Stability Constrained Optimal Power Flow for the Balancing Market using Genetic Algorithms

X. Zhang, R. W. Dunn, Member, IEEE, and F. Li, Member, IEEE

represents the stability problem; and 3) moreover, stability is a dynamic concept and cannot he explicitly expressed either by bus voltage and angles or other system control variables. How to include stability constraints is an open question. Since stability is not modeled within typically available OPF packages, stability constraints have to be represented by fixed transfer limits obtained by performing lots of off-line time-domain simulations for each reasonable contingency. However, conditions frequently do not match those studied off-line in real system operation. Consequently, the limits provided for OPF usually have to be on the conservative side for maintaining a secure system, which may result in significant financial consequences. With the worldwide trends in de-regulation and open access of power systems, use of OPF will become increasingly more important in maximizing the capacity of the existing transmission system asset[3]. The past practice of maintaining security and reliability by following operating guidelines and transmission limits based on off-line stability Index Te-ptimal power now, genetic algorithms, studies likely to be sub-optimal for actual operational power system operation, transient stability analysis. conditions, resulting in a pressing need for bringing in stability constrained optimal power flow (SCOPF) in modern 1. INTRODUCTION energy management systems. The concept of SCOPF is not new[4]-[8]. A methodology Optimal power flow (OPF) is a generic term that based upon the state-of-the-art OPF and integration describes a broad class of problems in which we seek to techniques was presented for solving SCOPF problem io [4]. optimize power system economic operation while satisfying By converting the differential equations into numerically security constraints dictated by operational and physical equivalent algebraic equations, stability constraints can be particulars of the electric network[ 1][2]. controlled in the similar way that thermal limits are One of main uses of OPF in power system operation is controlled in the standard OPF formulation. Another during the dispatch process. Generation dispatch aims to approach, based on the transient energy function method was minimize the operating cost of thermal resources subject to proposed for stability constrained rescheduling of generation satisfying constraints represented by bus real and reactive in [SI. A program, named as Combined Dispatch Advisor power balances in terms of voltages and phase angles. (CODA)[6], addresses the aspects .of optimizing the However, current OPF packages cannot easily take generation management of BMus to resolve the system electromechanical transient and oscillatory stability into constraints. Stability constraints are approximately expressed consideration. The main reasons why this has h e n the case by overloads of transmission lines and a E power flow is to-date are: 1) the computational load to determine system employed to represent the linear relationship between stability using conventional time domain simulation is very generation and power flow in terms of a set of effectiveness high 2) the optimization algorithms within most OPF or sensitivities. packages would he disrupted by the highly non-linear, This paper presents a genetic algorithm (GA) based discontinuous and multi-modal problem space that approach to tackle the SCOPF problem. A GA is considered to be an effective method for solving large-scale combinatorial optimization problems because of its robust to The authors are grateful to the Engineering and Physical Sciences Rerearch Council (UK) and the National Grid Company plc (UK) far find global optimal solutions. GAS have been successfully applied to the OPF problem in various forms[9I-[l01. supporting this research project. X. Zhang is with the School of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, In the UK, under the implemented New Electricity University of Bath, Clavenon Down, Bath BA2 1AY. UK (e-mail Trading Arrangements (NETA) a self-dispatch process has iuecheng~ee.bath.ac.uk). R. W. Dun and F Li arc with the School of Electronic & Electrical essentially replaced the previous merit-order centered Engineering. UNversity of Bath, Claverton Dawn, Bath BA2 l A Y , UK (e- dispatch mechanism of the old Pool based system. Bilateral mail: r.w.dunn8bath.ac.uk and f.li8bath.ac.uk). contracts are formed in Forwards Markets between
0-7803-7989-6/03/$17.0002003 IEEE 932

Absfrocl-Angle stability (both transient and oscillatory) is an important constraint in power system operation. The work presented in this paper describes a genetic algorithm (GA) based approach for solving the problem of angle stability constrained optimal power now. The control parameter modeled in the chromosome of the GA is generation power of the units. The application presented here is the UK balancing market using Balancing Mechanism Units (BMus). The BMus put into the GA list depend on either their hid/offer price or their impact of generation change on system stability. Sensitivity facton, obtained by doing perturbations, are used to represent a BMUs impact on system stability. A novel mapping method is employed to maintain power balance. Stability constraints are dealt with as penalty cost, and their contribution to the fitness of the objective function is evaluated independently, so that the search for the optimal solution concentrates on feasible solutions. Tests on a reduced UK system show that the proposed GA is able to cope with the highly non-linear optimization problem. Numerical simulation results of the test system are presented.

generation and demand. A Balancing Market starts from

Gate Closure up until real time, when all Final Physical Notifications (FPNs) have to be finished. At this stage, the system operators are responsible for balancing energy mismatch left from the contracted self-dispatch position, and for managing the system constraints. Thc SCOPF problem under NETA could he described as optimizing the generation combination of BMus subject to stability constraints, as well as other constraints. The control variables represented in GA chromosome are generation power of BMus. The BMus to be put into the GA list depend on either their bidoffer price or their impact of generation change on system stability. Sensitivity factor is used to characterize a B M u s impact on system stability. Stability constraints are dealt with as penalty cost and their contribution to the fitness of the objective function is evaluated independently to force the search of optimal solution mainly concentrating on all feasible solutions. A novel mapping method is employed to maintain power balance. With the basic operators implemented, the GA demonstrates its ability to solve the SCOPF problem while minimizing the system operating costs. Test results on a reduced UK system are presented.

in generation or a reduction in demand. A Bid-Offer pair in thc case of a generator gives the Offer Price to increase the output of the BMU and the corresponding Bid Price that is the cancellation price to reduce the output of the BMU. In this approach, only one Bid-Offer pair is assumed. The objective function in equation (I) is the operating cost for re-dispatching generation. The offer price is applied if a BMU increases its generation power from FPN, whereas the hid price is applied if a BMU decreases its generation power from FPN. Equation ( 2 ) is the energy balance constraint, requiring that the total loading of all BMus must meet the system demand plus transmission losses. Equation ( 3 ) is an inequitable constraint representing the physical limits on BMus. Equation (4) is the stability associated inequitable constraint, implying that after redispatching, the post-fault system must maintain stable and the system should also has a certain level of stability margin. IU. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY ASSESSMENT

n.

FORMULATION OF SCOPF PROBLEM

Under NETA environment, the SCOPF problems could be mathematically expressed by the following formulation.

Subject to

(2)
i=l

PSEL, i < Pni 5 PMEL. i

TEIk 2 &I
or

(3)

DCII 5 E?

(4)

k = 1,2,... NW
Where :

f(P&
PE;:

Operating cost. Generation power of the ith BMU. Pgi0: Final physical notification (FPN) of the ith BMU. Ci: Bid or offer price of the ith BMU. NE: Total number of BMUs. PL: System demand. PhX& Transmission losses. PSEL;: Stable export limit of the ith BMU. export limit of the ith BMU. P M E ~ ; Maximum : TEIk: Transient energy index of the kth contingency. DCIk: Swing decay index of the kth contingency. &I ,&z : TIl and DCI margins. NCB: Number of specified contingencies. The FPN is simply a notification of a Market Participants energy profile for a BMU throughout a Settlement Period. Togcther with an FPN a market participant also submits a set of Bid-Offer pairs that enable National Grid to alter the generation from the BMU. A Bid is. either a reduction in generation or an increase in demand. An Offer is an increase
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Transient stability assessment is the evaluation of the ability of a power system to withstand specified contingencies by surviving the subsequent transient events to anive at an acceptable steady state operating condition[l I]. When potential instability consequent tu a sufficiently credible contingency is detected, some preventive action has to be taken by system operators. Many advanced methods [12]-[ 151 have been developed for transient stability assessment. So far, time-domain methods are still regarded as the best methods available in t e r m of accuracy, reliability and modelling capability. However, time-domain methods suffer from two major drawbacks: they are inherently slow because they require numerical integration of large families of dynamic equations, and they do not provide any information about the degree of stability (or instability) of the system. Instead, the TEF method is an alternative tool fur transient stability evaluation. The main attraction of the TEF analytical method is its computational speed and its ability to provide a stability margin or stability performance index. But the method sometimes fails to yield a practical result because of non-convergence problems encountered in attempting to compute the relevant unstable equilibrium.
A. Hybrid TEF Method

In order to overcome the drawbacks existing in both timedomain simulation and the TEF method, a so-called hybrid approach is used. First, time-domain simulation is performed and then a transient energy margin ( E M ) is estimated as the system stability index. Instead of using analytic techniques, under the hybrid method, both the kinetic and potential energies are calculated numerically using the data generated directly from timedomain simulation and then corrected when taking into account the energy responsible for pushing the system across the stability boundary, The significant advantage claimed for the hybrids method is its ability to incorporate detailed generator and other

component representations. In terms of the system dynamic equations, the transient energy function can be expressed as:

v = v,. + v,
Vr
1 " =-E 2
ik,
Mdr2

Assuming that the swing decay rates can be approximated by a linear combination of exponential functions and expressed as follows:

si(t) = Aie (6) The worst value of b, can be defined as the oscillatory instability decay index ( X I ) . a system is oscillatory unstable if DCI is greater than zero.

bit

D.Sensitivity Study
where V,Vh andVu. represent the total transient energy, transient kinetic energy (TKE) and transient potential energy P m i and Pei are (TPE) functions, respectively; Mi,&,&, the inertia, rotor angle, angular frequency, mechanical power and electrical power of machine i respectively in the centre of inertia (COI) frame. @?denotes the angle vector of the stable equilibrium point (SEP) of the post-fault power system. Mr is the sum of the inertia for all machines in the system and n is the number of machines in the system. The transient energy and oscillatory instability indices, described above, could be used to as a base to assess the impact of generation change of a BMU on system stability. This impact can be expressed by the following defined sensitivity factor.

Sensitivity Factor =

Change in Index Change in Generation

(7)

B. Transient stability Index The transient stability margin is the maximum additional energy that the system can absorb without going unstable for a given disturbance. In the hybrid approach, the transient energy index (TEI) or TEM is then derived as follows: 1. For an unstable case, TEI is defined as the negative value of the fnst minimum of the corrected kinetic energy after the contingency sequence. This is the excess of kinetic energy that cannot be converted to potential energy in the system. A negative TEI indicates that the system goes unstable for a given disturbance. 2. For a stable case, the first minimum in the corrected kinetic energy is identified, a second fault (second kick), which is able to make the system unstable, is applied and the simulation is carried on until the second minimum of kinetic energy is obtained. The potential energy change required to accomplish this is used as the TEI to indicate how much more energy can be absorbed by the system. A positive TEI indicates that the system is able to maintain transient stability for a given disturbance.

Depending on the initial system operating conditions, either the TEI or DCI will be selected as the system performance index for numerical sensitivity study. Perturbation method could be employed to do sensitivity study. As a result of many years of work on electro-mechanical transient power system modelling and simulation, a very high-speed time domain power system simulation engine (PSSeng) is readily available for power system stability assessment. Both stability performance indices TEI and DCI can be directly extracted from the simulation results, which forms the base in this approach to solve SCOPF problem. IV. GENETIC ALGORITHM SOLUTION FOR STABILITY C O N S T W N E D OPF

Genetic algorithms are non-deterministic stochastic searcMoptimization algorithms based on the mechanics of natural selection and genetics. GAS are an attractive alternative to other optimization methods because of their robustness. In our approach, a simple GA with conventional genetic operators is applied.

C. Oscillatory instability Index TEF method is only effective for transient stability
assessment, especially when system goes unstable in the fust swing. For oscillatory instability assessment, however TEF method is limited. A positive TEI does not guarantee that the system is able to maintain dynamic stable after experiencing the disturbance. Oscillatory instability assessment concerns with longterm oscillations and limit-cycle problems that may impair power system security and lead to the system separating into several isolated parts. Traditionally, this is carried out by offline eigenvalue analysis. In this approach, oscillatory instability is assessed by means of measuring the swing amplitudes of each machine. By examining the change of swing amplitudes, the damping of each machine and hence the system-wide damping can be estimated

A. Control Variables
When applying GAS for solving the SCOPF problem, the first step is to decide the control variables encoded into the GA chromosome. Because our approach for SCOPF problem only concentrates on the optimization of generation combination subject to system constraints, so that generation powers of BMus are the only control variables.

B. BMus Selection Following rules are used to select the relevant BMus to put into the GA list: 1) those BMus either with higher bid prices or with lower offer price, providing the possibility to reduce the operating cost if they are fully utilized. 2) those BMus having obvious effects on moving the system from unstable region to stable region by altering their generation power.

In order to narrow the search space, the BMus in the GA list are divided into three groups according to their effects either on saving the operating cost or on improving system stability. The first group is for those BMus whose generation power will increase from FPNs. The second group is for those BMus whose generation power will decrease from FPNs. The last group is for the remaining BMus their effects on improving system stability and on saving operating cost conflict with each other when either increasing or decreasing their generation power.

I\
PgrMin

./

C. Encoding The chromosome is formed as shown in Fig.]. Each subbinary string in the chromosome denotes the pre-mapped generation level for its corresponding BMU. The length of suh-hinary string of a BMU is determined by generation range it might change, and the specified power resolution (for example 1 bit represents 15MW). Here P ~ n .might ; be P S E L or , ~ Pgio and Pmax,; might he Pgio or PMEL,; , depending on which group the BMU falls in.
pg2
1101
101110

Pg1M.x

Fig.2.power balance mapping mechanism

pg3
101001

Fig.1. CA chromosome suuclure

Assuming that ~i is the length of a sub-binary for a selected BMU and k is the decimal number to which the binary number in the sub-binary string is decoded, the generation power will take the values in the interval

[PM".i,Pm,;1.

E. Fitness Function GAS are usually designed so as to maximize the fitness function (FF), which is a measure of the quality of each candidate solution. A transformation is needed to convert the operating cost to an appropriate FF. In addition to that, the stability constraints should be effectively handled. Based on the viewpoint of real power system operation, a system should not go unstable after experiencing a credible contingency. Thus, if the system goes unstable for the specified contingency, we would think that the operating point produced by the GA is infeasible. The comprehensive fitness function in the SCOPF problem is formed as follows: FF= FFOC+ FFSI (9)
FF= FFST

D. Mapping Method After decoding, the immediate generation power of the BMus cannot he regarded as realistic (feasible) in the formulation of a new operating point. 'his is because the total loading for these selected BMUs, in most cases, is unable to balance the power requirements. There are two ways to solve power balance problems. One way is to specify a slack unit in advance. This slack unit balances generation with demand plus transmission losses. However, the generation limits of the slack unit would be exceeded in most cases. Another way is to use the mapping method. The generation power obtained by decoding the chromosome string for all BMus is required to map hack into the power balance space. This could he implemented by a rule that forces the total loading of BMus in the GA list to be constant for all individuals in the GA population. Fig. 2 demonstrates-Jhe way that how the generation power of a two units system maps back into the power balance space. In Fig. 2, (PI, P2) represents the decoded immediate generation power of unit 1 and unit 2, (Plm, P2m) then represents the mapped generation power of unit 1 and unit 2. Applying the mapping method not only automatically balances the power deficits, but also speed the search of optimal generation combination.

(If system goes unstable)

(10)

where FF, FFOC and FFST are the entire fitness, fitness of operating cost and fitness of stability performance, respectively. OC is the operating cost and PC is the penalty cost if the system goes unstable.

E Procedure to Solve SCOPF Problem

Following are the steps for using a GA to solve the SCOPF problem. 1. Randomly generate a number of chromosome strings for the initial population. 2. Decode the chromosome for each member in the population and map the decoded generator power back into the power balance space to obtain realistic generation power levels. 3. Form the new operating point for the system and calculate its corresponding operating cost. 4. Run PSSeng to obtain the system stability performance indices, TEI andor DCI, against the specified contingencies. 5. Evaluate the fitness of the objective according to both operating cost and stability performance indices.

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6. If the system is unstable under the new operating points, the fitness of operating cost is set to zero, imposing a poor fitness on this member. 7. Apply the GA operators to construct the offspring chromosome string for the next generation. 8. If the convergence conditions meet the specified standard, then export the best solution as the final optimized result. Otherwise, go to step 2 for the next iteration.

V.

CASE STUDY

a BMU with lower offer prices should increase its generation power. For example, Genll should decrease its generation power from 600 MW to 500 MW due to its higher hid price, and Genl5 should increase its generation power from 650 MW to 1319 MW due to its lower offer price. The process of re-dispatch ends when a cross point between hid price and offer price appears in two BMus and the re-dispatch of generation meets the system load demand. By carrying out this unconstrained re-dispatch manually, an operating cost of $60830 could be saved, based on the assumed base power flow, and the GA was able to find this exactly same solution after 20 GA generations.

In this section, the implemented GA to solve the SCOPF problem is evaluated using a reduced UK system with 100busbars, 20-BMus and 10 contingencies. The base operating point (FPN) was set to he artificially insecure to two of these contingencies. Throughout, either for the base power flow, or for any new operating point formed in the GA iteration, stability performance against all specified contingencies was evaluated by running PSSeng with an integration time step of 10 ms and simulation duration of 20 sec. The FPN position for each BMU in the test system, along with its upper and lower physical limits and bid/offer price, are listed in Table 1. Assuming that the FPN position of all BMus forms the base power flow case. Stability evaluation on the base power case shows that the system is able to maintain post-fault stability for all specified contingencies except the 1'' and the 8" contingency. The 1'' contingency leads to an oscillatory unstable situation with a TEI of 12.00 and a DCI of 0.036, and the 8" contingency leads to a transient unstable with a TEI of 3.352
Table
SEL

B. Stability Constrained Solution

If all 10 contingencies are involved, sensitivity studies performed on the base power flow case shows that 7 BMus are able to improve the system stability for the 1" and 8* contingencies. Among them, 6 B M u s including Genl7, Genl8, Gen07, GenO6 and Genll are expected to increase their generation power, only one BMU Genl9 is expected to decrease its generation power. According to the rule of selecting B M u s for the GA list, 19 B M u s are selected with 8 BMus being in the frst group, 10 BMus being in the second group and only 1 being in the last group. Fig.3 shows the iterative process of the three GA runs when searching for the minimum operating cost while maintaining the system stability against the specified contingencies. It can he seen from Fig.3 that the implemented GA is able to solve the Stability constrained OPF problems. The operating cost drops rapidly before the first 30 GA generations.

m
(MWI
440

GenOP GenO3 Gen04 GenO5 1100 1 20 I 6 GenO6 Gen07 GenO8 GenO9 GenlO 1103 I 40 I 15 Genll GenlP Genl3 550 I 10 I 1 15 12 Genl4 350 GenlS 650 5 0 30 10 Genl6 800 Genl7 -1798 850 1.5 Genl8 279.6 500 2 Genl9

999.6
999.6

460 465 600 1000

160

lnilial Cost: $1 55K. Final Cost: $21.5K

20
300 400 400 500

999.6
1319
499 1319

600
360 240 400 560
,1800
0
10

2 0

24

40

IO

e n

70

80

so

lca

110

999.6
1800 361
600

Number of G I Generations

-300
-365 -400

Fig. 3. Optimization process for tkec runs of the SCOPF GA

A. Purely Economic Solution If stability constraints are excluded in the SCOPF, then the re-dispatch of generation combinations for all BMus would purely he an economic dispatch that could utilize the merit order of biddindoffer prices of BMus. From the viewpoint of economic dispatch, a BMU with higher hid prices should decrease its generation power while

The minimum operating costs produced by several runs are very close. Most significant is that, after re-dispatch using SCOPF, the system is no longer unstable for the both 1" and 8" contingency. The DCI and TEI of the system are now -0.245, 9.70 and -0.27, 0.015 for the 1'' and 8* contingencies respectively. In addition to this, the system remains stable for the other eight contingencies. From Fig. 3, over the three runs, the resulting cost can also be seen to be

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accurate to ? I S % (assuming that the base operating cost should he -$60830, i.e. without stability constraints). The stability constrained optimal power flow results obtained from the hest solution of these three GA searches are listed in Table 2. Table 2 shows that Genll with highest bidding price still decreases its generation power to its lower limit even with stability constraints involved. However, in order to move the system from the unstable region to stable region, both Genl7 and Genl8, having large sensitivity factors, decrease their pumping Dower even though their offer prices are very high.
Table 2. SCOPFresult

151 . ~ A. .

%FE%
GenM Gem05 Genlm Gen07
2242
1100

PG (MW)

290 407 342 455 953

I I I I I

Genl4 Genl5 Genl6 Genl7 Genl8 Genl9 Gen20

-1743 -245 -338.4 -364.2

VI.

CONCLUSIONS

The objective of applying stability constraints to optimal power flow in power system operation is desirable and there is a pressing need for solutions to this challenging problem. By combining the time-domain simulation technique with GA techniques, a solution to tackle this SCOPF problem has been developed. The simulation results for tests on a reduced UK system have shown promising results for this approach. The traditional problem associated with the use of GAS (i.e. that they can take a long time to converge and have difficulty meeting constraints such as power balance) have been overcome by using a novel mapping algorithm within the genome decoding mechanism of the GA. This mapping mechanism has the potential to he extended so as to include the other traditional OPF security constraints (i.e. thermal and voltage constraints, as these are typically expressed as a set of linear sensitivities). This would ensure that the SCOPF presented here could easily incorporate the other security constraints of currently available OPFs. REFERENCES
lams A. Momoh. M. E. ElLHawary and Rambabu Adapa, A review of selected opimal power flaw literature to 1993, Part 1 : Nonlinear and quadratic p g p m m i n g approaches, IEEE Trans. Power Sysrems, vol. 1 4 . p ~ 96-104, . Feb. 1999. [?I J a m s A. Momoh, M. E. El-Hawary and Rambabu Adapa, A review of selected aptiml power flow literatwe to 1993, Part I1 Newton, linear p g a m m i n g and interior p i n t methods, IEEE Trans. Power Systems. vol. 14, pp. 105-111, Feb. 1999. 131 1. A Momoh, R. I. Koessler, M. S . Bond, B. Stolt. D. Sun, A. Papalexopulos and P. Ristanovic. Challenges to optiml p w e r flow,IEEE Trans. Power Syirems. vol. 12, pp. 444.455, Feb. 1997. Stability[4] Deqiang Gan, Roben J. Thomas and Kay D. Z i m r constrained optimal power flaw. IEEE Trans. Power Syslems, vol. 15, pp. 535-540, May2WO.
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A. Fouad and Tone Jianrhone. Stabilitv constrained ootimal rescheduling o f generation, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 8. pp. 105-111. Feb. 1993. 161 .~ F. Li, M. S . Gabb, C. 1. Aldridge. C. H. Cheune, R. L. Walker. T. G . Williams and M. E. Bradley, Optimal consfraint mnagement for system operations under NETA: in Pro<. 2002 IEE Power Sysrem Managemem und Control CO@, pp. 19-24. [7] A. K. David, Dispatch methodologies f a open access lransmission systems. IEEE Trans. Power Sysrems, ~01.13,pp. 46-53, W. 1998. 181 A. K. David and R.S.Fang. Security-based rescheduling o f transactions in a deregulated p w e r system IEE Proc.-Cener Transm. Di.wib..vol. 146,pp. 13-18, Jan. 1999. [91 Anastasios G . Bakinzis, Pandel N. Biskas, Christoforos E. 2 o u m s and Vasilios Petridis. Optimal p w e r flow by enhanced genetic algorithm IEEE Trans. Power Syrtems. vol. 17, pp. 229-236, May 2002. [IO] K. P. Wong, A. Li and M. Y. Law, Development of constrainedgenetic-algorithm load-flow method, IEE Pm.-Gener. Tronsm. Disrrib. vol. 144, pp. 91-99, Mar. 1997. 1111 . . A. K. David and Xuiun Lin. Dvmmic securitv enhancement in power-mket systems, IEEE Trans. Power Systems. ~01.17.pp. 431438. May 2002. [12] Da-rhong Fang, T. S . Chung, Yaa U a n g and Wennan Sang, Transient stabilitv limit conditions analvsis usine corrected tramient energy function approach. IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 15, pp. 804-810. May 2000. 1131 Ebrahim Vaahedi, Yakout Mansour, A. Y. Chang, B. R. Corns and E. K. Tse, Enhanced second I d c k mthods far on-line dynamic security assessment,IEEE Trans. Power Sysrems, val.11, pp. 19761982. Nov. 1996. [14] K. W. Chan. R.W. DUM and A. R. Daniels, Transieru and dynamic stability constraint assessment using hybrid TEF and clustering analysis. in Proc. 2WO IEEE PES Winter Meeting, vol. ?, pp. 13831388. I151 Y.Mansour, E. Vaahedi, A. Y. Chang, B. R. Corns, B. W. G m n , K. Derrwree, T. Athay and K. Cheung, B.C. Hydros on-lire transient stability a s s a m (TSA) model develapmnt, analysis and p s t processing. IEEE Trans. Power Sysiems. vol. IO, pp. 241-253, Feb.
I

1995.

BIOGRAPHIES
Mr X Zhang received his B.Sc. from Huazhong
University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, and his MSc. from Graduate Schwl of Elecvlc Power Research Institute (EPRI). Beijing, China in electric engineering resactively in 1982 and 1988. Before 1999, he had been waking in EPRI as a system engineer. He is now a research officer in the Dewmnt of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Bath. His mjm research interest is in the area of power system analysis and power system simulation.

Dr Rod Dunn received h i s B.Sc. and Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of Bath In 1981 and 1984 respectively. He bewme a lectu~er in computing and control at the University of Bath, where he is now a senior lecturer in the Power and Energy System Group. His research areas include parallel and real time computing. power system modeling and control using AI mthcds. He has published over 70 technical papers, and is a m m b e r
afthe IEEE, USA.

Dr Fumng L i was born in Shannxi. China. She received her BEng in Elecuical Engineering from
Hohai University, China in 1990. and PhD in 1997 with a thesis on Applications o f Genetic Algorithms in Optimal Operation of Electric Power System. She then took up a lectureship in the Power and Energy Systems Group at the University of Bath. Her mja research interest is in the area of economic and secure operation of p w e r systems.

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