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts. In two-tier architecture, the application is partitioned into a component that resides at the client machine, which invokes database system functionality at the server machine through query language statements. Application program interface standards like ODBC and JDBC are used for interaction between the client and the server. In three-tier architecture, the client machine acts as simply a front end and does not contain any direct database calls. Instead, the client communicates with an application server, usually through a forms interface. The application server in turn communicates with a database system to access data. The business logic of the application, which says what actions to carry out under what conditions, is embedded in the application server, instead of being distributed across multiple clients. Three-tier applications are more appropriate for large applications, and for applications that run on the World Wide Web.

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