Supernovae

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Contents
Articles
Introduction
Supernova Supernova remnant History of supernova observation Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae 1 1 22 25 32 34 34 40 42 51 51 54 56 57 59 75 76 76 78 98 102 108 112 114 116 116 123 125 127

Types of Supernova
Type Ia Type Ib and Ic Type II

Structure
Pair-instability supernova Supernova nucleosynthesis p-process r-process Gamma-ray burst Carbon detonation

Selected supernovae
SN 185 Crab Supernova Tycho's Supernova SN 1987A SN 1006 SN 2003fg SN 2007bi

Selected supernova remnants

Crab Nebula Vela Supernova Remnant Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3

Supernovae and Earth

Near-Earth supernova Supernova Early Warning System

127 129 131 131 133 134 134 135 141 142 143 144 144

Research
High-z Supernova Search Team Texas Supernova Search Nearby Supernova Factory Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey Sloan Digital Sky Survey Supernova/Acceleration Probe Supernova Cosmology Project Supernova Legacy Survey

Other
Supernovae in fiction

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 147 150

Article Licenses
License 152

Introduction
Supernova
A supernova (abbreviated SN, plural SNe after supernovae) is a stellar explosion that is more energetic than a nova. It is pronounced pron.: /suprnov/ with the plural supernovae /suprnovi/ or supernovas. Supernovae are extremely luminous and cause a burst of radiation that often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months. During this short interval a supernova can radiate as much energy as the Sun is expected to emit over its entire life span.[1] The explosion expels much or all of a star's material[2] at a velocity of up to 30,000km/s (10% of the speed of light), driving a shock wave[3] into the surrounding interstellar medium. This shock wave sweeps up an expanding shell of gas and dust called a supernova remnant. Nova means "new" in Latin, referring to what appears to be a very bright new star shining in the celestial sphere; the prefix "super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae which are far less luminous. The word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1931.[4] Supernovae can be triggered in one of two ways: by the sudden reignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star; or by the collapse of the core of a massive star. The core of an aging massive star may undergo sudden gravitational collapse, releasing gravitational potential energy that can create a supernova explosion. Alternatively a white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a stellar companion (either through accretion or via a merger) to raise

Educational video on supernovae explosions from NASA

SN2007ck and SN2007co in the same galaxy

Multiwavelength X-ray, infrared, and optical compilation image of Kepler's supernova remnant, SN 1604.

Supernova its core temperature enough to ignite carbon fusion, at which point it undergoes runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. Although no supernova has been observed in the Milky Way since SN 1604, supernovae remnants indicate that on average the event occurs about three times every century in the Milky Way.[5] They play a significant role in enriching the interstellar medium with higher mass elements.[6] Furthermore, the expanding shock waves from supernova explosions can trigger the formation of new stars.[7][8][9]

Observation history
Hipparchus' interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny).[10] The earliest recorded supernova, SN 185, was viewed by Chinese astronomers in 185 AD. The brightest recorded supernova was the SN 1006, which was described in detail by Chinese and Islamic astronomers.[11] The widely observed supernova SN 1054 produced the Crab Nebula. Supernovae SN 1572 and SN 1604, the latest to be observed with the naked eye in the Milky Way galaxy, had notable effects on the development of astronomy in Europe because they were used to argue against the Aristotelian idea that the universe beyond the Moon and planets was immutable.[12] Johannes Kepler began observing SN 1604 on October 17, 1604.[13] It was the second supernova to be observed in a generation (after SN 1572 seen by Tycho Brahe in Cassiopeia).[10]

The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind nebula associated with the 1054 supernova

Since the development of the telescope, the field of supernova discovery has extended to other galaxies, starting with the 1885 observation of supernova S Andromedae in the Andromeda galaxy. Supernovae provide important information on cosmological distances.[14] During the twentieth century, successful models for each type of supernova were developed, and scientists' comprehension of the role of supernovae in the star formation process is growing. American astronomers Rudolph Minkowski and Fritz Zwicky developed the modern supernova classification scheme beginning in 1941.[15] In the 1960s, astronomers found that the maximum intensities of supernova explosions could be used as standard candles, hence indicators of astronomical distances.[16] Some of the most distant supernovae recently observed appeared dimmer than expected. This supports the view that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.[17][18] Techniques were developed for reconstructing supernova explosions that have no written records of being observed. The date of the Cassiopeia A supernova event was determined from light echoes off nebulae,[19] while the age of supernova remnant RX J0852.0-4622 was estimated from temperature measurements[20] and the gamma ray emissions from the decay of titanium-44.[21] In 2009, nitrates were discovered in Antarctic ice deposits that matched the times of past supernova events.[22][23]

Discovery
Early work on what was originally believed to be simply a new category of novae was performed during the 1930s by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky at Mount Wilson Observatory.[24] The name super-novae was first used during 1931 lectures held at Caltech by Baade and Zwicky, then used publicly in 1933 at a meeting of the American Physical Society.[4] By 1938, the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use.[25] Because supernovae are relatively rare events within a galaxy, occurring about once every 50years in the Milky Way,[5] obtaining a good sample of supernovae to study requires regular monitoring of many galaxies. Supernovae in other galaxies cannot be predicted with any meaningful accuracy. Normally, when they are discovered, they are already in progress.[26] Most scientific interest in supernovaeas standard candles for

Supernova measuring distance, for examplerequire an observation of their peak luminosity. It is therefore important to discover them well before they reach their maximum. Amateur astronomers, who greatly outnumber professional astronomers, have played an important role in finding supernovae, typically by looking at some of the closer galaxies through an optical telescope and comparing them to earlier photographs.[27] Toward the end of the 20th century astronomers increasingly turned to computer-controlled telescopes and CCDs for hunting supernovae. While such systems are popular with amateurs, there are also professional installations such as the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope.[28] Recently the Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS) project has begun using a network of neutrino detectors to give early warning of a supernova in the Milky Way galaxy.[29][30] Neutrinos are particles that are produced in great quantities by a supernova explosion,[31] and they are not significantly absorbed by the interstellar gas and dust of the galactic disk. Supernova searches fall into two classes: those focused on relatively nearby events and those looking for explosions farther away. Because of the expansion of the universe, the distance to a remote object with a known emission spectrum can be estimated by measuring its Doppler shift (or redshift); on average, more distant objects recede with greater velocity than those nearby, and so have a higher redshift. Thus the search is split between high redshift and low redshift, with the boundary falling around a redshift range of z=0.10.3[32]where z is a dimensionless measure of the spectrum's frequency shift. High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate Hubble diagrams and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift.[33][34] Low redshift observations also anchor the low-distance end of the Hubble curve, which is a plot of distance versus redshift for visible galaxies.[35][36] (See also Hubble's law).

Naming convention
Supernova discoveries are reported to the International Astronomical Union's Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, which sends out a circular with the name it assigns to that supernova. The name is the marker SN followed by the year of discovery, suffixed with a one or two-letter designation. The first 26 supernovae of the year are designated with a capital letter from A to Z. Afterward pairs of lower-case letters are used: aa, ab, and so on. Hence, for example, SN2003C designates the third supernova reported in the year 2003.[37] The last supernova of 2005 was SN2005nc, indicating that it was the 367th[38] supernova found in 2005. Since 2000, professional and amateur astronomers find several hundreds of supernovae each year (572 in 2007, 261 in 2008, 390 in 2009).[39][40]

Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred: SN185, SN1006, SN1054, SN1572 (called Tycho's Nova) and SN1604 (Kepler's Star). Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only one supernova discovered that year (e.g. SN1885A, SN1907A, etc.) this last happened with SN1947A. SN, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed; since 1988, however, they have been needed every year.

SN 1994D, a type Ia supernova in the NGC 4526 galaxy (bright spot on the lower left)

Supernova

Classification
As part of the attempt to understand supernovae, astronomers have classified them according to their light curves and the absorption lines of different chemical elements that appear in their spectra. The first element for division is the presence or absence of a line caused by hydrogen. If a supernova's spectrum contains lines of hydrogen (known as the Balmer series in the visual portion of the spectrum) it is classified TypeII; otherwise it is TypeI. In each of these two types there are subdivisions according to the presence of lines from other elements or the shape of the light curve (a graph of the supernova's apparent magnitude as a function of time).[41][42]

Supernova taxonomy[42][43]
TypeI No hydrogen TypeIa Presents a singly ionized silicon (Si II) line at 615.0nm(nanometers), near peak light TypeIb/c Weak or no silicon absorption feature TypeIb Shows a non-ionized helium (He I) line at 587.6nm TypeIc Weak or no helium Type II-P/L No narrow lines TypeII-P Reaches a "plateau" in its light curve TypeII-L Displays a "linear" decrease in its light curve (linear in magnitude versus [44] time). TypeIIn Some narrow lines TypeIIb Spectrum changes to become like Type Ib

TypeII Shows hydrogen

Type II-P/L/N Type II spectrum throughout

Type I
The type I supernovae are subdivided on the basis of their spectra, with type Ia showing a strong ionised silicon absorption line. Type I supernova without this strong line are classified as types Ib and Ic, with type Ib showing strong neutral helium lines and type Ic lacking them. The light curves are all similar although type Ia are generally brighter at peak luminosity, but the light curve is not important for classification of type I supernovae. A small number of type Ia supernovae exhibit unusual features such as non-standard luminosity or broadened light curves, and these are typically classified by referring to the earliest example showing similar features. For example the sub-luminous SN2008ha is often referred to as SN2002cx-like or class Ia-2002cx.

Supernova

Type II
The supernovae of TypeII can also be sub-divided based on their spectra. While most TypeII supernova show very broad emission lines which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of kilometres per second, some such as SN2005gl have relatively narrow features in their spectra. These are called TypeIIn, where the 'n' stands for 'narrow'. A few supernovae, such as SN1987K and SN1993J, appear to change types: they show lines of hydrogen at early times, but, over a period of weeks to months, become dominated by lines of helium. The term "TypeIIb" is used to describe the combination of features normally associated with TypesII and Ib.[42]

Light curves are used to classify type II-P and type II-L supernovae

Type II supernovae with normal spectra dominated by broad hydrogen lines that remain for the life of the decline are classified on the basis of their light curves. The most common type shows a distinctive "plateau" in the light curve shortly after peak brightness where the visual luminosity stays relatively constant for several months before the decline resumes. These are called type II-P referring to the plateau. Less common are type II-L supernovae that lack a distinct plateau. The "L" signifies "linear" although the light curve is not actually a straight line. Supernovae that do not fit into the normal classifications are designated peculiar, or 'pec'.[42]

Current models
The type codes described above that astronomers give to supernovas are taxonomic in nature: the type number describes the light observed from the supernova, not necessarily its cause. For example, type Ia supernovae are produced from degenerate white dwarf progenitors by accretion of material while the spectrally similar type Ib/c are produced from massive Wolf-Rayet progenitors by core collapse. The following summarizes what astronomers currently believe are the most plausible explanations for supernovae.

Thermal Runaway
A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a stellar companion (either through accretion or via a merger) to raise its core temperature enough to ignite carbon fusion, at which point it undergoes runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. The vast majority are thought to be produced by the gradual accretion of hydrogen and some helium. Because this type of supernova ignition always occurs in stars with almost identical mass and very similar chemical composition, type Ia supernovae have very uniform properties and are useful as standard candles over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high red shift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.[45][46]

Formation of a type Ia supernova

Supernova Normal Type Ia There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. If a carbon-oxygen[47] white dwarf accreted enough matter to reach the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.38solar masses[48] (for a non-rotating star), it would no longer be able to support the bulk of its plasma through electron degeneracy pressure[49][50] and would begin to collapse. However, the current view is that this limit is not normally attained; increasing temperature and density inside the core ignite carbon fusion as the star approaches the limit (to within about 1%[51]), before collapse is initiated.[48] Within a few seconds, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes nuclear fusion, releasing enough energy (12 1044joules)[52] to unbind the star in a supernova explosion.[53] An outwardly expanding shock wave is generated, with matter reaching velocities on the order of 5,00020,000km/s, or roughly 3% of the speed of light. There is also a significant increase in luminosity, reaching an absolute magnitude of 19.3 (or 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation.[54] The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a closed binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence, and it expands to form a red giant.[55] The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion. At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen.[56][57] Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass. Despite widespread acceptance of the basic model, the exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the explosion are still unclear. Type Ia supernovae follow a characteristic light curvethe graph of luminosity as a function of timeafter the explosion. This luminosity is generated by the radioactive decay of nickel-56 through cobalt-56 to iron-56.[54] The peak luminosity of the light curve is extremely consistent across normal Type Ia supernovae, having a maximum absolute magnitude of about 19.3. This allows them to be used as a secondary[58] standard candle to measure the distance to their host galaxies.[59] Non-standard Type Ia Another model for the formation of a Type Ia explosion involves the merger of two white dwarf stars, with the combined mass momentarily exceeding the Chandrasekhar limit.[60] There is much variation in this type of explosion,[61] and in many cases there may be no supernova at all, but it is expected that they will have a broader and less luminous light curve than the more normal type Ia explosions. Abnormally bright type Ia supernovae are expected when the white dwarf already has a mass higher than the Chandrasekhar limit,[62] possibly enhanced further by asymmetry,[63] but the ejected material will have less than normal kinetic energy. There is no formal sub-classification for the non-standard type Ia supernovae.

Supernova

Core collapse
Very massive stars can undergo core collapse when nuclear fusion suddenly becomes unable to sustain the core against its own gravity; this is the cause of all types of supernova except type Ia. The collapse may cause violent expulsion of the outer layers of the star resulting in a supernova, or the release of gravitational potential energy may be insufficient and the star may collapse into a black hole or neutron star with little radiated energy. Core collapse can be caused by several different mechanisms: electron capture; exceeding the Chandrasekhar limit; pair-instability; or photodisintegration.[64][65] When a massive star develops an iron core larger than the Chandrasekhar mass it will no longer be able to support The onion-like layers of a massive, evolved star itself by electron degeneracy pressure and will collapse further to a just prior to core collapse (Not to scale) neutron star or black hole. Electron capture by magnesium in a degenerate O/Ne/Mg core causes gravitational collapse followed by explosive oxygen fusion, with very similar results. Electron-positron pair production in a large post-helium burning core removes thermodynamic support and causes initial collapse followed by runaway fusion, resulting in a pair-instability supernova. A sufficiently large and hot stellar core may generate gamma-rays energetic enough to initiate photodisintegration directly, which will cause a complete collapse of the core. The table below lists the known reasons for core collapse in massive stars, the types of star that they occur in, their associated supernova type, and the remnant produced. The metallicity is the proportion of elements other than hydrogen or helium, as compared to the Sun. The initial mass is the mass of the star prior to the supernova event, given in multiples of the Sun's mass, although the mass at the time of the supernova may be much lower. Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table. They can potentially be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous supergiants or hypergiants (including LBVs). The narrow spectral lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of circumstellar material.[66]

Core collapse scenarios by mass and metallicity[64]

Cause of collapse Progenitor star approximate initial mass 810 Supernova Type Remnant

Electron capture in a degenerate O+Ne+Mg core Iron core collapse

Faint II-P

Neutron star

1025 2540 with low or solar metallicity 2540 with very high metallicity 4090 with low metallicity

Faint II-P Normal II-P

Neutron star Black hole after fallback of material onto an initial neutron star Neutron star

II-L or II-b

None

Black hole Black hole after fallback of material onto an initial neutron star Neutron star Black hole

40 with near-solar metallicity Faint Ib/c, or hypernova with GRB 40 with very high metallicity 90 with low metallicity Ib/c None, possible gamma-ray burst (GRB)

Supernova

8
140250 with low metallicity II-P, sometimes a hypernova, possible GRB None (or luminous supernova?), possible GRB No remnant

Pair instability

Photodisintegration

250 with low metallicity

Massive black hole

When a stellar core is no longer supported against gravity it collapses in on itself with velocities reaching 70,000km/s (0.23c),[67] resulting in a rapid increase in temperature and density. What follows next depends on the mass and structure of the collapsing core, with low mass degenerate cores forming neutron stars, higher mass degenerate cores mostly collapsing completely to black holes, and non-degenerate cores undergoing runaway fusion. The initial collapse of degenerate cores is accelerated by beta decay, photodisintegration and electron capture, which causes a burst of Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements electron neutrinos. As the density increases, undergo fusion, forming an iron core (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass neutrino emission is cut off as they become and starts to collapse. The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons trapped in the core. The inner core eventually (c), causing infalling material to bounce (d) and form an outward-propagating shock front (red). The shock starts to stall (e), but it is re-invigorated by a reaches typically 30km diameter[68] and a process that may include neutrino interaction. The surrounding material is density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus, blasted away (f), leaving only a degenerate remnant. and neutron degeneracy pressure tries to halt the collapse. If the core mass is more than about 15 solar masses then neutron degeneracy is insufficient to stop the collapse and a black hole forms directly with no supernova explosion. In lower mass cores the collapse is stopped and the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100billion kelvin, 6000 times the temperature of the sun's core.[69] 'Thermal' neutrinos form as neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all flavors, and total several times the number of electron-capture neutrinos.[70] About 1046joules, approximately 10% of the star's rest mass, is converted into a ten-second burst of neutrinos which is the main output of the event.[68][71] The suddenly halted core collapse rebounds and produces a shock wave that stalls within milliseconds[72] in the outer core as energy is lost through the dissociation of heavy elements. A process that is not clearly understood is necessary to allow the outer layers of the core to reabsorb around 1044joules[73] (1foe) from the neutrino pulse, producing the visible explosion,[74] although there are also other theories on how to power the explosion.[68] Some material from the outer envelope falls back onto the neutron star, and for cores beyond about eight solar masses there is sufficient fallback to form a black hole. This fallback will reduce the kinetic energy of the explosion and the mass of expelled radioactive material, but in some situations it may also generate relativistic jets that result in a gamma-ray burst or an exceptionally luminous supernova. Collapse of massive non-degenerate cores will ignite further fusion. When the core collapse is initiated by pair instability, oxygen fusion begins and the collapse may be halted. For core masses of 4060 solar masses, the collapse halts and the star remains intact, but core collapse will occur again when a larger core has formed. For cores of around 60130 solar masses, the fusion of oxygen and heavier elements is so energetic that the entire star is disrupted, causing a supernova. At the upper end of the mass range, the supernova is unusually luminous and extremely long-lived due to many solar masses of ejected Ni56. For even larger core masses, the core temperature

Supernova becomes high enough to allow photodisintegration and the core collapses completely into a black hole.[75] Type II Stars with initial masses less than about eight times the sun, never develop a core large enough to collapse and they eventually lose their atmospheres to become white dwarfs. Stars with at least nine solar masses of material evolve in a complex fashion, progressively burning heavier elements at hotter temperatures in their cores.[68][76] The star becomes layered like an onion, with the burning of more easily fused elements occurring in larger shells.[77][78] When core collapse occurs during a supergiant phase when the star still has a hydrogen envelope, the result is a typeII supernova. The rate of mass loss of luminous stars depends on the metallicity and luminosity. Extremely luminous stars at near solar metallicity will lose all their hydrogen before they reach core collapse and so will not form a typeII supernova. At low metallicity, all stars will reach core collapse with a hydrogen envelope but sufficiently massive stars collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova.

The atypical subluminous typeII SN 1997D

Stars with an initial mass up to about 90 times the sun, or a little less at high metallicity, are expected to result in a type II-P supernova which is the most commonly observed type. At moderate to high metallicity, stars near the upper end of that mass range will have lost most of their hydrogen when core collapse occurs and the result will be a typeII-L supernova. At very low metallicity, stars of around 140250 solar masses will reach core collapse by pair instability while they still have a hydrogen atmosphere and an oxygen core and the result will be a supernova with typeII characteristics but a very large mass of ejected Ni56 and high luminosity. Type Ib and Ic These supernovae, like those of TypeII, are massive stars that undergo core collapse. However the stars which become TypesIb and Ic supernovae have lost most of their outer (hydrogen) envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a companion.[81] These stars are known as Wolf-Rayet stars, and they occur at moderate to high metallicity where continuum driven winds cause sufficiently [79] SN 2008D, a Type Ib supernova, shown in high mass loss rates. Observations of type Ib/c supernova do not match X-ray (left) and visible light (right) at the far the observed or expected occurrence of Wolf Rayet stars and alternate [80] upper end of the galaxy explanations for this type of core collapse supernova involve stars stripped of their hydrogen by binary interactions. Binary models provide a better match for the observed supernovae, with the proviso that no suitable binary helium stars have ever been observed.[82] Since a supernova explosion can occur whenever the mass of the star at the time of core collapse is low enough not to cause complete fallback to a black hole, any massive star may result in a supernova if it loses enough mass before core collapse occurs. Type Ib supernovae are the more common and result from Wolf-Rayet stars of type WC which still have helium in their atmospheres. For a narrow range of masses, stars evolve further before reaching core collapse to become WO stars with very little helium remaining and these are the progenitors of type Ic supernovae. A few percent of the TypeIc supernovae are associated with gamma ray bursts (GRB), though it is also believed that any hydrogen-stripped TypeIb or Ic supernova could produce a GRB, depending on the geometry of the

Supernova explosion.[83]

10

Light curves
The visual light curves of the different supernova types vary in shape and amplitude, based on the underlying mechanisms of the explosion, the way that visible radiation is produced, and the transparency of the ejected material. The light curves can be significantly different at other wavelengths. For example, at UV and shorter wavelengths there is an extremely luminous peak lasting just a few hours, corresponding to the shock breakout of the initial explosion, which is hardly detectable at longer wavelengths.

Comparative supernova type light curves

The light curves for typeIa are mostly very uniform, with a consistent maximum absolute magnitude and a relatively steep decline in luminosity. The energy output is driven by radioactive decay of nickel-56 (half life 6 days), which then decays to radioactive cobalt-56 (half life 77 days). These radioisotopes from material ejected in the explosion excite surrounding material to incandescence. The initial phases of the light curve decline steeply as the effective size of the photosphere decreases and trapped electromagnetic radiation is depleted. The light curve continues to decline in the B band while it may show a small shoulder in the visual at about 40 days, but this is only a hint of a secondary maximum that occurs in the infra-red as certain ionised heavy elements recombine to produce infra-red radiation and the ejecta become transparent to it. The visual light curve continues to decline at a rate slightly greater than the decay rate of the radioactive cobalt (which has the longer half life and controls the later curve), because the ejected material becomes more diffuse and less able to convert the high energy radiation into visual radiation. After several months, the light curve changes its decline rate again as positron emission becomes dominant from the remaining cobalt-56, although this portion of the light curve has been little-studied. TypeIb and Ic light curves are basically similar to typeIa although with a lower average peak luminosity. The visual light output is again due to radioactive decay being converted into visual radiation, but there is a much lower mass of nickel-56 produced in these types of explosion. The peak luminosity varies considerably and there are even occasional type Ib/c supernovae orders of magnitude more and less luminous than the norm. The most luminous type Ic supernovae are referred to as hypernovae and tend to have broadened light curves in addition to the increases peak luminosity. The source of the extra energy is thought to be relativistic jets driven by the formation of a rotating black hole, which also produce gamma-ray bursts. The light curves for typeII supernovae are characterised by a much slower decline than typeI, on the order of 0.05magnitudes per day,[84] excluding the plateau phase. The visual light output is dominated by kinetic energy rather than radioactive decay for several months, due primarily to the existence of hydrogen in the ejecta from the atmosphere of the supergiant progenitor star. In the initial explosion this hydrogen becomes heated and ionised. The majority of typeII supernovae show a prolonged plateau in their light curves as this hydrogen recombines, emitting visible light and becoming more transparent. This is then followed by a declining light curve driven by radioactive decay although slower than in typeI supernovae, due to the efficiency of conversion into light by all the hydrogen.[85] In typeII-L the plateau is absent because the progenitor had relatively little hydrogen left in its atmosphere, sufficient to appear in the spectrum but insufficient to produce a noticeable plateau in the light output. In typeIIb supernovae the hydrogen atmosphere of the progenitor is so depleted (thought to be due to tidal stripping by a companion star) that the light curve is closer to a typeI supernova and the hydrogen even disappears from the spectrum after several weeks.[44]

Supernova TypeIIn supernovae are characterised by additional narrow spectral lines produced in a dense shell of circumstellar material. Their light curves are generally very broad and extended, occasionally also extremely luminous and referred to as a hypernova. These light curves are produced by the highly efficient conversion of kinetic energy of the ejecta into electromagnetic radiation by interaction with the dense shell of material. This only occurs when the material is sufficiently dense and compact, indicating that is has been produced by the progenitor star itself only shortly before the supernova occurs. Large numbers of supernovae have been catalogued and classified to provide distance candles and test models. Average characteristics vary somewhat with distance and type of host galaxy, but can broadly be specified for each supernova type.

11

Physical properties of supernovae by type[86][87]

Typea Ia Ib/c(faint) Ib Ic Ic(bright) II-b II-L II-P(faint) II-P IInd IIn(bright) Average peak absolute magnitudeb Approximate energy (foe)c Days to peak luminosity Days from peak to 10% luminosity 19 around 15 around 17 around 16 to 22 around 17 around 17 around 14 around 16 around 17 to 22 1 0.1 1 1 above 5 1 1 0.1 1 1 above 5 approx. 19 1525 1525 1525 roughly 25 around 20 around 13 roughly 15 around 15 1230 or more above 50 around 60 unknown 40100 40100 roughly 100 around 100 around 150 unknown Plateau then around 50 50150 above 100

Notes: a. Faint types may be a distinct sub-class. Bright types may be a continuum from slightly over-luminous to hypernovae. b. These magnitudes are measured in the R band. Measurements in V or B bands are common and will be around half a magnitude brighter for supernovae. c. Order of magnitude kinetic energy. Total electromagnetic radiated energy is usually lower, (theoretical) neutrino energy much higher. d. Probably a heterogeneous group, any of the other types embedded in nebulosity.

Supernova

12

Asymmetry
A long-standing puzzle surrounding Type II supernovae is why the compact object remaining after the explosion is given a large velocity away from the core.[89] (Neutron stars are observed, as pulsars, to have high velocities; black holes presumably do as well, but are far harder to observe in isolation.) The initial impetus can be substantial, propelling an object of more than a solar mass at a velocity of 500km/s or greater. This displacement indicates an asymmetry in the explosion, but the mechanism by which this momentum is transferred to the compact object remains a puzzle. Proposed explanations for this kick include convection in the collapsing star and jet production during neutron star formation. One possible explanation for the asymmetry in the explosion is large-scale convection above the core. The convection can create variations in the local abundances of elements, resulting in uneven nuclear burning during the collapse, bounce and resulting explosion.[90]
The pulsar in the Crab nebula is travelling at [88] 375km/s relative to the nebula.

Another possible explanation is that accretion of gas onto the central neutron star can create a disk that drives highly directional jets, propelling matter at a high velocity out of the star, and driving transverse shocks that completely disrupt the star. These jets might play a crucial role in the resulting supernova explosion.[91][92] (A similar model is now favored for explaining long gamma ray bursts.) Initial asymmetries have also been confirmed in TypeIa supernova explosions through observation. This result may mean that the initial luminosity of this type of supernova depends on the viewing angle. However, the explosion becomes more symmetrical with the passage of time. Early asymmetries are detectable by measuring the polarization of the emitted light.[93]

Energy output
Although we are used to thinking of supernovae primarily as luminous visible events, the electromagnetic radiation they produce is almost a minor side-effect of the explosion. Particularly in the case of core collapse supernovae, the emitted electromagnetic radiation is a tiny fraction of the total event energy. There is a fundamental difference between the balance of energy production in the different types of supernova. In type Ia white dwarf detonations, most of the explosion energy is directed into heavy The radioactive decays of nickel-56 and cobalt-56 element synthesis and kinetic energy of the ejecta. In core collapse that produce a supernova visible light curve supernovae, the vast majority of the energy is directed into neutrino emission, and while some of this apparently powers the main explosion 99%+ of the neutrinos escape in the first few minutes following the start of the collapse. Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway nuclear fusion of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. Details of the energetics are still not fully modelled, but the end result is the ejection of the entire mass of the original star with high kinetic energy. Around half a solar mass of this is Ni56 generated from silicon burning. Ni56 is radioactive and generates Co56 by beta plus decay with a half life of six days, plus gamma rays. Co56 itself decays by the beta plus path with a half life of 77 days to stable Fe56. These two processes are responsible for the electromagnetic radiation from type Ia supernovae. In combination with the changing transparency of the ejected material, they produce the

Supernova rapidly declining light curve.[94] Core collapse supernovae are on average visually fainter than type Ia supernovae, but the total energy released is far higher. This is driven by gravitational potential energy from the core collapse, initially producing electron neutrinos from disintegrating nucleons, followed by all flavours of thermal neutrinos from the super-heated neutron star core. Around 1% of these neutrinos are thought to deposit sufficient energy into the outer layers of the star to drive the resulting explosion, but again the details cannot be reproduced exactly in current models. Kinetic energies and nickel yields are somewhat lower than type Ia supernovae, hence the reduced visual luminosity, but energy from the ionisation of the many solar masses of remaining hydrogen can contribute to a much slower decline in luminosity and produce the plateau phase seen in the majority of core collapse supernovae.

13

Energetics of supernovae
Supernova Approximate total energy (foe)c 1.5 100 100 [75] 5100 Ejected Ni (solar masses) Neutrino energy (foe) 0.1 100 100 low? Kinetic energy (foe) 1.3 1.4 1 1 1100 Electromagnetic radiation (foe) ~0.01 0.001 0.01 ~0.1 0.01 0.1

TypeIa

[94][95][96] [97][98]

0.4 0.8 (0.01) 1 ~1 0.5 50

Corecollapse Hypernova

Pairinstability

In some core collapse supernovae, fallback onto a black hole drives relativistic jets which may produce a brief energetic and directional burst of gamma-rays and also transfers substantial further energy into the ejected material. This is one scenario for producing high luminosity supernovae and is thought to be the cause of type Ic hypernovae and long duration gamma-ray bursts. If the relativistic jets are too brief and fail to penetrate the stellar envelope then a low luminosity gamma-ray burst may be produced and the supernova may be sub-luminous. When a supernova occurs inside a small dense cloud of circumstellar material then it will produce a shock wave that can efficiently convert a high fraction of the kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation. Even though the initial explosion energy was entirely normal the resulting supernova will have high luminosity and extended duration since it does not rely on exponential radioactive decay. This type of event may cause type IIn hypernovae. Although pair-instability supernovae are core collapse supernovae with spectra and light curves similar to type II-P, the nature of the explosion following core collapse is more like a giant type Ia with runaway fusion of carbon, oxygen, and silicon. The total energy released by the highest mass events is comparable to other core collapse supernovae but neutrino production is thought to be very low, hence the kinetic and electromagnetic energy is very high. The cores of these stars are much larger than any white dwarf and the amount of radioactive nickel and other heavy elements ejected can be orders of magnitude higher, with consequently high visual luminosity.

Progenitor
The supernova classification type is closely tied to the type of star at the time of the explosion. The occurrence of each type of supernova depends dramatically on the metallicity and hence the age of the host galaxy. Type Ia supernovae are produced from white dwarf stars in binary systems and occur in all galaxy types. Core collapse supernovae are only found in galaxies undergoing current or very recent star formation, since they result from short-lived massive stars. They are most commonly found in type Sc spirals, but also in the arms of other spiral galaxies and in irregular galaxies, especially starburst galaxies. Type Ib/c and II-L, and possibly most type IIn, supernovae are only thought to be produced from stars having near-solar metallicity levels that result in high mass loss from massive stars, hence they are less common in older

Supernova more distant galaxies. The table shows the expected progenitor for the main types of core collapse supernova, and the approximate proportions of each in the local neighbourhood.

14

Fraction of core collapse supernovae types by progenitor[43]

Type Ib Ic II-P II-L IIn IIb WC Wolf-Rayet WO Wolf-Rayet Supergiant Supergiant with a depleted hydrogen shell Supergiant in a dense cloud of expelled material (such as LBV) Progenitor star Fraction 10% 10% 70% 10% low

Supergiant with highly depleted hydrogen (stripped by companion?) low

There are a number of difficulties reconciling modelled and observed stellar evolution leading up to core collapse supernovae. Red supergiants are the expected progenitors for the vast majority of core collapse supernovae, and these have been observed but only at relatively low masses. It is now proposed that higher mass red supergiants do not explode as supernovae, but instead evolve back to blue supergiants.[99] Until just a few decades ago, hot supergiants were not considered likely to explode, but observations have shown otherwise. Blue supergiants form a high proportion of confirmed supernova progenitors, partly due to their high luminosity, while not a single Wolf Rayet progenitor has yet been confirmed.[100] The expected progenitors of type Ib supernovae, luminous WC stars, are not observed at all. Instead WC stars are found at lower luminosities, apparently post-red supergiant stars. WO stars are extremely rare and visually relatively faint, so it is difficult to say whether such progenitors are missing or just yet to be observed. Models have had difficulty showing how blue supergiants lose enough mass to reach supernova without progressing to a different evolutionary stage. One study has shown a possible route for low-luminosity post-red supergiant luminous blue variables to collapse, most likely as a type IIn supernova.[101] Very recently, a small number of yellow supergiant supernova progenitors have been detected. Again these are difficult to explain, requiring unexpectedly high mass loss rates.[102]

Interstellar impact
Source of heavy elements
Supernovae are a key source of elements heavier than oxygen.[103] These elements are produced by nuclear fusion (for iron-56 and lighter elements), and by nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion for elements heavier than iron.[104] Supernovae are the most likely, although not undisputed, candidate sites for the r-process, which is a rapid form of nucleosynthesis that occurs under conditions of high temperature and high density of neutrons. The reactions produce highly unstable nuclei that are rich in neutrons. These forms are unstable and rapidly beta decay into more stable forms. The r-process reaction, which is likely to occur in type II supernovae, produces about half of all the element abundance beyond iron, including plutonium and uranium.[105] The only other major competing process for producing elements heavier than iron is the s-process in large, old red giant stars, which produces these elements much more slowly, and which cannot produce elements heavier than lead.[106]

Supernova

15

Role in stellar evolution

The remnant of a supernova explosion consists of a compact object and a rapidly expanding shock wave of material. This cloud of material sweeps up the surrounding interstellar medium during a free expansion phase, which can last for up to two centuries. The wave then gradually undergoes a period of adiabatic expansion, and will slowly cool and mix with the surrounding interstellar medium over a period of about 10,000years.[107] The Big Bang produced hydrogen, helium, and traces of lithium, while all heavier elements are synthesized in stars and supernovae. Supernovae tend to enrich the surrounding interstellar medium with metalselements other than hydrogen and helium. These injected elements ultimately enrich the molecular clouds that are the sites of star formation.[108] Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may decisively influence the

Supernova remnant N 63A lies within a clumpy region of gas and dust in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

possibility of having planets orbiting it. The kinetic energy of an expanding supernova remnant can trigger star formation due to compression of nearby, dense molecular clouds in space.[109] The increase in turbulent pressure can also prevent star formation if the cloud is unable to lose the excess energy.[7] Evidence from daughter products of short-lived radioactive isotopes shows that a nearby supernova helped determine the composition of the Solar System 4.5billion years ago, and may even have triggered the formation of this system.[110] Supernova production of heavy elements over astronomic periods of time ultimately made the chemistry of life on Earth possible.

Effect on Earth
A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its biosphere. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3000light-years away. Gamma rays from a supernova would induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful solar and cosmic radiation. This has been proposed as the cause of the OrdovicianSilurian extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.[111] In 1996 it was theorized that traces of past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of metal isotope signatures in rock strata. Iron-60 enrichment was later reported in deep-sea rock of the Pacific Ocean.[112][113][114] In 2009, elevated levels of nitrate ions were found in Antarctic ice, which coincided with the 1006 and 1054 supernovae. Gamma rays from these supernovae could have boosted levels of nitrogen oxides, which became trapped in the ice.[115] TypeIa supernovae are thought to be potentially the most dangerous if they occur close enough to the Earth. Because these supernovae arise from dim, common white dwarf stars, it is likely that a supernova that can affect the Earth will occur unpredictably and in a star system that is not well studied. One theory suggests that a TypeIa supernova would have to be closer than a thousand parsecs (3300light-years) to affect the Earth.[116] The closest known candidate is IK Pegasi (see below).[117] Recent estimates predict that a TypeII supernova would have to be closer than eight parsecs (26light-years) to destroy half of the Earth's ozone layer.[118]

Supernova

16

Milky Way candidates

Several large stars within the Milky Way have been suggested as possible supernovae within the next million years. These include Rho Cassiopeiae,[120] Eta Carinae,[121][122] RS Ophiuchi,[123][124] U Scorpii,[125] VY Canis Majoris,[126] Betelgeuse, Antares, and Spica.[127] Many WolfRayet stars, such as Gamma Velorum,[128] WR 104,[129] and those in the Quintuplet Cluster,[130] are also considered possible precursor stars to a supernova explosion in the 'near' future. The nearest supernova candidate is IK Pegasi (HR 8210), located at a distance of 150light-years. This closely orbiting binary star system consists of a main sequence star and a white dwarf 31millionkilometres apart. The dwarf has an estimated mass 1.15 times that of the Sun.[131] It is thought that several million years will pass before the white dwarf can accrete the critical mass required to become a TypeIa supernova.[132][133]

The nebula around WolfRayet star WR124, which is located at a distance of about 21,000 [119] light years.

Notes
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"Explosion Mechanisms of Core-Collapse Supernovae". arXiv:1206.2503v1[astro-ph.SR]. [98] Smartt (2009). "Progenitors of core-collapse supernovae". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 47: 63106. arXiv:0908.0700v2. Bibcode2009ARA&A..47...63S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101737. [99] Walmswell, J. J.; Eldridge, J. J. (2012). "Circumstellar dust as a solution to the red supergiant supernova progenitor problem". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 419 (3): 2054. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19860.x. [100] Yoon, S. -C.; Grfener, G.; Vink, J. S.; Kozyreva, A.; Izzard, R. G. (2012). "On the nature and detectability of Type Ib/c supernova progenitors". Astronomy & Astrophysics 544: L11. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219790. [101] Groh, J. H.; Meynet, G.; Ekstrm, S. (2013). "Massive star evolution: Luminous blue variables as unexpected supernova progenitors". Astronomy & Astrophysics 550: L7. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220741. [102] Georgy, C. (2012). 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[104] Woosley, S. E.; Arnett, W. D.; Clayton, D. D. (1973). "The Explosive Burning of Oxygen and Silicon". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 26: 231312. Bibcode1973ApJS...26..231W. doi:10.1086/190282. [105] Qian, Y.-Z.; Vogel, P.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1998). "Diverse Supernova Sources for the r-Process". Astrophysical Journal 494 (1): 285296. arXiv:astro-ph/9706120. Bibcode1998ApJ...494..285Q. doi:10.1086/305198. [106] Gonzalez, G.; Brownlee, D.; Ward, P. (2001). "The Galactic Habitable Zone: Galactic Chemical Evolution" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060912184254/ http:/ / isotope. colorado. edu/ ~astr5835/ Gonzalez+ et+ al. + 2001. pdf). Icarus 152 (1): 185200. arXiv:astro-ph/0103165. Bibcode2001Icar..152..185G. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6617. Archived from the original (http:/ / isotope. colorado. edu/ ~astr5835/ Gonzalez et al. 2001. pdf) on 2006-09-12. . [107] "Introduction to Supernova Remnants" (http:/ / heasarc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ objects/ snrs/ snrstext. html). High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center, NASA. 2006-09-07. . Retrieved 2006-10-20. [108] Kulyk, C. L. (2006-06-19). "Explosive Debate: Supernova Dust Lost and Found" (http:/ / www. space. com/ 2502-explosive-debate-supernova-dust-lost. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-12-01. [109] Preibisch, T.; Zinnecker, H. (2001). "Triggered Star Formation in the Scorpius-Centaurus OB Association (Sco OB2)". ASP Conference Proceedings, From Darkness to Light: Origin and Evolution of Young Stellar Clusters. 243. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p.791. Bibcode2001ASPC..243..791P. [110] Taylor, G. J. (2003-05-21). "Triggering the Formation of the Solar System" (http:/ / www. psrd. hawaii. edu/ May03/ SolarSystemTrigger. html). Planetary Science Research. . Retrieved 2006-10-20. [111] Melott, A. et al. (2004). "Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction?". International Journal of Astrobiology 3 (2): 5561. arXiv:astro-ph/0309415. Bibcode2004IJAsB...3...55M. doi:10.1017/S1473550404001910. [112] "Researchers Detect 'Near Miss' Supernova Explosion" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060901084028/ http:/ / www. las. uiuc. edu/ alumni/ news/ fall2005/ 05fall_supernova. html). University of Illinois College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Fall/Winter 20052006. pp.17. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. las. uiuc. edu/ alumni/ news/ fall2005/ 05fall_supernova. html) on 2006-09-01. . Retrieved 2007-02-01. [113] Knie, K. et al. (2004). "60Fe Anomaly in a Deep-Sea Manganese Crust and Implications for a Nearby Supernova Source". Physical Review Letters 93 (17): 171103171106. Bibcode2004PhRvL..93q1103K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.171103. [114] Fields, B. D.; Ellis, J. (1999). "On Deep-Ocean Fe-60 as a Fossil of a Near-Earth Supernova". New Astronomy 4 (6): 419430. arXiv:astro-ph/9811457. Bibcode1999NewA....4..419F. doi:10.1016/S1384-1076(99)00034-2. [115] Matson, J. (May 2009). "Supernovae in Ice" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110720125619/ http:/ / net. planet. ee/ raamat/ ScientificAmerican2009/ 05_Scientific_American_-_May_2009. pdf). Scientific American 300 (5): 28. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0509-28a. . [116] See section 4 in Richmond, M. (2005-04-08). "Will a Nearby Supernova Endanger Life on Earth?" (http:/ / www. tass-survey. org/ richmond/ answers/ snrisks. txt). . Retrieved 2006-03-30. [117] Gorelick, M. (2007). "The Supernova Menace". Sky & Telescope 113: 26. Bibcode2007S&T...113c..26G. [118] Gehrels, N. et al. (2003). "Ozone Depletion from Nearby Supernovae". Astrophysical Journal 585 (2): 11691176. arXiv:astro-ph/0211361. Bibcode2003ApJ...585.1169G. doi:10.1086/346127. [119] van der Sluys, M,; Lamers, H. J. G. L. M. (2003). "The dynamics of the WolfRayet ring nebula M1-67" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030701105918/ http:/ / www. astro. uu. nl/ ~sluys/ M1-67/ ). Astronomical Institute of Utrecht. . Retrieved 2007-06-07. 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[131] Landsman, W.; Simon, T.; Bergeron, P. (1999). "The hot white-dwarf companions of HR 1608, HR 8210, and HD 15638". Astronomical Society of the Pacific 105 (690): 841847. Bibcode1993PASP..105..841L. doi:10.1086/133242. [132] Samuel, E. (2002-05-23). "Supernova poised to go off near Earth" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn2311). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2007-01-12. [133] Tzekova, S. Y.; et al. (2004). "IK Pegasi (HR 8210)" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ outreach/ eduoff/ edu-prog/ catchastar/ CAS2004/ casreports-2004/ rep-310/ ). European Southern Observatory. . Retrieved 2007-01-12.

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References Further reading

Bethe, H. (September 1990). "SUPERNOVAE. By what mechanism do massive stars explode?" (http://web. archive.org/web/20110611231333/http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-43/iss-9/vol43no9p24_27.pdf). Physics Today 43 (9): 2427. Bibcode1990PhT....43i..24B. doi:10.1063/1.881256. Croswell, K. (1996). The Alchemy of the Heavens: Searching for Meaning in the Milky Way. Anchor Books. ISBN0-385-47214-5. A popular-science account. Filippenko, A. V. (1997). "Optical Spectra of Supernovae". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 35 (1): 309355. Bibcode1997ARA&A..35..309F. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.35.1.309. An article describing spectral classes of supernovae. Takahashi, K.; Sato, K.; Burrows, A.; Thompson, T. A. (2003). "Supernova Neutrinos, Neutrino Oscillations, and the Mass of the Progenitor Star". Physical Review D 68 (11): 7781. arXiv:hep-ph/0306056. Bibcode2003PhRvD..68k3009T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.68.113009. A good review of supernova events. Hillebrandt, W.; Janka, H.-T.; Mller, E. (2006). "How to Blow Up a Star" (http://www.scientificamerican. com/article.cfm?id=how-to-blow-up-a-star). Scientific American 295 (4): 4249. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1006-42. Woosley, S.; Janka, H.-T. (2005). "The Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae". Nature Physics 1 (3): 147154. arXiv:astro-ph/0601261. Bibcode2005NatPh...1..147W. doi:10.1038/nphys172.

External links
"RSS news feed" (http://www.astronomerstelegram.org/?rss+supernova) (RSS). The Astronomer's Telegram. Retrieved 2006-11-28. Tsvetkov, D. Yu.; Pavlyuk, N. N.; Bartunov, O. S.; Pskovskii, Yu. P.. "Sternberg Astronomical Institute Supernova Catalogue" (http://www.sai.msu.su/sn/sncat/). Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow University. Retrieved 2006-11-28. A searchable catalog.*Tsvetkov, D. Yu.; Pavlyuk, N. N.; Bartunov, O. S.; Pskovskii, Yu. P.. "Sternberg Astronomical Institute Supernova Catalogue" (http://www.sai.msu.su/sn/sncat/ ). Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow University. Retrieved 2006-11-28. A searchable catalog. Anonymous (2011-09-04). "The Boom Next Door" (http://kabummer.com/2011/09/the-great-boom-next-door/ ). Kabummer.com. Retrieved 2011-09-04. A short note on SN 2011fe Supernova, the closest supernova after 30 years. Anonymous (2007-01-18). "BoomCode" (http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/BoomCode). WikiUniversity. Retrieved 2007-03-17. Professional-grade typeII supernova simulator on Wikiversity. "List of Supernovae with IAU Designations" (http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/lists/RecentSupernovae. html). IAU: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. Retrieved 2010-10-25. Overbye, D. (2008-05-21). "Scientists See Supernova in Action" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/22/ science/22nova.html). The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-21.

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Supernova remnant
A supernova remnant (SNR) is the structure resulting from the explosion of a star in a supernova. The supernova remnant is bounded by an expanding shock wave, and consists of ejected material expanding from the explosion, and the interstellar material it sweeps up and shocks along the way. There are two common routes to a supernova: either a massive star may run out of fuel, ceasing to generate fusion energy in its core, and collapsing inward under the force of its own gravity to form a neutron star or a black hole; or a white dwarf star may accumulate (accrete) material from a companion star until it reaches a critical mass and undergoes a thermonuclear explosion. In either case, the resulting supernova explosion expels much or all of the stellar material with velocities as much as 10% the speed of light, that is, about 30,000km/s. These ejecta are highly supersonic: assuming a typical temperature of the interstellar medium of 10,000K, the Mach number can initially be >1000. Therefore, a strong shock wave forms ahead of the ejecta, that heats the upstream plasma up to temperatures well above millions ofK. The shock continuously slows down over time as it sweeps up the ambient medium, but it can expand over hundreds of thousands of years and over tens of parsecs before its speed falls below the local sound speed. One of the best observed young supernova remnants was formed by SN 1987A, a supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud that was observed in February 1987. Other well-known supernova remnants include the Crab Nebula, Tycho, the remnant of SN 1572, named after Tycho Brahe who recorded the brightness of its original explosion, and Kepler, the remnant of SN 1604, named after Johannes Kepler. The youngest known remnant in our galaxy is G1.9+0.3, discovered in the galactic center.[1]

Multiwavelength composite image of the remnant of Kepler's supernova, SN 1604.

Multiwavelength composite image of the remnant of Tycho's supernova, SN 1572.

Summary of stages
An SNR passes through the following stages as it expands: 1. Free expansion of the ejecta, until they sweep up their own weight in circumstellar or interstellar medium. This can last tens to a few hundred years depending on the density of the surrounding gas. 2. Sweeping up of a shell of shocked circumstellar and interstellar gas. This begins the Sedov-Taylor phase, which can be well modeled by a self-similar analytic solution. Strong X-ray emission traces the strong shock waves and hot shocked gas.

Multiwavelength composite image of the supernova remnant N49 in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

3. Cooling of the shell, to form a thin (< 1 pc), dense (1-100 million atoms per cubic metre) shell surrounding the hot (few million kelvin) interior. This is the pressure-driven snowplow phase. The shell can be clearly seen in

Supernova remnant optical emission from recombining ionized hydrogen and ionized oxygen atoms. 4. Cooling of the interior. The dense shell continues to expand from its own momentum. This stage is best seen in the radio emission from neutral hydrogen atoms. 5. Merging with the surrounding interstellar medium. When the supernova remnant slows to the speed of the random velocities in the surrounding medium, after roughly 30,000 years, it will merge into the general turbulent flow, contributing its remaining kinetic energy to the turbulence.

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Types of supernova remnant

There are three types of supernova remnant: Shell-like, such as Cassiopeia A Composite, in which a shell contains a central pulsar wind nebula, such as G11.2-0.3 or G21.5-0.9. Mixed-morphology (also called "thermal composite") remnants, in which central thermal X-ray emission is seen, enclosed by a radio shell. The thermal X-rays are primarily from swept-up interstellar material, rather than supernova ejecta. Examples of this class include the SNRs W28 and W44. (Confusingly, W44 additionally contains a pulsar and pulsar wind nebula; so it is simultaneously both a "classic" composite and a thermal composite.)

Origin of cosmic rays

Supernova remnants are considered the major source of galactic cosmic rays.[2][3][4] The connection between cosmic rays and supernovas was first suggested by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934. Vitaly Ginzburg and Sergei Syrovatskii in 1964 remarked that if the efficiency of cosmic ray acceleration in supernova remnants is about 10 percent, the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way are compensated. This hypothesis is supported by a specific mechanism called "shock wave acceleration" based on Enrico Fermi's ideas, which is still under development. Indeed, Enrico Fermi proposed in 1949 a model for the acceleration of cosmic rays through particle collisions with magnetic clouds in the The remnant of SN 1006 observed in X-rays. The interstellar medium.[5] This process, known as the "Second Order inner emission comes from the hot plasma, Fermi Mechanism", increases particle energy during head-on whereas the two bright caps are produced by collisions, resulting in a steady gain in energy. A later model to electrons accelerated at the shock front. produce Fermi Acceleration was generated by a powerful shock front moving through space. Particles that repeatedly cross the front of the shock can gain significant increases in energy. This became known as the "First Order Fermi Mechanism".[6] Supernova remnants can provide the energetic shock fronts required to generate ultra-high energy cosmic rays. Observation of the SN 1006 remnant in the X-ray has shown synchrotron emission consistent with it being a source of cosmic rays.[2] However, for energies higher than about 1015 eV a different mechanism is required as supernova remnants cannot provide sufficient energy.[6] It is still unclear whether supernova remnants accelerate cosmic rays up to PeV energies. The future telescope CTA will help to answer this question.

Supernova remnant

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References
[1] Discovery of most recent supernova in our galaxy (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ press/ 08_releases/ press_051408. html) May 14, 2008 [2] K. Koyama, R. Petre, E.V. Gotthelf, U. Hwang, M. Matsuura, M. Ozaki, S. S. Holt (1995). "Evidence for shock acceleration of high-energy electrons in the supernova remnant SN1006". Nature 378 (6554): 255258. Bibcode1995Natur.378..255K. doi:10.1038/378255a0. [3] "Supernova produces cosmic rays" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3981619. stm). BBC News. November 4, 2004. . Retrieved 2006-11-28. [4] "SNR and Cosmic Ray Acceleration" (http:/ / imagine. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ features/ topics/ snr_group/ cosmic_rays. html). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. . Retrieved 2007-02-08. [5] E. Fermi (1949). "On the Origin of the Cosmic Radiation". Physical Review 75 (8): 11691174. Bibcode1949PhRv...75.1169F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.75.1169. [6] "Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays" (http:/ / www. cosmic-ray. org/ reading/ uhecr. html). University of Utah. . Retrieved 2006-08-10.

External links
Galactic SNR Catalogue (http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/surveys/snrs/) (D. A. Green, University of Cambridge) Chandra observations of supernova remnants: catalog (http://hea-www.cfa.harvard.edu/ChandraSNR/), photo album (http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/category/snr.html), selected picks (http://www2.astro.psu.edu/ users/green/Main/main5.html) 2MASS images of Supernova Remnants (http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/2mass/gallery/images_snrs.html) NASA: Introduction to Supernova Remnants (http://agile.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/objects/snrs/snrstext.html) NASA's Imagine: Supernova Remnants (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/ supernova_remnants.html) Afterlife of a Supernova (http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/afterlife_supernova.html) on UniverseToday.com Supernova remnant (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=2&index1=59244) on arxiv.org

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History of supernova observation

The known history of supernova observation goes back to 185 CE, when supernova SN 185 appeared, the oldest appearance of a supernova recorded by humankind. Several additional supernovae within the Milky Way galaxy have been recorded since that time, with SN 1604 being the most recent supernova to be observed in this galaxy.[1] Since the development of the telescope, the field of supernova discovery has expanded to other galaxies. These occurrences provide important information on the distances of galaxies. Successful models of supernova behavior have also been developed, and the role of supernova in the star formation process is now increasingly understood.

Early history

The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind nebula associated with the 1054 supernova.

The supernova explosion that formed the Vela Supernova Remnant most likely occurred 10,00020,000 years ago. In 1976, NASA astronomers suggested that inhabitants of the southern hemisphere may have witnessed this explosion and recorded it symbolically. A year later, archaeologist George Michanowsky recalled some incomprehensible ancient markings in Bolivia that were left by Native Americans. The carvings showed four small circles flanked by two larger circles. The smaller circles resemble stellar groupings in the constellations Vela and Carina. One of the larger circles may represent the star Capella. Another circle is located near the position of the supernova remnant, George Michanowsky suggested this may represent the supernova explosion as witnessed by the indigenous residents.[2] In 185 CE, Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a bright star in the sky, and observed that it took about eight months to fade from the sky. It was observed to sparkle like a star and did not move across the heavens like a comet. These observations are consistent with the appearance of a supernova, and this is believed to be the oldest confirmed record of a supernova event by humankind. SN 185 may have also possibly been recorded in Roman literature, though no records have survived.[3] The gaseous shell RCW 86 is suspected as being the remnant of this event, and recent X-ray studies show a good match for the expected age.[4] In 393 CE, the Chinese recorded the appearance of another "guest star", SN 393, in the modern constellation of Scorpius.[5] Additional unconfirmed supernovae events may have been observed in 369 CE, 386 CE, 437 CE, 827 CE and 902 CE.[1] However these have not yet been associated with a supernova remnant, and so they remain only candidates. Over a span of about 2,000 years, Chinese astronomers recorded a total of twenty such candidate events, including later explosions noted by Islamic, European, and possibly Indian and other observers.[1][6] The supernova SN 1006 appeared in the southern constellation of Lupus during the year 1006 CE. This was the brightest recorded star ever to appear in the night sky, and its presence was noted in China, Egypt, Iraq, Italy, Japan and Switzerland. It may also have been noted in France, Syria, and North America. Egyptian physician, astronomer and astrologer Ali ibn Ridwan gave the brightness of this star as one-quarter the brightness of the Moon. Modern astronomers have discovered the faint remnant of this explosion and determined that it was only 7,100 light-years from the Earth.[7]

History of supernova observation

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Supernova SN 1054 was another widely-observed event, with Arab, Chinese, and Japanese astronomers recording the star's appearance in 1054 CE. It may also have been recorded by the Anasazi as a petroglyph.[8] This explosion appeared in the constellation of Taurus, where it produced the Crab Nebula remnant. At its peak, the luminosity of SN 1054 may have been four times as bright as Venus, and it remained visible in daylight for 23 days and was visible in the night sky for 653 days.[9][10] There are fewer records of supernova SN 1181, which occurred in the constellation Cassiopeia just over a century after SN 1054. It was noted by Chinese and Japanese astronomers, however. The pulsar 3C58 may be the stellar relic from this event.[11]
Multiwavelength X-ray image of SN 1572 or Tycho's The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was noted for his careful Nova observations of the night sky from his observatory on the island of Hven. In 1572 he noted the appearance of a new star, also in the constellation Cassiopeia. Later called SN 1572, this supernova was associated with a remnant during the 1960s.[12]

A common belief in Europe during this period was the Aristotelian idea that the world beyond the Moon and planets was immutable. So observers argued that the phenomenon was something in the Earth's atmosphere. However Tycho noted that the object remained stationary from night to nightnever changing its parallaxso it must lie far away.[13][14] He published his observations in the small book De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella (Latin for "Concerning the new and previously unseen star") in 1573. It is from the title of this book that the modern word nova for cataclysmic variable stars is derived.[15] The most recent supernova to be seen in the Milky Way galaxy was SN 1604, which was observed October 9, 1604. Several people noted the sudden appearance of this star, but it was Johannes Kepler who became noted for his systematic study of the object. He published his observations in the work De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii.[16] Galileo, like Tycho before him, tried in vain to measure the parallax of this new star, and then argued against the Aristotelian view of an immutable heavens.[17] The remnant of this supernova was identified in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory.[18]

Telescope observation

Multiwavelength X-ray image of the remnant of Kepler's Supernova, SN 1604. (Chandra X-ray Observatory)

The true nature of the supernova remained obscure for some time. Observers slowly came to recognize a class of stars that undergo long-term periodic fluctuations in luminosity. Both John Russell Hind in 1848 and Norman Pogson in 1863 had charted stars that underwent sudden changes in brightness. However these received little attention from the astronomical community. Finally, in 1866, English astronomer William Huggins made the first spectroscopic observations of a nova, discovering lines of hydrogen in the unusual spectrum of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis.[19] Huggins proposed a cataclysmic explosion as the underlying mechanism, and his efforts drew interest from other astronomers.[20]

History of supernova observation

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In 1885, a nova-like outburst was observed in the direction of the Andromeda galaxy by Ernst Hartwig in Estonia. SAndromedae increased to 6th magnitude, outshining the entire nucleus of the galaxy, then faded in a manner much like a nova. In 1917, George W. Ritchey measured the distance to the Andromeda galaxy and discovered it lay much farther than had previously been thought. This meant that SAndromedae, which did not just lie along the line of sight to the galaxy but had actually resided in the nucleus, released a much greater amount of energy than was typical for a nova.[21]

Animation showing R.A. and Dec. of supernovae discovered since 1885. Some recent survey contributions are highlighted in color.

Early work on this new category of nova was performed during the 1930s by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky at Mount Wilson Observatory.[22] They identified SAndromedae, what they considered a typical supernova, as an explosive event that released radiation approximately equal to the Sun's total energy output for 107 years. They decided to call this new class of cataclysmic variables super-novae, and postulated that the energy was generated by the gravitational collapse of ordinary stars into neutron stars.[23] The name super-novae was first used in a 1931 lecture at Caltech by Zwicky, then used publicly in 1933 at a meeting of the American Physical Society. By 1938, the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use.[24] Although supernovae are relatively rare events, occurring on average about once every 50 years in the Milky Way,[25] observations of distant galaxies allowed supernovae to be discovered and examined more frequently. The first supernova detection patrol was begun by Zwicky in 1933. He was joined by Josef J. Johnson from Caltech in 1936. Using a 45-cm Schmidt telescope at Palomar observatory, they discovered twelve new supernovae within three years by comparing new photographic plates to reference images of extragalactic regions.[26] In 1938, Walter Baade became the first astronomer to identify a nebula as a supernova remnant when he suggested that the Crab Nebula was the remains of SN 1054. He noted that, while it had the appearance of a planetary nebula, the measured velocity of expansion was much too large to belong to that classification.[27] During the same year, Baade first proposed the use of the Type Ia supernova as a secondary distance indicator in 1938. Later, the work of Allan Sandage and Gustav Tammann helped refine the process so that Type Ia supernovae became a type of standard candle for measuring large distances across the cosmos.[28][29] The first spectral classification of these distant supernova was performed by Rudolph Minkowski in 1941. He categorized them into two types, based on whether or not lines of the element hydrogen appeared in the supernova spectrum.[30] Zwicky later proposed additional types III, IV, and V, although these are no longer used and now appear to be associated with single peculiar supernova types. Further sub-division of the spectra categories resulted in the modern supernova classification scheme.[31] In the aftermath of the Second World War, Fred Hoyle worked on the problem of how the various observed elements in the universe were produced. In 1946 he proposed that a massive star could generate the necessary thermonuclear reactions, and the nuclear reactions of heavy elements were responsible for the removal of energy necessary for a gravitational collapse to occur. The collapsing star became rotationally unstable, and produced an explosive expulsion of elements that were distributed into interstellar space.[32] The concept that rapid nuclear fusion was the source of energy for a supernova explosion was developed by Hoyle and William Fowler during the 1960s.[33] The first computer-controlled search for supernovae was begun in the 1960s at Northwestern University. They built a 24-inch telescope at Corralitos Observatory in New Mexico that could be repositioned under computer control. The telescope displayed a new galaxy each minute, with observers checking the view on a television screen. By this means, they discovered 14 supernovae over a period of two years.[34]

History of supernova observation

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19701999
The modern standard model for Type Ia supernovae explosions is founded on a proposal by Whelan and Iben in 1973, and is based upon a mass-transfer scenario to a degenerate companion star.[35] In particular, the light curve of SN 1972e in NGC 5253, which was observed for more than a year, was followed long enough to discover that after its broad "hump" in brightness, the supernova faded at a nearly constant rate of about 0.01 magnitudes per day. Translated to another system of units, this is nearly the same as the decay rate of cobalt-56 (56Co), whose half-life is 77 days. The degenerate explosion model predicts the production of about a solar mass of nickel-56 (56Ni) by the exploding star. The 56Ni decays with a half-life of 6.8 days to 56Co, and the decay of the nickel and cobalt provides the energy radiated away by the supernova late in its history. The agreement in both total energy production and the fade rate between the theoretical models and the observations of 1972e led to rapid acceptance of the degenerate-explosion model.[36] Through observation of the light curves of many Type Ia supernovae, it was discovered that they appear to have a common peak luminosity.[37] By measuring the luminosity of these events, the distance to their host galaxy can be estimated with good accuracy. Thus this category of supernovae has become highly useful as a standard candle for measuring cosmic distances. In 1998, the High-Z Supernova Search and the Supernova Cosmology Project discovered that the most distant Type Ia supernovae appeared dimmer than expected. This has provided evidence that the expansion of the universe may be accelerating.[38][39] Although no supernova has been observed in the Milky Way since 1604, it appears that a supernova exploded in the constellation Cassiopeia about 300 years ago, around the year 1667 or 1680. The remnant of this explosion, Cassiopeia Ais heavily obscured by interstellar dust, which is possibly why it did not make a notable appearance. However it can be observed in other parts of the spectrum, and it is the currently the brightest radio source beyond our solar system.[40] In 1987, Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was observed within hours of its start. It was the first supernova to be detected through its neutrino emission and the first to be observed across every band of the electromagnetic spectrum. The relative proximity of this supernova has allowed detailed observation, and it provided the first opportunity for modern theories of supernova formation to be tested against observations.[41][42] The rate of supernova discovery steadily increased throughout the twentieth century.[43] In the 1990s, several automated supernova search programs were initiated. The Leuschner Observatory Supernova Search program was begun in 1992 at Leuschner Observatory. It was joined the same year by the Berkeley Supernova 1987A remnant near the center Automated Imaging Telescope program. These were succeeded in 1996 by the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope at Lick Observatory, which was primarily used for the Lick Observatory Supernova Search (LOSS). By 2000, the Lick program resulted in the discovery of 96 supernovae, making it the world's most successful Supernova search program.[44] In the late 1990s it was proposed that recent supernova remnants could be found by looking for gamma rays from the decay of titanium-44. This has a half-life of 90 years and the gamma rays can traverse the galaxy easily, so it permits us to see any remnants from the last millennium or so. Two sources were found, the previously discovered Cassiopeia A remnant, and the RX J0852.0-4622 remnant, which had just been discovered overlapping the Vela Supernova Remnant[45]

History of supernova observation

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This remnant (RX J0852.0-4622) had been found in front (apparently) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant.[46] The gamma rays from the decay of titanium-44 showed that it must have exploded fairly recently (perhaps around 1200 AD), but there is no historical record of it. The flux of gamma rays and x-rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us (perhaps 200 parsecs or 600 ly). If so, this is a surprising event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100,000 years.[47]

In 1999 a star within IC 755 was seen to explode as a supernova and named SN 1999an.

2000 to present
The "SN 2003fg" was discovered in a forming galaxy in 2003. The appearance of this supernova was studied in "real-time", and it has posed several major physical questions as it seems more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit would allow.[48] First observed in September 2006, the supernova SN 2006gy, which occurred in a galaxy called NGC 1260 (240 million light-years away), is the largest and, until confirmation of luminosity of SN 2005ap in October 2007, the most luminous supernova ever observed. The explosion was at least 100 times more luminous than any previously observed supernova,[49][50] with the progenitor star being estimated 150 times more massive than the Sun.[51] Although this had some characteristics of a Type Ia supernova, Hydrogen was found in the spectrum.[52] It is thought that SN 2006gy is a likely candidate for a pair-instability supernova. SN 2005ap, which was discovered by Robert Quimby who also discovered SN 2006gy, was about twice as bright as SN 2006gy and about 300 times as bright as a normal type II supernova.[53] On May 21, 2008, astronomers announced that they had for the first time caught a supernova on camera just as it was exploding. By chance, a burst of X-rays was noticed while looking at galaxy NGC 2770, 88million light-years from Earth, and a variety of telescopes were aimed in that direction just in time to capture what has been named SN 2008D. "This eventually confirmed that the big X-ray blast marked the birth of a supernova," said Alicia Soderberg of Princeton University.[54] One of the many amateur astronomers looking for supernovae, Caroline Moore, a member of the Puckett Observatory Supernova Search Team, found supernova SN 2008ha late November 2008. At the age of 14 she has now been declared the youngest person ever to find a supernova.[55][56] However, in January 2011, 10-year old Kathryn Aurora Gray from Canada was reported to have discovered a supernova, making her the youngest ever to find a supernova.[57] Ms. Gray, her father, and a friend spotted SN 2010lt, a magnitude 17 supernova in galaxy UGC 3378 in the constellation Camelopardalis, about 240 million light years away. In 2009, researchers have found nitrates in ice cores from Antarctica at depths corresponding to the known supernovae of 1006 and 1054 AD, as well as from around 1060 AD. The nitrates were apparently formed from nitrogen oxides created by gamma rays from the supernovae. This technique should be able to detect supernovae going back several thousand years.[58] On November 15, 2010, astronomers using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory announced that, while viewing the remnant of SN 1979C in the galaxy Messier 100, they have discovered an object which could be a young, 30-year-old black hole. NASA also noted the possibility this object could be a spinning neutron star producing a wind of high energy particles.[59] On August 24, 2011, the Palomar Transient Factory automated survey discovered a new Type 1a supernova (SN 2011fe) in the Pinwheel Galaxy (M101) shortly after it burst into existence. Being only 21 million lightyears away and detected so early after the event started, it will allow scientists to learn more about the early developments of these types of supernovae.[60]

History of supernova observation

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Future
The estimated rate of supernova production in a galaxy the size of the Milky Way is about one every 50years. This is much higher than the actual observed rate, implying that a portion of these events have been obscured from the Earth by interstellar dust. The deployment of new instruments that can observe across a wide range of the spectrum, and neutrino detectors, means that the next such event will almost certainly be detected.[25]

References
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[31] da Silva, L. A. L. (1993). "The Classification of Supernovae". Astrophysics and Space Science 202 (2): 215236. Bibcode1993Ap&SS.202..215D. doi:10.1007/BF00626878. [32] Hoyle, Fred (1946). "The Synthesis of the Elements from Hydrogen". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 106: 343383. Bibcode1946MNRAS.106..343H. [33] Woosley, S. E. (1999). "Hoyle & Fowler's Nucleosynthesis in Supernovae". Astrophysical Journal 525C: 924. Bibcode1999ApJ...525C.924W. [34] Marschall, Laurence A. (1994). The supernova story. Princeton science library. Princeton University Press. pp.112113. ISBN0-691-03633-0. [35] Whelan, J.; Iben Jr., I. (1973). "Binaries and Supernovae of Type I". Astrophysical Journal 186: 10071014. Bibcode1973ApJ...186.1007W. doi:10.1086/152565. [36] Trimble, V. (1982). "Supernovae. Part I: the events". Reviews of Modern Physics 54 (4): 11831224. Bibcode1982RvMP...54.1183T. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.54.1183. [37] Kowal, C. T. (1968). "Absolute magnitudes of supernovae". Astronomical Journal 73: 10211024. Bibcode1968AJ.....73.1021K. doi:10.1086/110763. [38] Leibundgut, B.; Sollerman, J. (2001). "A cosmological surprise: the universe accelerates" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ ~bleibund/ papers/ EPN/ epn. html). Europhysics News 32 (4): 121. Bibcode2001ENews..32..121L. doi:10.1051/epn:2001401. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [39] "Confirmation of the accelerated expansion of the Universe" (http:/ / www2. cnrs. fr/ en/ 45. htm?& debut=160xt/ ). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. September 19, 2003. . Retrieved 2006-11-03. [40] "Cassiopeia A - SNR" (http:/ / coolcosmos. ipac. caltech. edu/ / cosmic_classroom/ multiwavelength_astronomy/ multiwavelength_museum/ casA. html). Caltech/NASA Infrared Processing and Analysis Center. . Retrieved 2006-10-02. [41] McCray, Richard (1993). "Supernova 1987A revisited". Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics 31 (1): 175216. Bibcode1993ARA&A..31..175M. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001135. [42] Comins, Neil F.; Kaufmann, William J. (2008). Discovering the Universe: From the Stars to the Planets. Macmillan. p.230. ISBN1-4292-3042-8. [43] Kowal, C. T.; Sargent, W. L. W. (November 1971). "Supernovae discovered since 1885". Astronomical Journal 76: 756764. Bibcode1971AJ.....76..756K. doi:10.1086/111193. [44] Filippenko, Alexei V.; Li, W. D.; Treffers, R. R.; Modjaz, Maryam (2001). "The Lick Observatory Supernova Search with the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope". In Bohdan Paczynski, Wen-Ping Chen, Claudia Lemme. Small Telescope Astronomy on Global Scales, IAU Colloquium 183. ASP Conference Series. 246. San Francisco. Bibcode2001ASPC..246..121F. ISBN1-58381-084-6. [45] Iyudin, A. F. et al. (November 1998). "Emission from 44Ti associated with a previously unknown Galactic supernova". Nature 396 (6707): 142144. Bibcode1998Natur.396..142I. doi:10.1038/24106. [46] Aschenbach, Bernd (1998-11-12). "Discovery of a young nearby supernova remnant". Letters to Nature 396 (6707): 141142. Bibcode1998Natur.396..141A. doi:10.1038/24103. [47] Fields, B. D.; Ellis, J. (1999). "On Deep-Ocean Fe-60 as a Fossil of a Near-Earth Supernova". New Astronomy 4 (6): 419430. arXiv:astro-ph/9811457. Bibcode1999NewA....4..419F. doi:10.1016/S1384-1076(99)00034-2. [48] Howell, D. A.; et al. (2006). "Snls-03d3bb: An Overluminous, Low Velocity Type Ia Supernova Discovered At Z=0.244". American Astronomical Society Meeting 208. Bibcode2006AAS...208.0203H. [49] Berardelli, Phil (May 7, 2007). "Star Goes Out Big Time" (http:/ / sciencenow. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 2007/ 507/ 2). Science Magazine ScienceNOW Daily News. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [50] Grey Hautaluoma, Grey Hautaluoma and Megan Watzke (May 7, 2007). "NASA's Chandra Sees Brightest Supernova Ever" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ marshall/ news/ news/ releases/ 2007/ 07-052. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2008-06-04. [51] Dunham, Will (May 8, 2007). "Brightest supernova ever seen" (http:/ / abc. net. au/ science/ news/ stories/ 2007/ 1917458. htm?space). News in Science, Space and Astronomy. . [52] Shiga, David (January 3, 2007). "Brightest supernova discovery hints at stellar collision" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn10883). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2009-07-17. [53] Than, Ker (October 11, 2007). "Supernova blazed like 100 billion suns" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 21259692/ ). MSNBC. . Retrieved 2007-10-17.

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History of supernova observation

[54] Anonymous (May 21, 2008). "Supernova caught exploding on camera" (http:/ / uk. reuters. com/ article/ idUKN2141465920080521). Reuters UK. . Retrieved 2009-07-17. [55] Moore, Robert E. (2008-11-13). The story about SN2008ha "Rare supernova found by 14 year old amateur astronomer" (http:/ / deer-pond-observatorie. wetpaint. com/ page/ The+ story+ about+ SN2008ha?t=anon). Deer Pond Observatory. The story about SN2008ha. Retrieved 2008-12-19. [56] Bishop, David (2008-12-19). "Supernova 2008ha in UGC 12682" (http:/ / www. supernovae. net/ sn2008/ sn2008ha. html). Rochester Academy of Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-12-19. [57] Cohen, Tobi (January 3, 2011). "N.B. girl youngest ever to discover a supernova" (http:/ / www. vancouversun. com/ technology/ Brunswick+ girl+ youngest+ discover+ supernova/ 4053667/ story. html). The Vancouver Sun. . Retrieved 2011-01-04. [58] "Ancient supernovae found written into the Antarctic ice" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20126984. 800-ancient-supernovae-found-written-into-the-antarctic-ice. html). New Scientist (2698). 2009-03-04. . Retrieved 2009-03-09. Refers to (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0902. 3446). [59] Perrotto, Trent; Anderson, Janet; Watzke, Megan (November 15, 2010). "NASA'S Chandra Finds Youngest Nearby Black Hole" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2010/ nov/ HQ_10-299_CHANDRA. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2010-011-19. [60] Beatty, Kelly (25 August 2011). "Supernova Erupts in Pinwheel Galaxy" (http:/ / www. skyandtelescope. com/ observing/ highlights/ 128430288. html). Sky & Telescope. . Retrieved 26 August 2011

32

External links
Hecht, Jeff (June 19, 2006). "Enigmatic object baffles supernova team" (http://www.newscientist.com/article/ dn9360). NewScientist.com. Retrieved 2009-07-17.

Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae

Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae Note that this list is mainly about the development of knowledge, but also about some supernovae taking place. For a separate list of the latter, see the article List of supernovae. All dates refer to when the supernova was observed on Earth or would have been observed on Earth had powerful enough telescopes existed at the time. 185 Chinese astronomers become the first to record observations of a supernova, the SN 185, 1006 Ali ibn Ridwan and Chinese astronomers observe the brightest (magnitude 7.5) recorded supernova, SN 1006, which is observed in the constellation of Lupus, 1054 Chinese, American Indian and Arab astronomers observe the SN 1054, the Crab Nebula supernova explosion, 1181 Chinese astronomers observe the SN 1181 supernova, 1572 Tycho Brahe discovers a supernova (SN 1572) in the constellation Cassiopeia, 1604 Johannes Kepler's supernova, SN 1604, in Serpens is observed, 1862 Alvan Clark observes Sirius B, 1866 William Huggins studies the spectrum of a nova and discovers that it is surrounded by a cloud of hydrogen, 1885 A supernova, S Andromedae, is observed in the Andromeda Galaxy leading to recognition of supernovae as a distinct class of novae, 1910 the spectrum of 40 Eridani B is observed, making it the first confirmed white dwarf, 1914 Walter Sydney Adams determines an incredibly high density for Sirius B, 1926 Ralph Fowler uses Fermi-Dirac statistics to explain white dwarf stars, 1930 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers the white dwarf maximum mass limit, 1933 Fritz Zwicky and Walter Baade propose the neutron star idea and suggest that supernovae might be created by the collapse of normal stars to neutron starsthey also point out that such events can explain the cosmic ray background,

Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae 1939 Robert Oppenheimer and George Volkoff calculate the first neutron star models, 1942 J.J.L. Duyvendak, Nicholas Mayall, and Jan Oort deduce that the Crab Nebula is a remnant of the 1054 supernova observed by Chinese astronomers, 1958 Evry Schatzman, Kent Harrison, Masami Wakano, and John Wheeler show that white dwarfs are unstable to inverse beta decay, 1962 Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Frank Paolini, and Bruno Rossi discover Scorpius X-1, 1967 Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discover radio pulses from a pulsar, 1967 J.R. Harries, Kenneth G. McCracken, R.J. Francey, and A.G. Fenton discover the first X-ray transient (Cen X-2), 1968 Thomas Gold proposes that pulsars are rotating neutron stars, 1969 David Staelin, E.C. Reifenstein, William Cocke, Mike Disney, and Donald Taylor discover the Crab Nebula pulsar thus connecting supernovae, neutron stars, and pulsars, 1971 Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Ed Kellogg, R. Levinson, E. Schreier, and H. Tananbaum discover 4.8 second X-ray pulsations from Centaurus X-3, 1974 Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor discover the binary pulsar PSR B1913+16, 1977 Kip Thorne and Anna ytkow present a detailed analysis of Thorne-ytkow objects, 1982 Donald Backer, Shrinivas Kulkarni, Carl Heiles, Michael Davis, and Miller Goss discover the millisecond pulsar PSR B1937+214, 1985 Michiel van der Klis discovers 30 Hz quasi-periodic oscillations in GX 5-1, 1987 Ian Shelton discovers SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud ... 2006 Robert Quimby and P. Mondol discover SN 2006gy (a possible hypernova) in NGC 1260.

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34

Types of Supernova
Type Ia
A Type Ia supernova is a sub-category of supernovae that results from the violent explosion of a white dwarf star. A white dwarf is the remnant of a star that has completed its normal life cycle and has ceased nuclear fusion. However, white dwarfs of the common carbon-oxygen variety are capable of further fusion reactions that release a great deal of energy if their temperatures rise high enough. Physically, carbon-oxygen white dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1.38 solar masses.[2][3] Beyond this, they re-ignite and in some cases trigger a supernova explosion. Somewhat confusingly, this limit is often referred to as the Chandrasekhar mass, despite being subtly different from the absolute Chandrasekhar limit where electron Multiwavelength X-ray / infrared image of SN degeneracy pressure is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse. If a 1572 or Tycho's Nova, the remnant of a Type Ia white dwarf gradually accretes mass from a binary companion, the [1] supernova (NASA/CXC/JPL-Caltech/Calar general hypothesis is that its core will reach the ignition temperature Alto O. Krause et al.) for carbon fusion as it approaches the limit. If the white dwarf merges with another star (a very rare event), it will momentarily exceed the limit and begin to collapse, again raising its temperature past the nuclear fusion ignition point. Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear fusion, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a runaway reaction, releasing enough energy (121044J)[4] to unbind the star in a supernova explosion.[5] This category of supernovae produces consistent peak luminosity because of the uniform mass of white dwarfs that explode via the accretion mechanism. The stability of this value allows these explosions to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host galaxies because the visual magnitude of the supernovae depends primarily on the distance.

Consensus model
The Type Ia supernova is a sub-category in the Minkowski-Zwicky supernova classification scheme, which was devised by American astronomers Rudolph Minkowski and Fritz Zwicky.[7] There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. When a slowly-rotating,[2] carbon-oxygen white dwarf accretes matter from a companion, it cannot exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.38 solar masses, beyond which it would no longer be able to support its weight through electron degeneracy pressure[8] and begin to collapse. In the absence of a countervailing process, the white dwarf would collapse to form a neutron star,[9] as normally occurs in the case of a white dwarf that is primarily composed of magnesium, neon and oxygen.[10]

Spectrum of SN1998aq, a Type Ia supernova, one [6] day after maximum light in the B band

Type Ia The current view among astronomers who model Type Ia supernova explosions, however, is that this limit is never actually attained, so that collapse is never initiated. Instead, the increase in pressure and density due to the increasing weight raises the temperature of the core,[3] and as the white dwarf approaches to within about 1% of the limit,[11] a period of convection ensues, lasting approximately 1,000years.[12] At some point in this simmering phase, a deflagration flame front is born, powered by carbon fusion. The details of the ignition are still unknown, including the location and number of points where the flame begins.[13] Oxygen fusion is initiated shortly thereafter, but this fuel is not consumed as completely as carbon.[14] Once fusion has begun, the temperature of the white dwarf starts to rise. A main sequence star supported by thermal pressure would expand and cool in order to counterbalance an increase in thermal energy. However, degeneracy pressure is independent of temperature; the white dwarf is unable to regulate the burning process in the manner of normal stars, and is vulnerable to a runaway fusion reaction. The flame accelerates dramatically, in part due to the RayleighTaylor instability and interactions with turbulence. It is still a matter of considerable debate whether this flame transforms into a supersonic detonation from a subsonic deflagration.[12][15] Regardless of the exact details of nuclear burning, it is generally accepted that a substantial fraction of the carbon and oxygen in the white dwarf is burned into heavier elements within a period of only a few seconds,[14] raising the internal temperature to billions of degrees. This energy release from thermonuclear burning (121044J[4]) is more than enough to unbind the star; that is, the individual particles making up the white dwarf gain enough kinetic energy that they are all able to fly apart from each other. The star explodes violently and releases a shock wave in which matter is typically ejected at speeds on the order of 5,00020,000km/s, or roughly up to 6% of the speed of light. The energy released in the explosion also causes an extreme increase in luminosity. The typical visual absolute magnitude of TypeIa supernovae is Mv=19.3 (about 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation.[12] The theory of this type of supernovae is similar to that of novae, in which a white dwarf accretes matter more slowly and does not approach the Chandrasekhar limit. In the case of a nova, the infalling matter causes a hydrogen fusion surface explosion that does not disrupt the star.[12] This type of supernova differs from a core-collapse supernova, which is caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core implodes.[16]

35

Formation

Formation process

Gas is being stripped from a giant star to form an accretion disc around a compact companion (such as a white dwarf star). NASA image

Type Ia

36

Simulation of the explosion phase of the deflagration-to-detonation model of supernovae formation, run on scientific supercomputer. Argonne National Laboratory image

Single degenerate progenitors

One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars, with the primary possessing more mass than the secondary. Being greater in mass, the primary is the first of the pair to evolve onto the asymptotic giant branch, where the star's envelope expands considerably. If the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of mass, reducing the angular momentum, orbital radius and period. After the primary has degenerated into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours.[17][18] If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit. The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions, including a subgiant or (if the orbit is sufficiently close) even a main sequence star. The actual evolutionary process during this accretion stage remains uncertain, as it can depend both on the rate of accretion and the transfer of angular momentum to the white dwarf companion.[19] It has been estimated that single degenerate progenitors account for no more than 20% of all Type Ia supernovae.[20]

Double degenerate progenitors

A second possible mechanism for triggering a TypeIa supernova is the merger of two white dwarfs whose combined mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit. The resulting merger is called a super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf.[21][22] In such a case, the total mass would not be constrained by the Chandrasekhar limit. Collisions of solitary stars within the Milky Way occur only once every 107-1013years; far less frequently than the appearance of novae.[23] Collisions occur with greater frequency in the dense core regions of globular clusters.[24] (Cf. blue stragglers) A likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system, or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs. This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs. Their orbit decays and they merge through their shared envelope.[25] However, a study based on SDSS spectra found 15 double systems of the 4,000 white dwarfs tested, implying a double white dwarf merger every 100 years in the Milky Way. Conveniently, this rate matches the number of Type Ia supernovae detected in our neighborhood.[26] A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously massive (2 solar mass) progenitor of the SN 2003fg.[27][28] It is the only possible explanation for SNR 0509-67.5, as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out.[29] It has also been strongly suggested for SN 1006, given that no companion star remnant has been found there.[20] Observations made with NASA's Swift space telescope ruled out existing supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernovae studied. The supergiant companion's blown out outer shell should emit X-rays, but this glow wasn't detected by Swift's XRT (X-Ray telescope) in the 53 closest supernova remnants. For 12 Type Ia supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion, the satellite's

Type Ia UVOT (Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star's surface hit by the supernova shock wave, meaning there were no red giants or larger stars orbiting those supernova progenitors. In the case of SN 2011fe, the companion star must have been smaller than the Sun, if it existed.[30] The Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed that the X-ray radiation of five elliptical galaxies and the bulge of the Andromeda galaxy is 30-50 times fainter than expected. X-ray radiation should be emitted the accretion discs of Type Ia supernova progenitors. The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess accretion discs, ruling out the common, accretion-based model of Ia supernovae.[31] Inward spiraling white dwarf pairs must be strong sources of gravitational waves, but this can't be detected as of 2012. Double degenerate scenarios raise questions about the applicability of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles, since total mass of the two merging white dwarfs varies significantly, meaning luminosity also varies.

37

Observation
Unlike the other types of supernovae, TypeIa supernovae generally occur in all types of galaxies, including ellipticals. They show no preference for regions of current stellar formation.[32] As white dwarf stars form at the end of a star's main sequence evolutionary period, such a long-lived star system may have wandered far from the region where it originally formed. Thereafter a close binary system may spend another million years in the mass transfer stage (possibly forming persistent nova outbursts) before the conditions are ripe for a TypeIa supernova to occur.[33] A long-standing problem in astronomy has been the identification of supernova progenitors. Direct observation of a progenitor would provide useful constraints on supernova models. As of 2006, the search for such a progenitor had been ongoing for longer than a century.[34]Observation of the supernova SN 2011fe has provided useful constraints. Previous observations with the Hubble Space Telescope did not show a star at the position of the event, thereby excluding a red giant as the source. The expanding plasma from the explosion was found to contain carbon and oxygen, making it likely the progenitor was a white dwarf primarily composed of these elements.[35] Similarly, observations of the nearby SN PTF 11kx,[36] discovered January 16, 2011 (UT) by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF), lead to the conclusion that this explosion arises from single-degenerate progenitor, with a red giant companion, thus suggesting there is no single progenitor path to SN Ia. Direct observations of the progenitor of PTF11kx were reported in the August 24 edition of Science and confirm this conclusion, and also show that the progenitor star experienced periodic nova eruptions before the supernova - another surprising discovery. [37] [38]

Light curve
TypeIa supernovae have a characteristic light curve, their graph of luminosity as a function of time after the explosion. Near the time of maximum luminosity, the spectrum contains lines of intermediate-mass elements from oxygen to calcium; these are the main constituents of the outer layers of the star. Months after the explosion, when the outer layers have expanded to the point of transparency, the spectrum is dominated by light emitted by material near the core of the star, heavy elements synthesized during the explosion; most prominently isotopes close to the mass of iron (or iron peak elements). The radioactive decay of nickel-56 through cobalt-56 to iron-56 produces high-energy photons which dominate the energy output of the ejecta at intermediate to late times.[12]

This plot of luminosity (relative to the Sun, L0) versus time shows the characteristic light curve for a TypeIa supernova. The peak is primarily due to the decay of Nickel (Ni), while the later stage is powered by Cobalt (Co).

The similarity in the absolute luminosity profiles of nearly all known TypeIa supernovae has led to their use as a secondary[39] standard candle in extragalactic astronomy.[40] The cause of this uniformity in the luminosity curve is

Type Ia still an open question. In 1998, observations of distant TypeIa supernovae indicated the unexpected result that the Universe seems to undergo an accelerating expansion.[41][42][43][44]

38

References
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[4] Khokhlov, A.; Mueller, E.; Hoeflich, P.; Mueller; Hoeflich (1993). "Light curves of Type IA supernova models with different explosion mechanisms". Astronomy and Astrophysics 270 (12): 223248. Bibcode1993A&A...270..223K. [5] Staff (2006-09-07). "Introduction to Supernova Remnants" (http:/ / heasarc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ objects/ snrs/ snrstext. html). NASA Goddard/SAO. . Retrieved 2007-05-01. [6] Matheson, Thomas; Kirshner, Robert; Challis, Pete; Jha, Saurabh et al. (2008). "Optical Spectroscopy of Type Ia Supernovae". Astronomical Journal 135 (4): 15981615. arXiv:0803.1705. Bibcode2008AJ....135.1598M. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/4/1598. [7] da Silva, L. A. L. (1993). "The Classification of Supernovae". Astrophysics and Space Science 202 (2): 215236. Bibcode1993Ap&SS.202..215D. doi:10.1007/BF00626878. [8] Lieb, E. H.; Yau, H.-T. (1987). "A rigorous examination of the Chandrasekhar theory of stellar collapse". Astrophysical Journal 323 (1): 140144. Bibcode1987ApJ...323..140L. doi:10.1086/165813. [9] Canal, R.; Gutierrez; Gutirrez, J. (1997). "The possible white dwarf-neutron star connection". Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Astrophysics and Space Science Library 214: 49. arXiv:astro-ph/9701225. Bibcode1997astro.ph..1225C. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-5542-7_7. ISBN978-0-7923-4585-5. [10] Fryer, C. L.; New, K. C. B. (2006-01-24). "2.1 Collapse scenario" (http:/ / www. livingreviews. org/ Articles/ Volume6/ 2003-2new). Gravitational Waves from Gravitational Collapse. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. . Retrieved 2007-06-07. [11] Wheeler, J. Craig (2000-01-15). Cosmic Catastrophes: Supernovae, Gamma-Ray Bursts, and Adventures in Hyperspace (http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ catalogue/ catalogue. asp?isbn=9780521857147). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p.96. ISBN0-521-65195-6. . [12] Hillebrandt, W.; Niemeyer, J. C. (2000). "Type IA Supernova Explosion Models". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (1): 191230. arXiv:astro-ph/0006305. Bibcode2000ARA&A..38..191H. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.191. [13] "Science Summary" (http:/ / flash. uchicago. edu/ website/ research/ home. py?submit=science. txt). ASC / Alliances Center for Astrophysical Thermonuclear Flashes. 2001. . Retrieved 2006-11-27. [14] Rpke, F. K.; Hillebrandt, W. (2004). "The case against the progenitor's carbon-to-oxygen ratio as a source of peak luminosity variations in TypeIa supernovae". Astronomy and Astrophysics 420 (1): L1L4. arXiv:astro-ph/0403509. Bibcode2004A&A...420L...1R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20040135. [15] Gamezo, V. N.; Khokhlov, A. M.; Oran, E. S.; Chtchelkanova, A. Y.; Rosenberg, R. O. (2003-01-03). "Thermonuclear Supernovae: Simulations of the Deflagration Stage and Their Implications" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 299/ 5603/ 77). Science 299 (5603): 7781. doi:10.1126/science.1078129. PMID12446871. . Retrieved 2006-11-28. [16] Gilmore, Gerry (2004). "The Short Spectacular Life of a Superstar" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ sci;304/ 5679/ 1915). Science 304 (5697): 19151916. doi:10.1126/science.1100370. PMID15218132. . Retrieved 2007-05-01. [17] Paczynski, B. (July 28-August 1, 1975). "Common Envelope Binaries". Structure and Evolution of Close Binary Systems. Cambridge, England: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co.. pp.7580. Bibcode1976IAUS...73...75P. [18] Postnov, K. A.; Yungelson, L. R. (2006). "The Evolution of Compact Binary Star Systems" (http:/ / relativity. livingreviews. org/ open?pubNo=lrr-2006-6& page=articlesu8. html). Living Reviews in Relativity. . Retrieved 2007-01-08. [19] Langer, N.; Yoon, S.-C.; Wellstein, S.; Scheithauer, S. (2002). "On the evolution of interacting binaries which contain a white dwarf". In Gnsicke, B. T.; Beuermann, K.; Rein, K.. The Physics of Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects, ASP Conference Proceedings. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 25 (3): 118125. Bibcode1939PNAS...25..118W. doi:10.1073/pnas.25.3.118.

Type Ia
[24] Rubin, V. C.; Ford, W. K. J. (1999). "A Thousand Blazing Suns: The Inner Life of Globular Clusters" (http:/ / www. astrosociety. org/ pubs/ mercury/ 9904/ murphy. html). Mercury 28: 26. . Retrieved 2006-06-02. [25] Middleditch, J. (2004). "A White Dwarf Merger Paradigm for Supernovae and Gamma-Ray Bursts". The Astrophysical Journal 601 (2): L167L170. arXiv:astro-ph/0311484. Bibcode2003astro.ph.11484M. doi:10.1086/382074. [26] "Important Clue Uncovered for the Origins of a Type of Supernovae Explosion, Thanks to a Research Team at the University of Pittsburgh" (http:/ / www. news. pitt. edu/ supernovae). University of Pittsburgh (http:/ / www. news. pitt. edu/ ). . Retrieved 23 March 2012. [27] "The Weirdest Type Ia Supernova Yet" (http:/ / www. lbl. gov/ Science-Articles/ Archive/ Phys-weird-supernova. html). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2006-09-20. . Retrieved 2006-11-02. [28] "Bizarre Supernova Breaks All The Rules" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/ dn10114). New Scientist. 2006-09-20. . Retrieved 2007-01-08. [29] Schaefer, Bradley E.; Pagnotta, Ashley (2012). "An absence of ex-companion stars in the type Ia supernova remnant SNR 0509-67.5". Nature 481 (7380): 164166. Bibcode2012Natur.481..164S. doi:10.1038/nature10692. [30] "NASA'S Swift Narrows Down Origin of Important Supernova Class" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2012/ mar/ HQ_12-086_Swift_TypeIa_Origins. html). NASA (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ ). . Retrieved 24 March 2012. [31] "NASA's Chandra Reveals Origin of Key Cosmic Explosions" (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ photo/ 2010/ type1a/ ). Chandra X-Ray Observatory website (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ ). . Retrieved 28 March 2012. [32] van Dyk, Schuyler D. (1992). "Association of supernovae with recent star formation regions in late type galaxies". Astronomical Journal 103 (6): 17881803. Bibcode1992AJ....103.1788V. doi:10.1086/116195. [33] Langer, N.; Deutschmann; Wellstein; Hoeflich; Deutschmann, A.; Wellstein, S.; Hflich, P. (1999). "The evolution of main sequence star + white dwarf binary systems towards Type Ia supernovae". Astronomy and Astrophysics 362: 10461064. arXiv:astro-ph/0008444. Bibcode2000astro.ph..8444L. [34] Kotak, R. (December 2008). "Progenitors of Type Ia Supernovae". In Evans, A.; Bode, M. F.; Darnley, T. J.. RS Ophiuchi (2006) and the Recurrent Nova Phenomenon, proceedings of the conference held 1214 June 2007. ASP Conference Series. 401. Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom: Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2008. p.150. Bibcode2008ASPC..401..150K. [35] Nugent, Peter E. et al. (December 2011), "Supernova 2011fe from an Exploding Carbon-Oxygen White Dwarf Star", Nature 480: 344347, arXiv:1110.6201, Bibcode2011Natur.480..344N, doi:10.1038/nature10644 [36] Dilday, B. et al., "PTF11kx: A Type-Ia Supernova with a Symbiotic Nova Progenitor" 2012, http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 1207. 1306 [37] PTF 11kx: A Type Ia Supernova with a Symbiotic Nova Progenitor (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 337/ 6097/ 942. abstract) Science 24 August 2012: Vol. 337 no. 6097 pp. 942-945 [38] Scitech daily The First-Ever Direct Observations of a Type 1a Supernova Progenitor System (http:/ / scitechdaily. com/ the-first-ever-direct-observations-of-a-type-1a-supernova-progenitor-system/ ) - popular account of the discovery [39] Macri, L. M.; Stanek, K. Z.; Bersier, D.; Greenhill, L. J.; Reid, M. J. (2006). "A New Cepheid Distance to the Maser-Host Galaxy NGC 4258 and Its Implications for the Hubble Constant". Astrophysical Journal 652 (2): 11331149. arXiv:astro-ph/0608211. Bibcode2006ApJ...652.1133M. doi:10.1086/508530. [40] Colgate, S. A. (1979). "Supernovae as a standard candle for cosmology". Astrophysical Journal 232 (1): 404408. Bibcode1979ApJ...232..404C. doi:10.1086/157300. [41] Perlmutter, S. et al. (1999). "Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high redshift supernovae". Astrophysical Journal 517 (2): 56586. arXiv:astro-ph/9812133. Bibcode1999ApJ...517..565P. doi:10.1086/307221. [42] Riess, Adam G. et al. (1998). "Observational evidence from supernovae for an accelerating Universe and a cosmological constant". Astronomical Journal 116 (3): 100938. arXiv:astro-ph/9805201. Bibcode1998AJ....116.1009R. doi:10.1086/300499. [43] Leibundgut, B.; Sollerman, J. (2001). "A cosmological surprise: the universe accelerates" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ ~bleibund/ papers/ EPN/ epn. html). Europhysics News 32 (4): 121. Bibcode2001ENews..32..121L. doi:10.1051/epn:2001401. . Retrieved 2007-02-01. [44] "Confirmation of the accelerated expansion of the Universe" (http:/ / www2. cnrs. fr/ en/ 45. htm?& debut=160xt/ ). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. 2003-09-19. . Retrieved 2006-11-03.

39

External links
Falck, Bridget (2006). "Type Ia Supernova Cosmology with ADEPT" (http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~bfalck/ SeminarPres.html). Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 2007-05-20. Staff (February 27, 2007). "Sloan Supernova Survey" (http://www.sdss.org/supernova/aboutsprnova.html). Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Retrieved 2007-05-25. "Novae and Supernovae" (http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/Astronomy/Novae.html). peripatus.gen.nz. Retrieved 2007-05-25. "Source for major type of supernova" (http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0308/06supernova/). Pole Star Publications Ltd. August 6, 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-25. (A Type Ia progenitor found) "Novae and Supernovae explosions found" (http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/Astronomy/Novae.html). peripatus.gen.nz. Retrieved 2007-05-25.

Type Ib and Ic

40

Type Ib and Ic
Types Ib and Ic supernovae are categories of stellar explosions that are caused by the core collapse of massive stars. These stars have shed (or been stripped of) their outer envelope of hydrogen, and, when compared to the spectrum of Type Ia supernovae, they lack the absorption line of silicon. Compared to Type Ib, Type Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have lost more of their initial envelope, including most of their helium. The two types are usually referred to as stripped core-collapse supernovae.

[1][2] The Type Ib supernova Supernova 2008D in galaxy NGC 2770, shown in X-ray (left) and visible light (right), at the corresponding positions of the [3] images. NASA image.

Spectra
When a supernova is observed, it can be categorized in the MinkowskiZwicky supernova classification scheme based upon the absorption lines that appear in its spectrum.[4] A supernova is first categorized as either a Type I or Type II, then sub-categorized based on more specific traits. Supernovae belonging to the general category Type I lack hydrogen lines in their spectra; in contrast to Type II supernovae which do display lines of hydrogen. The Type I category is sub-divided into Type Ia, Type Ib and Type Ic supernovae.[5] Type Ib/Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ia by the lack of an absorption line of singly ionized silicon at a wavelength of 635.5nanometres.[6] As Type Ib/Ic supernovae age, they also display lines from elements such as oxygen, calcium and magnesium. In contrast, Type Ia spectra become dominated by lines of iron.[7] Type Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ib in that the former also lack lines of helium at 587.6nm.[7]

Formation
Prior to becoming a supernova, an evolved massive star is organized in the manner of an onion, with layers of different elements undergoing fusion. The outermost layer consists of hydrogen, followed by helium, carbon, oxygen, and so forth. Thus when the outer envelope of hydrogen is shed, this exposes the next layer that consists primarily of helium (mixed with other elements). This can occur when a very hot, massive star reaches a point in its evolution when significant mass loss is occurring from its stellar wind. Highly massive stars (with 25 or more times the mass of the Sun) can lose up to 105 solar masses each yearthe equivalent of a solar mass every 100,000 years.[8] Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium, either via winds

The onion-like layers of an evolved, massive star (not to scale).

Type Ib and Ic or mass transfer to a companion.[6] The progenitors of TypesIb and Ic have lost most of their outer envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a close companion of about 34 solar masses.[9][10] Rapid mass loss can occur in the case a Wolf-Rayet star, and these massive objects show a spectrum that is lacking in hydrogen. Type Ib progenitors have ejected most of the hydrogen in their outer atmospheres, while Type Ic progenitors have lost both the hydrogen and helium shells; in other words, Type Ic have lost more of their envelope (i.e., much of the helium layer) than the progenitors of Type Ib.[6] In other respects, however, the underlying mechanism behind Type Ib and Ic supernovae is similar to that of a Type II supernova, thus placing Type Ib/c between Type Ia and Type II.[6] Because of their similarity, Type Ib and Ic supernovae are sometimes collectively called Type Ibc supernovae.[11] There is some evidence that a small percent of the TypeIc supernovae may be the progenitors of gamma ray bursts (GRB); in particular, type Ic supernovae that have broad spectral lines corresponding to high-velocity outflows are thought to be strongly associated with gamma ray bursts (GRB). However, it is also hypothesized that any hydrogen-stripped TypeIb or Ic supernova could be a GRB, dependent upon the geometry of the explosion.[12] In any case, astronomers believe that most Type Ib, and probably Type Ic as well, result from core collapse in stripped, massive stars, rather than from the thermonuclear runaway of white dwarfs.[6] As they are formed from rare, very massive stars, the rate of Type Ib and Ic supernovae occurrence is much lower than the corresponding rate for Type II supernovae.[13] They normally occur in regions of new star formation, and have never been observed in an elliptical galaxy.[10] Because they share a similar operating mechanism, Type Ib/c and the various Type II supernovae are collectively called core-collapse supernovae. In particular, Type Ib/c may be referred to as stripped core-collapse supernovae.[6]

41

Light curves
The light curves (a plot of luminosity versus time) of Type Ib supernovae vary in form, but in some cases can be nearly identical to those of Type Ia supernovae. However, Type Ib light curves may peak at lower luminosity and may be redder. In the infrared portion of the spectrum, the light curve of a Type Ib supernova is similar to a Type II-L light curve. (See Supernova.)[14] Type Ib supernovae usually have slower decline rates for the spectral curves than Ic.[6] Type Ia supernovae light curves are useful for measuring distances on a cosmological scale. That is, they serve as standard candles. However, due to the similarity of the spectra of Type Ib and Ic supernovae, the latter can form a source of contamination of supernova surveys and must be carefully removed from the observed samples before making distance estimates.[15]

References
[1] Malesani, D.; et al. (2008). "Early spectroscopic identification of SN 2008D". Astrophys. J. 692 (2): L84L87. arXiv:0805.1188. Bibcode2009ApJ...692L..84M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/L84. [2] Soderberg, A.M.; et al. (2008). "An extremely luminous X-ray outburst at the birth of a supernova". Nature 453 (7194): 469. arXiv:0802.1712. Bibcode2008Natur.453..469S. doi:10.1038/nature06997. PMID18497815. [3] Naeye, R.; Gutro, R. (21 May 2008). "NASA's Swift Satellite Catches First Supernova in the Act of Exploding" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ goddard/ news/ topstory/ 2008/ swift_supernova. html). NASA/GSFC. . Retrieved 2008-05-22. [4] da Silva, L.A.L. (1993). "The Classification of Supernovae". Astrophysics and Space Science 202 (2): 215236. Bibcode1993Ap&SS.202..215D. doi:10.1007/BF00626878. [5] Montes, M. (12 February 2002). "Supernova Taxonomy" (http:/ / rsd-www. nrl. navy. mil/ 7212/ montes/ snetax. html). Naval Research Laboratory. . Retrieved 2006-11-09. [6] Filippenko, A.V. (2004). "Supernovae and Their Massive Star Progenitors". arXiv:astro-ph/0412029[astro-ph]. [7] "Type Ib Supernova Spectra" (http:/ / cosmos. swin. edu. au/ entries/ typeibsupernovaspectra/ typeibsupernovaspectra. html?e=1). COSMOS The SAO Encyclopedia of Astronomy. Swinburne University of Technology. . Retrieved 2010-05-05. [8] Dray, L.M.; Tout, C.A.; Karaks, A.I.; Lattanzio, J.C. (2003). "Chemical enrichment by Wolf-Rayet and asymptotic giant branch stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 338 (4): 973989. Bibcode2003MNRAS.338..973D. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06142.x.

Type Ib and Ic
[9] Pols, O. (26 October 1 November 1995). "Close Binary Progenitors of Type Ib/Ic and IIb/II-L Supernovae". Proceedings of The Third Pacific Rim Conference on Recent Development on Binary Star Research. Chiang Mai, Thailand. pp.153158. Bibcode1997rdbs.conf..153P. [10] Woosley, S. E.; Eastman, R.G. (June 2030, 1995). "Type Ib and Ic Supernovae: Models and Spectra". Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute. Begur, Girona, Spain: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp.821. Bibcode1997thsu.conf..821W. [11] Williams, A.J.. "Initial Statistics from the Perth Automated Supernova Search". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 14 (2): 20813. Bibcode1997PASA...14..208W. doi:10.1071/AS97208. [12] Ryder, S.D.; et al. (2004). "Modulations in the radio light curve of the Type IIb supernova 2001ig: evidence for a Wolf-Rayet binary progenitor?". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 349 (3): 10931100. arXiv:astro-ph/0401135. Bibcode2004MNRAS.349.1093R. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07589.x. [13] Sadler, E.M.; Campbell, D. (1997). "A first estimate of the radio supernova rate" (http:/ / www. atnf. csiro. au/ pasa/ 14_2/ sadler/ paper/ node4. html). Astronomical Society of Australia. . Retrieved 2007-02-08. [14] Tsvetkov, D.Yu. (1987). "Light curves of type Ib supernova: SN 1984l in NGC 991". Soviet Astronomy Letters 13: 376378. Bibcode1987SvAL...13..376T. [15] Homeier, N.L. (2005). "The Effect of Type Ibc Contamination in Cosmological Supernova Samples" (http:/ / www. journals. uchicago. edu/ doi/ full/ 10. 1086/ 427060). The Astrophysical Journal 620 (1): 1220. arXiv:astro-ph/0410593. Bibcode2005ApJ...620...12H. doi:10.1086/427060. .

42

Type II
A Type II supernova (plural: supernovae) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star. A star must have at least 8 times, and no more than 4050 times, the mass of the Sun for this type of explosion.[1] It is distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in its spectrum. Type II supernovae are mainly observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions, but not in elliptical galaxies.[2] Massive stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements. Unlike the Sun, these stars possess the mass The expanding remnant of SN 1987A, a Type II-P supernova in the Large Magellanic needed to fuse elements that have an Cloud. NASA image. atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium, albeit at increasingly high temperatures and pressure, and for increasingly shorter periods of time. The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing. The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements, starting with hydrogen and then helium, until finally a core of iron and nickel is produced. Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy, so further fusion is unable to take place, leaving the nickel-iron core inert. When the mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 solar masses, electron degeneracy alone is no longer sufficient to counter gravity. A cataclysmic implosion takes place within seconds, in which the outer core reaches an inward velocity of up to 23% of the speed of light and the inner core reaches temperatures of up to 100 billion kelvin. Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta-decay, releasing about 1046 joules (100foes) in a ten-second burst. The collapse is halted by neutron degeneracy, causing the implosion to bounce outward. The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to detach the surrounding stellar material, forming a

Type II supernova explosion, while the shock wave and extreme conditions briefly allow the production of elements heavier than iron.[3] Because of the underlying mechanism, the resulting variable star is also described as a core-collapse supernova. There exist several categories of Type II supernova explosions, which are categorized based on the resulting light curvea graph of luminosity versus timefollowing the explosion. Type II-L supernovae show a steady (linear) decline of the light curve following the explosion, whereas Type II-P display a period of slower decline (a plateau) in their light curve followed by a normal decay. Type Ib and Ic supernovae are a type of core-collapse supernova for a massive star that has shed its outer envelope of hydrogen and (for Type Ic) helium. As a result, they appear to be lacking in these elements.

43

Formation
Stars far more massive than the sun evolve in more complex ways. In the core of the sun, hydrogen is fused into helium, releasing thermal energy that heats the sun's core and provides pressure that supports the sun's layers against collapse in a process known as hydrostatic equilibrium. The helium produced in the core accumulates there since temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse. Eventually, as the hydrogen at the core is exhausted, fusion starts to slow down, and gravity causes the core to contract. This contraction raises the temperature high enough to initiate a shorter phase of helium fusion, which accounts for less than 10% of the star's total lifetime. In stars with fewer than eight solar masses, the carbon produced by helium fusion does not fuse, and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf.[4][5] White dwarf stars, if they have a near companion, may then become Type Ia supernovae.

The onion-like layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse. (Not to scale.)

A much larger star, however, is massive enough to create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse once the star contracts at the end of the helium-burning stage. The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center, with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas, surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium, surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple-alpha process, surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements. As a star this massive evolves, it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops, and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion, reigniting to halt collapse.[4][5]

Type II

44

Core-burning nuclear fusion stages for a 25-solar mass star

Process Main fuel Main products 25 M star [6]

Temperature Density Duration (Kelvin) (g/cm3) hydrogen burning triple-alpha process hydrogen helium helium carbon, oxygen Ne, Na, Mg, Al O, Mg Si, S, Ar, Ca nickel (decays into iron) 7107 2108 8108 1.6109 1.8109 2.5109 10 2000 106 107 107 108 107years 106years 103years 3years 0.3years 5days

carbon burning process carbon neon burning process neon

oxygen burning process oxygen silicon burning process silicon

Core collapse
The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released through fusion, which is dependent on the binding energy that holds together these atomic nuclei. Each additional step produces progressively heavier nuclei, which release progressively less energy when fusing. In addition, from carbon-burning onwards, energy loss via neutrino production becomes significant, leading to a higher rate of reaction than would otherwise take place.[7] This continues until nickel-56 is produced, which decays radioactively into cobalt-56 and then iron-56 over the course of a few months. As iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per nucleon of all the elements,[8] energy cannot be produced at the core by fusion, and a nickel-iron core grows.[5][9] This core is under huge gravitational pressure. As there is no fusion to further raise the star's temperature to support it against collapse, it is supported only by degeneracy pressure of electrons. In this state, matter is so dense that further compaction would require electrons to occupy the same energy states. However, this is forbidden for identical fermion particles, such as the electrona phenomenon called the Pauli exclusion principle. When the core's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 solar masses, degeneracy pressure can no longer support it, and catastrophic collapse ensues.[10] The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70,000km/s (23% of the speed of light) as it collapses toward the center of the star.[11] The rapidly shrinking core heats up, producing high-energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration. As the core's density increases, it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay, producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos. Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter, they can escape from the core, carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse, which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds. As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star, some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star's outer layers, beginning the supernova explosion.[12] For TypeII supernovae, the collapse is eventually halted by short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions, mediated by the strong force, as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons, at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus. Once collapse stops, the infalling matter rebounds, producing a shock wave that propagates outward. The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core. This reduces the energy of the shock, which can stall the explosion within the outer core.[13] The core collapse phase is so dense and energetic that only neutrinos are able to escape. As the protons and electrons combine to form neutrons by means of electron capture, an electron neutrino is produced. In a typical Type II supernova, the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion kelvin, 104 times the temperature of the sun's core. Much of this thermal energy must be shed for a stable neutron star to form, otherwise the neutrons would "boil away". This is accomplished by a further release of neutrinos.[14] These 'thermal' neutrinos

Type II form as neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all flavors, and total several times the number of electron-capture neutrinos.[15] The two neutrino production mechanisms convert the gravitational potential energy of the collapse into a ten second neutrino burst, releasing about 1046 joules (100foes).[16] Through a process that is not clearly understood, about 1044 joules (1foe) is reabsorbed by the stalled shock, producing an explosion.[a][13] The neutrinos generated by a supernova were actually observed in the case of Supernova 1987A, leading astronomers to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct. The water-based Kamiokande II and IMB instruments detected antineutrinos of thermal origin,[14] while the gallium-71-based Baksan instrument detected neutrinos (lepton number = 1) of either thermal or electron-capture origin.

45

Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements undergo fusion, forming a nickel-iron core (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and starts to collapse. The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons (c), causing infalling material to bounce (d) and form an outward-propagating shock front (red). The shock starts to stall (e), but it is re-invigorated by neutrino interaction. The surrounding material is blasted away (f), leaving only a degenerate remnant.

When the progenitor star is below about 20solar massesdepending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls backthe degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star.[11] Above this mass, the remnant collapses to form a black hole.[5][17] The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about 4050solar masses. Above that mass, a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion,[18] although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain.

Type II

46

Theoretical models
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter. This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions. The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty picojoules (tens to hundreds of MeV).[19] The per-particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct. But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model.[20] In particular, Earth-based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae,[21] but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles, and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects. The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force, which is believed to be well understood. However, the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force, which is much less well understood.[22] The major unsolved problem with TypeII supernovae is that it is not understood how the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock wave which causes the star to explode. From the above discussion, only one percent of the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion, but explaining how that one percent of transfer occurs has proven very difficult, even though the particle interactions involved are believed to be well understood. In the 1990s, one model for doing this involved convective overturn, which suggests that convection, either from neutrinos from below, or infalling matter from above, completes the process of destroying the progenitor star. Heavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture, and from the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the "neutrinosphere", seeding the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than the material from which the star originally formed.[23] Neutrino physics, which is modeled by the Standard Model, is crucial to the understanding of this process.[20] The other crucial area of investigation is the hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying star; how it behaves during the core collapse determines when and how the "shock wave" forms and when and how it "stalls" and is reenergized.[24] In fact, some theoretical models incorporate a hydrodynamical instability in the stalled shock known as the "Standing Accretion Shock Instability" (SASI). This instability comes about as a consequence of non-spherical perturbations oscillating the stalled shock thereby deforming it. The SASI is often used in tandem with neutrino theories in computer simulations for re-energizing the stalled shock. [25] Computer models have been very successful at calculating the behavior of TypeII supernovae once the shock has been formed. By ignoring the first second of the explosion, and assuming that an explosion is started, astrophysicists have been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and of the expected light curve from the supernova.[26][27][28]

Type II

47

Light curves
When the spectrum of a TypeII supernova is examined, it normally displays Balmer absorption lines reduced flux at the characteristic frequencies where hydrogen atoms absorb energy. The presence of these lines is used to distinguish this category of supernova from a Type I supernova. When the luminosity of a TypeII supernova is plotted over a period of time, it shows a characteristic rise to a peak brightness followed by a decline. These light curves have an average decay rate of 0.008magnitudes per day; much This graph of the luminosity as a function of time shows the characteristic shapes of the light curves for a TypeII-L and II-P supernova. lower than the decay rate for TypeIa supernovae. Type II are sub-divided into two classes, depending on the shape of the light curve. The light curve for a TypeII-L supernova shows a steady (linear) decline following the peak brightness. By contrast, the light curve of a TypeII-P supernova has a distinctive flat stretch (called a plateau) during the decline; representing a period where the luminosity decays at a slower rate. The net luminosity decay rate is lower, at 0.0075magnitudes per day for TypeII-P, compared to 0.012magnitudes per day for TypeII-L.[29] The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be caused, in the case of TypeII-L supernovae, by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen envelope of the progenitor star.[29] The plateau phase in TypeII-P supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of the exterior layer. The shock wave ionizes the hydrogen in the outer envelopestripping the electron from the hydrogen atomresulting in a significant increase in the opacity. This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from escaping. Once the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine, the outer layer becomes transparent.[30]

Type IIn supernovae

The "n" denotes narrow, which indicates the presence of intermediate or very narrow width H emission lines in the spectra. In the intermediate width case, the ejecta from the explosion may be interacting strongly with gas around the star the circumstellar medium. [31][32] There are indications that they originate as stars similar to Luminous blue variables with large mass losses before exploding.[33] SN 2005gl is one example of Type IIn; SN 2006gy, an extremely energetic supernova, may be another example.[34]

Type IIb supernovae

A Type IIb supernova has a weak hydrogen line in its initial spectrum, which is why it is classified as a Type II. However, later on the H emission becomes undetectable, and there is also a second peak in the light curve that has a spectrum which more closely resembles a Type Ib supernova. The progenitor could have been a giant star which lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to interactions with a companion in a binary system, leaving behind the core that consisted almost entirely of helium.[35] As the ejecta of a TypeIIb expands, the hydrogen layer quickly becomes more transparent and reveals the deeper layers.[35] The classic example of a Type IIb supernova is Supernova 1993J,[36][37] while another example is Cassiopeia A.[38] The IIb class was first introduced (as a theoretical concept) by Ensman & Woosley 1987.

Type II

48

Hypernovae (collapsars)
Hypernovae are a rare type of supernova substantially more luminous and energetic than standard supernovae. Examples are 1997ef (type Ic) and 1997cy (type IIn). Hypernovae are produced by more than one type of event: relativistic jets during formation of a black hole from fallback of material onto the neutron star core, the collapsar model; interaction with a dense envelope of circumstellar material, the CSM model; the highest mass pair instability supernovae; possibly others such as binary and quark star model. Stars with initial masses between about 25 and 90 times the sun develop cores large enough that after a supernova explosion, some material will fall back onto the neutron star core and create a black hole. In many cases this reduces the luminosity of the supernova, and above 90 masses the star collapses directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion. However if the progenitor is spinning quickly enough the infalling material generates relativistic jets that emit more energy than the original explosion.[39] They may also be seen directly if beamed towards us, giving the impression of an even more luminous object. In some cases these can produce gamma-ray bursts, although not all gamma-ray bursts are from supernovae.[40] In some cases a type II supernova occurs when the star is surrounded by a very dense cloud of material, most likely expelled during luminous blue variable eruptions. This material is shocked by the explosion and becomes more luminous than a standard supernova. It is likely that there is a range of luminosities for these type IIn supernovae with only the brightest qualifying as a hypernova. Pair instability supernovae occur when an oxygen core in an extremely massive star becomes hot enough that gamma rays spontaneously produce electron-positron pairs.[41] This causes the core to collapse, but where the collapse of an iron core causes endothermic fusion to heavier elements, the collapse of an oxygen core creates runaway exothermic fusion which completely unbinds the star. The total energy emitted depends on the initial mass, with much of the core being converted to 56Ni and ejected which then powers the supernova for many months. At the lower end stars of about 140 solar masses produce supernovae that are long-lived but otherwise typical, while the highest mass stars of around 250 solar masses produce supernovae that are extremely luminous and also very long lived; hypernovae. More massive stars die by photodisintegration. Only population III stars, with very low metallicity, can reach this stage. Stars with more heavy elements are more opaque and blow away their outer layers until they are small enough to explode as a normal type Ib/c supernova. It is thought that even in our own galaxy, mergers of old low metallicity stars may form massive stars capable of creating a pair instability supernova.

References
[1] Gilmore, Gerry (2004). "The Short Spectacular Life of a Superstar". Science 304 (5697): 19151916. doi:10.1126/science.1100370. PMID15218132. [2] Ridge, Oak (2011-03-07). "Solving the Mystery of the Most Violent Event in the Universe: A Core-Collapse Supernovas Explosion" (http:/ / www. dailygalaxy. com/ my_weblog/ 2011/ 03/ -magnetic-fields-of-supernovas-beyond-human-comprehension. html). . Retrieved 2011-03-09. [3] Staff (2006-09-07). "Introduction to Supernova Remnants" (http:/ / heasarc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ objects/ snrs/ snrstext. html). NASA Goddard/SAO. . Retrieved 2007-05-01. [4] Richmond, Michael. "Late stages of evolution for low-mass stars" (http:/ / spiff. rit. edu/ classes/ phys230/ lectures/ planneb/ planneb. html). Rochester Institute of Technology. . Retrieved 2006-08-04. [5] Hinshaw, Gary (2006-08-23). "The Life and Death of Stars" (http:/ / map. gsfc. nasa. gov/ m_uni/ uni_101stars. html). NASA Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Mission. . Retrieved 2006-09-01. [6] Woosley, S.; Janka, H.-T. (2006-01-12). "The Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae". Nature Physics 1 (3): 147154. arXiv:astro-ph/0601261. Bibcode2005NatPh...1..147W. doi:10.1038/nphys172. [7] Clayton, Donald (1983). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8HSGFThnbvkC). University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-10953-4. . [8] Fewell, M. P. (1995). "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy". American Journal of Physics 63 (7): 653658. Bibcode1995AmJPh..63..653F. doi:10.1119/1.17828. [9] Fleurot, Fabrice. "Evolution of Massive Stars" (http:/ / nu. phys. laurentian. ca/ ~fleurot/ evolution/ ). Laurentian University. . Retrieved 2007-08-13.

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[10] Lieb, E. H.; Yau, H.-T. (1987). "A rigorous examination of the Chandrasekhar theory of stellar collapse". Astrophysical Journal 323 (1): 140144. Bibcode1987ApJ...323..140L. doi:10.1086/165813. [11] Fryer, C. L.; New, K. C. B. (2006-01-24). "Gravitational Waves from Gravitational Collapse" (http:/ / relativity. livingreviews. org/ Articles/ lrr-2003-2/ ). Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics. . Retrieved 2006-12-14. [12] Hayakawa, Takehito, Hayakawa, T.;; Iwamoto, N.; Kajino, T.; Shizuma, T.; Umeda, H.; Nomoto, K. (2006). "Principle of Universality of Gamma-Process Nucleosynthesis in Core-Collapse Supernova Explosions". The Astrophysical Journal 648 (1): L47L50. Bibcode2006ApJ...648L..47H. doi:10.1086/507703. [13] Fryer, C. L.; New, K. B. C. (2006-01-24). "Gravitational Waves from Gravitational Collapse, section 3.1" (http:/ / relativity. livingreviews. org/ open?pubNo=lrr-2003-2& page=articlesu6. html). Los Alamos National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2006-12-09. [14] Mann, Alfred K. (1997). Shadow of a star: The neutrino story of Supernova 1987A (http:/ / www. whfreeman. com/ GeneralReaders/ book. asp?disc=TRAD& id_product=1058001008& @id_course=1058000240). New York: W. H. Freeman. p.122. ISBN0-7167-3097-9. . [15] Gribbin, John R.; Gribbin, Mary (2000). Stardust: Supernovae and Life The Cosmic Connection (http:/ / yalepress. yale. edu/ yupbooks/ book. asp?isbn=9780300090970). New Haven: Yale University Press. p.173. ISBN978-0-300-09097-0. . [16] Barwick, S.; Beacom, J. et al. (2004-10-29). "APS Neutrino Study: Report of the Neutrino Astrophysics and Cosmology Working Group" (http:/ / www. aps. org/ policy/ reports/ multidivisional/ neutrino/ upload/ Neutrino_Astrophysics_and_Cosmology_Working_Group. pdf) (PDF). American Physical Society. . Retrieved 2006-12-12. [17] Michael, Chris L. (2003). "Black Hole Formation from Stellar Collapse". Classical and Quantum Gravity 20 (10): S73S80. Bibcode2003CQGra..20S..73F. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/309. [18] Fryer, Chris L. (1999). "Mass Limits For Black Hole Formation". The Astrophysical Journal 522 (1): 413418. arXiv:astro-ph/9902315. Bibcode1999ApJ...522..413F. doi:10.1086/307647. [19] Izzard, R. G.; Ramirez-Ruiz, E.; Tout, C. A. (2004). "Formation rates of core-collapse supernovae and gamma-ray bursts". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 348 (4): 1215. arXiv:astro-ph/0311463. Bibcode2004MNRAS.348.1215I. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07436.x. [20] Rampp, M.; Buras, R.; Janka, H.-Th.; Raffelt, G. (February 1116, 2002). "Core-collapse supernova simulations: Variations of the input physics". Proceedings of the 11th Workshop on "Nuclear Astrophysics". Ringberg Castle, Tegernsee, Germany. pp.119125. Bibcode2002nuas.conf..119R. [21] The OPAL Collaboration; Ackerstaff, K. et al. (1998). "Tests of the Standard Model and Constraints on New Physics from Measurements of Fermion-pair Production at 189 GeV at LEP" (http:/ / publish. edpsciences. com/ articles/ epjc/ abs/ 1998/ 05/ epjc851/ epjc851. html). Submitted to The European Physical Journal C 2 (3): 441472. doi:10.1007/s100529800851. . Retrieved 2007-03-18. [22] Staff (2004-10-05). "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 2004/ public. html). Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [23] Stover, Dawn (2006). "Life In A Bubble". Popular Science 269 (6): 16. [24] Janka, H.-Th.; Langanke, K.; Marek, A.; Martinez-Pinedo, G.; Mueller, B. (2006). "Theory of Core-Collapse Supernovae". Bethe Centennial Volume of Physics Reports (submitted) 142 (14): 229. arXiv:astro-ph/0612072. Bibcode1993JHyd..142..229H. doi:10.1016/0022-1694(93)90012-X. [25] Wakana Iwakami; Kei Kotake, Naofumi Ohnishi, Shoichi Yamada, Keisuke Sawada (March 10th-15th, 2008). "3D Simulations of Standing Accretion Shock Instability in Core-Collapse Supernovae" (http:/ / www. mpa-garching. mpg. de/ hydro/ NucAstro/ PDF_08/ iwakami. pdf). 3D Simulations of Standing Accretion Shock Instability in Core-Collapse Supernovae. 14th Workshop on Nuclear Astrophysics. . Retrieved 30 January 2013. [26] Blinnikov, S.I.; Rpke, F. K.; Sorokina, E. I.; Gieseler, M.; Reinecke, M.; Travaglio, C.; Hillebrandt, W.; Stritzinger, M. (2006). "Theoretical light curves for deflagration models of type Ia supernova". Astronomy and Astrophysics 453 (1): 229240. arXiv:astro-ph/0603036. Bibcode2006A&A...453..229B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054594. [27] Young, Timothy R. (2004). "A Parameter Study of Type II Supernova Light Curves Using 6 M He Cores". The Astrophysical Journal 617 (2): 12331250. arXiv:astro-ph/0409284. Bibcode2004ApJ...617.1233Y. doi:10.1086/425675. [28] Rauscher, T.; Heger, A.; Hoffman, R. D.; Woosley, S. E. (2002). "Nucleosynthesis in Massive Stars With Improved Nuclear and Stellar Physics". The Astrophysical Journal 576 (1): 323348. arXiv:astro-ph/0112478. Bibcode2002ApJ...576..323R. doi:10.1086/341728. [29] Doggett, J. B.; Branch, D. (1985). "A Comparative Study of Supernova Light Curves". Astronomical Journal 90: 23032311. Bibcode1985AJ.....90.2303D. doi:10.1086/113934. [30] "Type II Supernova Light Curves" (http:/ / cosmos. swin. edu. au/ lookup. html?e=typeiisupernovalightcurves). Swinburne University of Technology. . Retrieved 2007-03-17. [31] Filippenko, A. V. (1997). "Optical Spectra of Supernovae". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 35: 309330. Bibcode1997ARA&A..35..309F. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.35.1.309. [32] Pastorello, A.; Turatto, M.; Benetti, S.; Cappellaro, E.; Danziger, I. J.; Mazzali, P. A.; Patat, F.; Filippenko, A. V.; Schlegel, D. J.; Matheson, T. (2002). "The type IIn supernova 1995G: interaction with the circumstellar medium". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 333 (1): 2738. arXiv:astro-ph/0201483. Bibcode2002MNRAS.333...27P. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05366.x. [33] Michael Kiewe; Avishay Gal-Yam; Iair Arcavi; Leonard; Emilio Enriquez; Bradley Cenko; Fox; Dae-Sik Moon et al. (2010). "Caltech Core-Collapse Project (CCCP) observations of type IIn supernovae: typical properties and implications for their progenitor stars". arXiv:1010.2689[astro-ph.CO].

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Type II
[34] Smith, N.; Chornock, R.; Silverman, J. M.; Filippenko, A. V.; Foley, R. J. (2010). "Spectral Evolution of the Extraordinary Type IIn Supernova 2006gy" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0906. 2200v2. pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 709 (2): 856883. arXiv:0906.2200. Bibcode2010ApJ...709..856S. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/856. . [35] Utrobin, V. P. (1996). "Nonthermal ionization and excitation in Type IIb supernova 1993J". Astronomy and Astrophysics 306 (5940): 219231. Bibcode1996A&A...306..219U. [36] Nomoto, K.; Suzuki, T.; Shigeyama, T.; Kumagai, S.; Yamaoka, H.; Saio, H. (1993). "A type IIb model for supernova 1993J". Nature 364 (6437): 507. Bibcode1993Natur.364..507N. doi:10.1038/364507a0. [37] Chevalier, R. A.; Soderberg, A. M. (2010). "TYPE IIb SUPERNOVAE WITH COMPACT AND EXTENDED PROGENITORS". The Astrophysical Journal 711: L40. Bibcode2010ApJ...711L..40C. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/711/1/L40. [38] Krause, O.; Birkmann, S.; Usuda, T.; Hattori, T.; Goto, M.; Rieke, G.; Misselt, K. (2008). "The Cassiopeia A supernova was of type IIb". Science 320 (5880): 11951197. Bibcode2008Sci...320.1195K. doi:10.1126/science.1155788. PMID18511684. [39] Nomoto, K. I.; Tanaka, M.; Tominaga, N.; Maeda, K. (2010). "Hypernovae, gamma-ray bursts, and first stars". New Astronomy Reviews 54 (36): 191. doi:10.1016/j.newar.2010.09.022. [40] "Cosmological Gamma-Ray Bursts and Hypernovae Conclusively Linked" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ outreach/ press-rel/ pr-2003/ pr-16-03. html). European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere (ESO). 2003-06-18. . Retrieved 2006-10-30. [41] Kasen, D.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2011). "Pair Instability Supernovae: Light Curves, Spectra, and Shock Breakout" (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 0004-637X/ 734/ 2/ 102/ pdf/ 0004-637X_734_2_102. pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 734 (2): 102. arXiv:1101.3336. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/734/2/102. .

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51

Structure
Pair-instability supernova
A pair-instability supernova occurs when pair production, the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays, reduces thermal pressure inside a supermassive star's core. This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse, then greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion which blows the star completely apart without leaving a black hole remnant behind.[1] Pair-instability supernovae can only This illustration explains the pair-instability supernova process that astronomers think happen in stars with a mass range from triggered the explosion in SN 2006gy. When a star is very massive, the gamma-rays around 130 to 250 solar masses and produced in its core can become so energetic that some of their energy is drained away into production of particle and anti-particle pairs. The resulting drop in pressure causes low to moderate metallicity (low the star to partially collapse under its own huge gravity. After this violent collapse, abundance of elements other than runaway thermonuclear reactions (not shown here) ensue and the star explodes, spewing hydrogen and helium, a situation the remains into space. common in Population III stars). The recently observed objects SN 2006gy, SN 2007bi,[2] SN 2213-1745 and SN 1000+0216[3] are hypothesized to have been pair-instability supernovae.

Physics
Photon pressure
Light in thermal equilibrium has a black body spectrum with an energy density proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (hence the Stefan-Boltzmann law). The wavelength of maximum emission from a blackbody is inversely proportional to its temperature. That is, the frequency, and the energy, of the greatest population of photons of black body radiation is directly proportional to the temperature, and reaches the gamma ray energy range at temperatures above 3108 K. In very large hot stars, pressure from gamma rays in the stellar core keeps the upper layers of the star supported against gravitational pull from the core. If the energy density of gamma rays is suddenly reduced, then the outer layers of the star will collapse inwards. The sudden heating and compression of the core generates gamma rays energetic enough to be converted into an avalanche of electron-positron pairs, further reducing the pressure. When the collapse stops, the positrons find electrons and the pressure from gamma rays is driven up, again. The population of positrons provides a brief reservoir of new gamma rays as the expanding supernova's core pressure drops.

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Pair creation and annihilation

Sufficiently energetic gamma rays can interact with nuclei, electrons, or one another to produce electron-positron pairs, and electron-positron pairs can annihilate, producing gamma rays. From Einstein's equation , gamma rays must have more energy than the mass of the electronpositron pairs to produce these pairs. At the high densities of a stellar core, pair production and annihilation occur rapidly, thereby keeping gamma rays, electrons, and positrons in thermal equilibrium. The higher the temperature, the higher the gamma ray energies, and the larger the amount of energy transferred

Pair-instability
As temperatures and gamma ray energies increase, more and more gamma ray energy is absorbed in creating electron-positron pairs. This reduction in gamma ray energy density reduces the radiation pressure that supports the outer layers of the star. The star contracts, compressing and heating the core, thereby increasing the proportion of energy absorbed by pair creation. Pressure nonetheless increases, but in a pair-instability collapse, the increase in pressure is not enough to resist the increase in gravitational forces as the star becomes denser.

Stellar susceptibility
A star that is rotating fast enough, or that has enough metallicity, will probably not collapse in a pair-instability supernova due to other effects. Pair-instability happens in low metallicity stars, with low to moderate rotation rates. Stars formed by collision mergers having a metallicity Z between 0.02 and 0.001 may end their lives as pair-instability supernovae if their mass is in the appropriate range.[4] Very large high metallicity stars are probably unstable due to the Eddington limit, and would tend to shed mass during the formation process.

Stellar behavior
Several sources describe the stellar behavior for large stars in pair-instability conditions.[5] [6]

Below 100 solar masses

For lower-mass stars (up to about 100 solar masses) the gamma rays are not energetic enough to produce electronpositron pairs. If a supernova destroys such a star, pair production will not be involved.

100 to 130 solar masses

For stars between 100 and around 130 solar masses, pressure and temperature effects allow larger partial collapses and pressure pulses to occur, initiated by pair production instability in the core, which are too small to fully disrupt the star. These pulses are damped out; they create temporary increased rates of thermonuclear burning, but the star gradually returns to a stable equilibrium. These pulses are expected to lead to ejections of parts of the outer layers of the star, similarly to what happened to the star Eta Carinae in 1843, though that may have had a different underlying mechanism. The pulsing mechanism is thought to cause stars in this mass range to shed mass until their remaining core is small enough to collapse in a normal supernova.

Pair-instability supernova

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130 to 250 solar masses

For very high mass stars, with mass at least 130 and up to perhaps roughly 250 solar masses, a true pair-instability supernova can occur. In these stars, the first time that conditions support pair creation instability, the situation runs out of control. The collapse proceeds to efficiently compress the star's core; the overpressure is sufficient to allow runaway nuclear fusion to burn it in a few seconds, creating a thermonuclear explosion.[6] With more thermal energy released than the stars' gravitational binding energy, it is completely disrupted; no black hole or other remnant is left behind. In addition to the immediate energy release, a large fraction of the star's core is transformed to nickel-56, a radioactive isotope which decays with a half-life of 6.1days into cobalt-56. Cobalt-56 has a half-life of 77days and then further decays to the stable isotope iron-56 (see Supernova nucleosynthesis). For the hypernova SN 2006gy, studies indicate that perhaps 40 solar masses of the original star were released as Ni-56, almost the entire mass of the star's core regions.[5] Collision between the exploding star core and gas it ejected earlier, and radioactive decay, release most of the visible light.

250 solar masses or more

A different reaction mechanism, photodisintegration, results after collapse starts in stars of at least 250 solar masses. This endothermic (energy-absorbing) reaction causes the star to continue collapse into a black hole rather than exploding due to thermonuclear reactions.

Appearance
Luminosity
Pair instability supernovae are popularly thought to be highly luminous. This is actually only the case for the most massive progenitors, which can have peak luminosities of over 1037 joules/sec, brighter than type Ia supernovae. However at lower masses, peak luminosities are less than 1035 joules/sec, comparable to or less than typical type II supernovae.[7]

Spectrum
The spectra of Pair instability supernovae depend on the nature of the progenitor star. Thus they can appear as type II or type Ib/c supernova spectra.[7]

Light Curves
In contrast to the spectra, the light curves are quite different from the common types of supernova. The light curves are highly extended, with peak luminosity occurring months after onset.[7] This is due to the extreme amounts of 56 Ni expelled, and the optically dense ejecta, as the star is entirely disrupted.

Pair-instability supernova

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References
[1] Fraley, Gary S. (1968). "Supernovae Explosions Induced by Pair-Production Instability" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1968Ap& SS. . . 2. . . 96F). Astrophysics and Space Science 2 (1): 96114. Bibcode1968Ap&SS...2...96F. doi:10.1007/BF00651498. . [2] Gal-Yam, A.; Mazzali, P.; Ofek, E. O.; et al. (3), "Supernova 2007bi as a pair-instability explosion" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2009Natur. 462. . 624G), Nature 462: 624627, arXiv:1001.1156, Bibcode2009Natur.462..624G, doi:10.1038/nature08579, [3] Cooke, J.; Sullivan, M.; Gal-Yam, A.; Barton, E. J.; Carlberg, R. G.; Ryan-Weber, E. V.; Horst, C.; Omori, Y. et al. (2012). "Superluminous supernovae at redshifts of 2.05 and 3.90". Nature 491 (7423): 228231. doi:10.1038/nature11521. PMID23123848. [4] Belkus, H.; Van Bever, J.; Vanbeveren, D. (2007). "The Evolution of Very Massive Stars" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2007ApJ. . . 659. 1576B). The Astrophysical Journal 659 (2): 15761581. arXiv:astro-ph/0701334. Bibcode2007ApJ...659.1576B. doi:10.1086/512181. . [5] Smith, Nathan; Li, Weidong; Foley, Ryan J.; Wheeler, J. Craig; Pooley, David; Chornock, Ryan; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Silverman, Jeffrey M.; Quimby, Robert; Bloom, Joshua S.; Hansen, Charles (2007). "SN 2006gy: Discovery of the Most Luminous Supernova Ever Recorded, Powered by the Death of an Extremely Massive Star like Carinae" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2007ApJ. . . 666. 1116S). The Astrophysical Journal 666 (2): 11161128. arXiv:astro-ph/0612617. Bibcode2007ApJ...666.1116S. doi:10.1086/519949. . [6] Fryer, C.L.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2001). "Pair-Instability Supernovae, Gravity Waves, and Gamma-Ray Transients" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2001ApJ. . . 550. . 372F). The Astrophysical Journal 550 (1). arXiv:astro-ph/0007176. Bibcode2001ApJ...550..372F. doi:10.1086/319719. . [7] Kasen, D.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2011). "Pair Instability Supernovae: Light Curves, Spectra, and Shock Breakout" (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 0004-637X/ 734/ 2/ 102/ pdf/ 0004-637X_734_2_102. pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 734 (2): 102. arXiv:1101.3336. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/734/2/102. .

Supernova nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis is the production of new chemical elements inside supernovae. It occurs primarily due to explosive nucleosynthesis during explosive oxygen burning and silicon burning.[1] Those fusion reactions create the elements silicon, sulfur, chlorine, argon, sodium, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium and iron peak elements: vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, and nickel. As a result of their ejection from supernovae, their abundances increase within the interstellar medium. Elements heavier than nickel are created primarily by a rapid capture of neutrons in a process called the R-process. However, there are other processes thought to be responsible for some of the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements, notably a proton capture process known as the Rp-process and a photodisintegration process known as the gamma (or p) process. The latter synthesizes the lightest, most neutron-poor, isotopes of the heavy elements.

Supernova
A supernova is a massive explosion of a star that occurs under two principal scenarios. The first is that a white dwarf star undergoes a nuclear based explosion after it reaches its Chandrasekhar limit after absorbing mass from a neighboring star (usually a red giant). The second, and more common, cause is when a massive star, usually a red giant, reaches Nickel-56 in its nuclear fusion (or burning) processes. This isotope undergoes radioactive decay into Iron-56, which has one of the highest binding energies of all of the isotopes, and is the last element that produces a net release of energy by nuclear fusion, exothermically. All nuclear fusion reactions that produce heaver elements cause the star to lose energy or are said to be endothermic reactions. The pressure that supports the star's outer layers drops sharply. As the outer envelope is no longer sufficiently supported by the radiation pressure, the star's gravity pulls its outer layers rapidly inward. The star collapses very quickly, and strikes the incompressible core causing a shockwave that progresses outward through the unfused material of the outer shell. The pressures and densities in the shockwave are sufficient to induce fusion in that material and the star explodes.

Supernova nucleosynthesis

55

Elements fused
In nuclear fusion processes during stellar nucleosynthesis, the maximum weight for an element fused is that of iron, reaching an isotope with an atomic mass of 56. Prior to a supernova, fusion of elements between silicon and iron occurs only in the largest of stars, in the Silicon burning process. A slow neutron capture process, known as the S-process which also occurs during normal stellar nucleosynthesis can create elements up to bismuth with an atomic mass of approximately 209. However, the s-process occurs primarily in low-mass stars that evolve more slowly. Once the core fails to produce enough energy to support the outer envelope of gasses the star Composite image of Kepler's supernova from pictures by the Spitzer Space Telescope, Hubble explodes as a supernova producing the bulk of elements beyond iron. Space Telescope, and Chandra X-ray Production of elements from iron to uranium occurs within seconds in Observatory. a supernova explosion. Due to the large amounts of energy released, much higher temperatures and densities are reached than at normal stellar temperatures. These conditions allow for an environment where transuranium elements might be formed.

The r-process
During supernova nucleosynthesis, the r process (r for rapid) creates very neutron-rich heavy isotopes, which decay after the event to the first stable isotope, thereby creating the neutron-rich stable isotopes of all heavy elements. This neutron capture process occurs in high neutron density with high temperature conditions. In the r process, any heavy nuclei are bombarded with a large neutron flux to form highly unstable neutron rich nuclei which very rapidly undergo beta decay to form more stable nuclei with higher atomic number and the same atomic weight. The neutron flux is astonishingly high, about 1022 neutrons per square centimeter per second. First calculation of a dynamic r process, showing the evolution of calculated results with time,[2] also suggested that the r process abundances are a superposition of differing neutron fluences. Small fluence produces the first r process abundance peak near atomic weight A=130 but no actinides, whereas large fluence produces the actinides uranium and thorium but no longer contains the A=130 abundance peak. These processes occur in a fraction of a second to a few seconds, depending on details. Hundreds of subsequent papers published have utilized this time-dependent approach. Interestingly, the only modern nearby supernova, 1987A, has not revealed r process enrichments. Modern thinking is that the r process yield may be ejected from some supernovae but swallowed up in others as part of the residual neutron star or black hole.

References
[1] Woosley, S.E., W. D. Arnett and D. D. Clayton (1973). "Explosive burning of oxygen and silicon". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement 26: 231312. Bibcode1973ApJS...26..231W. doi:10.1086/190282. [2] P. A. Seeger, W.A. Fowler, D. D. Clayton (1965). "Nucleosynthesis of heavy elements by neutron capture". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement 11: 121166. Bibcode1965ApJS...11..121S. doi:10.1086/190111.

Other reading
E. M. Burbidge, G. R. Burbidge, W. A. Fowler, F. Hoyle, Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, Rev. Mod. Phys. 29 (1957) 547 ( article (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v29/i4/p547_1) at the Physical Review Online Archive). D. D. Clayton, "Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos", Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-82381-1.

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External links
Atom Smashers Shed Light on Supernovae, Big Bang (http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1502_1.asp) Sky & Telescope Online, April 22, 2005 G. Gonzalez, D. Brownlee, P. Ward (2001). "The Galactic Habitable Zone: Galactic Chemical Evolution" (http:// isotope.colorado.edu/~astr5835/Gonzalez et al.2001.pdf) (PDF). Icarus 152: 185200. arXiv:astro-ph/0103165. Bibcode2001Icar..152..185G. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6617.

p-process
The term p-process (p is for proton) is used in two ways in the scientific literature concerning the astrophysical origin of the elements (nucleosynthesis). Originally it referred to a proton capture process which is the source of certain, naturally occurring, proton-rich isotopes of the elements from selenium to mercury.[1][2] These nuclides are called p-nuclei and their origin is still not completely understood. Although it was shown that the originally suggested process cannot produce the p-nuclei, later on the term p-process was sometimes used to generally refer to any nucleosynthesis process supposed to be responsible for the p-nuclei.[3] Often, the two meanings are confused. Recent scientific literature therefore suggests to use the term p-process only for the actual proton capture process, as it is customary with other nucleosynthesis processes in astrophysics.[4]

The proton capture p-process

Proton-rich nuclides can be produced by sequentially adding one or more protons to an atomic nucleus. Such a nuclear reaction of type (p,) is called proton capture reaction. By adding a proton to a nucleus, the element is changed because the chemical element is defined by the proton number of a nucleus. At the same time the ratio of protons to neutrons is changed, resulting in a proton-richer isotope of the next element. This led to the original idea for the production of p-nuclei: free protons (the nuclei of hydrogen atoms are present in stellar plasmas) should be captured on heavy nuclei (seed nuclei) also already present in the stellar plasma (previously produced in the s- and/or r-process).[1][2] Such proton captures on stable nuclides (or nearly stable), however, are not very efficient in producing p-nuclei, especially the heavier ones, because the electric charge increases with each added proton, leading to an increased repulsion of the next proton to be added, according to Coulomb's law. In the context of nuclear reactions this is called a Coulomb barrier. The higher the Coulomb barrier the more kinetic energy a proton requires to get close to a nucleus and be captured by it. The average energy of the available protons is given by the temperature of the stellar plasma. Even if this temperature could be increased arbitrarily (which is not the case in stellar environments), protons would be removed faster from a nucleus by photodisintegration than they could be captured at high temperature. A possible alternative would be to have a very large number of protons available to increase the effective number of proton captures per second without having to raise the temperature too much. Such conditions, however, are not found in core-collapse supernovae which were supposed to be the site of the p-process.[3][4] Proton captures at extremely high proton densities are called rapid proton capture processes. They are distinct from the p-process not only by the required high proton density but also by the fact that very short-lived radionuclides are involved and the reaction path is located close to the proton drip line. Rapid proton capture processes are the rp-process, the p-process, and the pn-process.

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History
The term p-process was originally proposed in the famous "B2FH paper" in 1957. The authors assumed that this process was solely responsible for the p-nuclei and proposed that it occurs in the hydrogen-shell (see also stellar evolution) of a star exploding as a type II supernova.[1] It was shown later that the required conditions are not found in such supernovae.[5] At the same time as B2FH, also Alastair Cameron independently realized the necessity to add another nucleosynthesis process to neutron capture nucleosynthesis but simply mentioned proton captures without assigning a special name to the process. He also thought about alternatives, for example photodisintegration (called the -process today) or a combination of p-process and photodisintegration.[2]

References
[1] E. M. Burbidge, G. R. Burbidge, W. A. Fowler, Fred Hoyle (1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". Reviews of Modern Physics 29 (4): 547650. Bibcode1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547. [2] A. G. W. Cameron: Nuclear Reactions in Stars and Nucleogenesis. In: Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 69, 1957, p. 201-222. ( online (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-data_query?bibcode=1957PASP. . . 69. . 201C& link_type=ARTICLE& db_key=AST)) [3] M. Arnould, S. Goriely: The p-process of stellar nucleosynthesis: astrophysics and nuclear physics status. In: Physics Reports 384, 2003, p. 1-84. [4] T. Rauscher: Origin of p-Nuclei in Explosive Nucleosynthesis. In: Proceedings of Science XI_059.pdf PoS(NIC XI)059 (http:/ / pos. sissa. it/ archive/ conferences/ 100/ 059/ NIC), 2010; (online) (http:/ / arXiv. org/ abs/ 1012. 2213) [5] J. Audouze, J. W. Truran: P-process nucleosynthesis in postshock supernova envelope environments. In: The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 202, 1975, p. 204-213. ( doi:10.1086/153965)

r-process
The r-process is a nucleosynthesis process, that occurs in core-collapse supernovae (see also supernova nucleosynthesis), and is responsible for the creation of approximately half of the neutron-rich atomic nuclei heavier than iron. The process entails a succession of rapid neutron captures (hence the name r-process) by heavy seed nuclei, typically 56Fe or other more neutron-rich heavy isotopes. The other predominant mechanism for the production of heavy elements is the s-process, which is nucleosynthesis by means of slow captures of neutrons, primarily occurring in AGB stars. The s-process is secondary, meaning that it requires preexisting heavy isotopes as seed nuclei to be converted into other heavy nuclei. Taken together these two processes account for a majority of galactic chemical evolution of elements heavier than iron. The r-process occurs to a slight extent in nuclear weapon explosions.

History
The need for some kind of rapid capture of neutrons was seen from the relative abundances of isotopes of heavy elements given in a newly published table of abundances by Hans Suess and Harold Urey in 1956. Radioactive isotopes must capture another neutron faster than they can undergo beta decay in order to create abundance peaks at germanium, xenon, and platinum. According to the nuclear shell model, radioactive nuclei that would decay into isotopes of these elements have closed neutron shells near the neutron drip line, where more neutrons cannot be added. Those abundance peaks created by rapid neutron capture implied that other nuclei could be accounted for by such a process. That process of rapid neutron capture in neutron-rich isotopes is called the R process (usually r process). A table apportioning the heavy isotopes phenomenologically between s-process and r-process was published in the famous B2FH review paper in 1957,[1] which named that process and outlined the physics that guides it. B2FH also elaborated the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and set substantial frame-work for contemporary nuclear astrophysics.

r-process The r process described by the B2FH paper was first computed time-dependently at Caltech by Phillip Seeger, William A. Fowler and Donald D. Clayton,[2] who achieved the first successful caricature of the r-process abundances and showed its evolution in time. They were also able using theoretical production calculations to construct more quantitative apportionment between s-process and r-process of the abundance table of heavy isotopes, thereby establishing a more reliable abundance curve for the r-process isotopes than B2FH had been able to define. Today, the r-process abundances are determined using their technique of subtracting the more reliable s-process isotopic abundances from the total isotopic abundances and attributing the remainder to the r-process nucleosynthesis. That r-process abundance curve (vs. atomic weight) gratifyingly resembles computations of abundances synthesized by the physical process. Most neutron-rich isotopes of elements heavier than nickel are produced, either exclusively or in part, by the beta decay of very radioactive matter synthesized during the r process by rapid absorption, one after another, of free neutrons created during the explosions. The creation of free neutrons by electron capture during the rapid collapse to high density of the supernova core along with assembly of some neutron-rich seed nuclei makes the r process a primary process; namely, one that can occur even in a star of pure H and He, in contrast to the B2FH designation as a secondary process building on preexisting iron. Observational evidence of the r process enrichment of stars, as applied to the abundance evolution of the galaxy of stars, was laid out by Truran in 1981.[3] He and many subsequent astronomers showed that the pattern of heavy-element abundances in the earliest metal-poor stars matched that of the shape of the solar r-process curve, as if the s-process component were missing. This was consistent with the hypothesis that the s-process had not yet begun in these young stars, for it requires about 100 million years of galactic history to get started. These stars were born earlier than that, showing that the r-process emerges immediately from quickly-evolving massive stars that become supernovae. The primary nature of the r-process from observed abundance spectra in old stars born when the galactic metallicity was still small but that nonetheless contain their complement of r-process nuclei. This scenario, though generally supported by supernova experts, has yet to achieve a totally satisfactory calculation of r-process abundances because the overall problem is numerically formidable; but existing results are very supportive. The r-process is responsible for our natural cohort of radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, as well as the most neutron-rich isotopes of each heavy element.

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Nuclear physics
Immediately after the severe compression of electrons in a core-collapse supernova, beta-minus decay is blocked. This is because the high electron density fills all available free electron states up to an Fermi energy which is greater than the energy of nuclear beta decay. But nuclear capture of those free electrons still occurs, and causes increasing neutronization of matter. There results an extremely high density of free neutrons which cannot decay, and as a result a large neutron flux (on the order of 1022 neutrons per cm2 per second ) and high temperatures. As this re-expands and cools, neutron capture by still-existing heavy nuclei occurs much faster than beta-minus decay. As a consequence, the r-process runs up along the neutron drip line and highly-unstable neutron-rich nuclei are created. Three processes which affect the process of climbing the neutron drip line are; a notable decrease in the neutron-capture cross section at nuclei with closed neutron shells, the inhibiting process of photodisintegration, and the degree of nuclear stability in the heavy-isotope region. This last phenomenon terminates the r-process when its heaviest nuclei become unstable to spontaneous fission, which is currently believed to be in the neutron-rich region of the table of nuclides when the total number of nucleons approaches 270. After the neutron flux decreases, these highly unstable radioactive nuclei undergo a rapid succession of beta decays until they reach more stable, neutron-rich nuclei.[4] So, while the s-process creates an abundance of stable nuclei having closed neutron shells, the r-process creates an abundance of nuclei about 10 amu below the s-process peaks as a result of the decay back towards stability .

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Astrophysical sites
The most widely believed candidate site for the r-process are core-collapse supernovae (spectral Type Ib, Ic and II), which provide the necessary physical conditions for the r-process. However, the abundance of r-process nuclei requires that either only a small fraction of supernovae eject r-process nuclei to the interstellar medium, or that each supernova ejects only a very small amount of r-process material. A recently proposed[5] alternative solution is that neutron star mergers (a binary star system of two neutron stars that collide) may also play a role in the production of r-process nuclei, but this has yet to be observationally confirmed.

References
[1] E. M. Burbidge, G. R. Burbidge, W. A. Fowler, and F. Hoyle (1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". Reviews of Modern Physics 29 (4): 547. Bibcode1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547. [2] P.A.Seeger, W. A. Fowler, and Donald D. Clayton, Nucleosynthesis of heavy elements by neutron capture, Astrophys. J. Suppl, 11, 12166, (1965) [3] J. W. Truran, A new interpretation of the heavy-element abundances in metal-deficient stars, Astron. Astrophys.,97,392-93 (1981) [4] Donald D. Clayton, Principles of Stellar Evoluion and Nucleosynthesis, Mc-Graw-Hill (New York 1968), pages 57791, provides a clear technical introduction to these features. More technical is the previously cited paper by Seeger et al. [5] Freiburghaus, C.; Rosswog, S.; Thielemann, F.-K. "R-Process in Neutron Star Mergers". The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 525, Issue 2, pp. L121-L124. 11/1999 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1999ApJ. . . 525L. 121F)

Gamma-ray burst
Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are flashes of gamma rays associated with extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies. They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe.[1] Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several minutes. The initial burst is usually followed by a longer-lived "afterglow" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).[2] Most observed GRBs are believed to consist of a narrow beam of intense radiation Artist's illustration showing the life of a massive star as nuclear fusion converts released during a supernova as a rapidly lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough rotating, high-mass star collapses to form a pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a black hole. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation neutron star, quark star, or black hole. A to form a gamma-ray burst. subclass of GRBs (the "short" bursts) appear to originate from a different process. This may be the merger of binary neutron stars. The cause of the precursor burst observed in some of these short events may be caused by the development of a resonance between the crust and core of such stars as a result of the massive tidal forces experienced in the seconds leading up to their collision, causing the entire crust of the star to shatter.[3] The sources of most GRBs are billions of light years away from Earth, implying that the explosions are both extremely energetic (a typical burst releases as much energy in a few seconds as the Sun will in its entire 10-billion-year lifetime) and extremely rare (a few per galaxy per million years[4]). All observed GRBs have originated from outside the Milky Way galaxy, although a related class of phenomena, soft gamma repeater flares,

Gamma-ray burst are associated with magnetars within the Milky Way. It has been hypothesized that a gamma-ray burst in the Milky Way, pointing directly towards the Earth, could cause a mass extinction event.[5] GRBs were first detected in 1967 by the Vela satellites, a series of satellites designed to detect covert nuclear weapons tests. Hundreds of theoretical models were proposed to explain these bursts in the years following their discovery, such as collisions between comets and neutron stars.[6] Little information was available to verify these models until the 1997 detection of the first X-ray and optical afterglows and direct measurement of their redshifts using optical spectroscopy, and thus their distances and energy outputs. These discoveries, and subsequent studies of the galaxies and supernovae associated with the bursts, clarified the distance and luminosity of GRBs. These facts definitively placed them in distant galaxies and also connected long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars, the only possible source for the energy outputs observed.

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History
Gamma-ray bursts were first observed in the late 1960s by the U.S. Vela satellites, which were built to detect gamma radiation pulses emitted by nuclear weapons tested in space. The United States suspected that the USSR might attempt to conduct secret nuclear tests after signing the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. On July 2, 1967, at 14:19 UTC, the Vela 4 and Vela 3 satellites detected a flash of gamma radiation unlike any known nuclear weapons signature.[7] Uncertain what had happened but not considering the matter particularly urgent, the team at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, led by Ray Klebesadel, filed the data away for investigation. As additional Vela satellites were launched with better instruments, the Los Alamos team continued to find inexplicable gamma-ray bursts in their data. By analyzing the different arrival times of the bursts as detected by different satellites, the team was able to determine rough estimates for the sky positions of sixteen bursts[7] and definitively rule out a terrestrial or solar origin. The discovery was declassified and published in 1973 as an Astrophysical Journal article entitled "Observations of Gamma-Ray Bursts of Cosmic Origin".[8] Many theories were advanced to explain these bursts, most of which posited nearby sources within the Milky Way Galaxy. Little progress was made until the 1991 launch of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory and its Burst and Transient Source Explorer (BATSE) instrument, an extremely sensitive gamma-ray detector. This instrument provided crucial data indicating that the distribution of GRBs is isotropicnot biased towards any particular direction in space, such as toward the galactic plane or the galactic center.[9] Positions on the sky of all gamma-ray bursts detected during the Because of the flattened shape of the Milky Way BATSE mission. The distribution is isotropic, with no concentration towards the plane of the Milky Way, which runs horizontally through Galaxy, sources within our own galaxy would be the center of the image. strongly concentrated in or near the galactic plane. The absence of any such pattern in the case of GRBs provided strong evidence that gamma-ray bursts must come from beyond the Milky Way.[10][11][12][13] However, some Milky Way models are still consistent with an isotropic distribution.[10][14]

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Counterpart objects as candidate sources

For decades after the discovery of GRBs, astronomers searched for a counterpart at other wavelengths: i.e., any astronomical object in positional coincidence with a recently observed burst. Astronomers considered many distinct classes of objects, including white dwarfs, pulsars, supernovae, globular clusters, quasars, Seyfert galaxies, and BL Lac objects.[15] All such searches were unsuccessful,[16] and in a few cases particularly well-localized bursts (those whose positions were determined with what was then a high degree of accuracy) could be clearly shown to have no bright objects of any nature consistent with the position derived from the detecting satellites. This suggested an origin of either very faint stars or extremely distant galaxies.[17][18] Even the most accurate positions contained numerous faint stars and galaxies, and it was widely agreed that final resolution of the origins of cosmic gamma-ray bursts would require both new satellites and faster communication.[19]

Afterglow
Several models for the origin of gamma-ray bursts postulated[20] that the initial burst of gamma rays should be followed by slowly fading emission at longer wavelengths created by collisions between the burst ejecta and interstellar gas. This fading emission would be called the "afterglow." Early searches for this afterglow were unsuccessful, largely due to the difficulties in observing a burst's position at longer wavelengths immediately after the initial burst. The breakthrough came in February 1997 when the satellite BeppoSAX detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 970228[21]) and when the X-ray camera was pointed towards the direction from which the burst had originated, it detected fading X-ray emission. The William Herschel Telescope identified a fading optical counterpart 20 hours after the burst.[22] Once the GRB faded, deep imaging was able to identify a faint, distant host galaxy at the location of the GRB as pinpointed by the optical afterglow.[23][24]

The Italian-Dutch satellite BeppoSAX, launched in April 1996, provided the first accurate positions of gamma-ray bursts, allowing follow-up observations and identification of the sources.

Because of the very faint luminosity of this galaxy, its exact distance was not measured for several years. Well before then, another major breakthrough occurred with the next event registered by BeppoSAX, GRB 970508. This event was localized within four hours of its discovery, allowing research teams to begin making observations much sooner than any previous burst. The spectrum of the object revealed a redshift of z=0.835, placing the burst at a distance of roughly 6 billionlight years from Earth.[25] This was the first accurate determination of the distance to a GRB, and together with the discovery of the host galaxy of 970228 proved that GRBs occur in extremely distant galaxies.[23][26] Within a few months, the controversy about the distance scale ended: GRBs were extragalactic events originating within faint galaxies at enormous distances. The following year, GRB 980425 was followed within a day by a coincident bright supernova (SN 1998bw), indicating a clear connection between GRBs and the deaths of very massive stars. This burst provided the first strong clue about the nature of the systems that produce GRBs.[27]

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BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and CGRO (with BATSE) was deorbited in 2000. However, the revolution in the study of gamma-ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs, especially in the earliest moments following the explosion. The first such mission, HETE-2,[28] launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006, providing most of the major discoveries during this period. One of the most successful space missions to date, Swift, was launched in 2004 and as of 2012 is still operational.[29][30] Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma ray detector as well as on-board X-ray and optical telescopes, which can be rapidly and automatically slewed to observe NASA's Swift Spacecraft launched in November afterglow emission following a burst. More recently, the Fermi mission 2004 was launched carrying the Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor, which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year, some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi's Large Area Telescope. Meanwhile, on the ground, numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the Gamma-ray Burst Coordinates Network. This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB, often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma-ray emission itself is still ongoing.[31][32] New developments over the past few years include the recognition of short gamma-ray bursts as a separate class (likely due to merging neutron stars and not associated with supernovae), the discovery of extended, erratic flaring activity at X-ray wavelengths lasting for many minutes after most GRBs, and the discovery of the most luminous (GRB 080319B) and the former most distant (GRB 090423) objects in the universe.[33][34] The most distant known GRB, GRB 090429B, is now the most distant known object in the universe.

Classification
While most astronomical transient sources have simple and consistent time structures (typically a rapid brightening followed by gradual fading, as in a nova or supernova), the light curves of gamma-ray bursts are extremely diverse and complex.[35] No two gamma-ray burst light curves are identical,[36] with large variation observed in almost every property: the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes, there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses, and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading. Some bursts are preceded by a "precursor" event, a weak burst that is then followed (after seconds to minutes of no emission at all) by the much more intense "true" bursting episode.[37] The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns.[19]

Gamma-ray burst light curves

Although some light curves can be roughly reproduced using certain simplified models,[38] little progress has been made in understanding the full diversity observed. Many classification schemes have been proposed, but these are often based solely on differences in the appearance of light curves and may not always reflect a true physical difference in the progenitors of the explosions. However, plots of the distribution of the observed duration[39] for a large number of gamma-ray bursts show a clear bimodality, suggesting the existence of two separate populations: a "short" population with an average duration of about 0.3 seconds and a "long" population with an average duration of

Gamma-ray burst about 30 seconds.[40] Both distributions are very broad with a significant overlap region in which the identity of a given event is not clear from duration alone. Additional classes beyond this two-tiered system have been proposed on both observational and theoretical grounds.[41][42][43][44]

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Long gamma-ray bursts

Most observed events have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma-ray bursts. Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows, they have been studied in much greater detail than their short counterparts. Almost every well-studied long gamma-ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation, and in many cases to a core-collapse supernova as well, unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars.[45] Long GRB afterglow observations, at high redshift, are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star-forming regions.[46] A unique gamma ray emission event, GRB 110328A, lasting more than two and a half months was observed starting March 28, 2011, originating from the center of a small galaxy at redshift z = 0.3534. The event is interpreted as a supermassive black hole devouring a star, most likely a white dwarf,[47] and emitting its beam of radiation towards Earth. It could thus be viewed as a temporarily active blazar (a type of quasar).[48][49][50]

Short gamma-ray bursts

Events with a duration of less than about two seconds are classified as short gamma-ray bursts. These account for about 30% of gamma-ray bursts, but until 2005, no afterglow had been successfully detected from any short event and little was known about their origins.[51] Since then, several dozen short gamma-ray burst afterglows have been detected and localized, several of which are associated with regions of little or no star formation, such as large elliptical galaxies and the central regions of large galaxy clusters.[52][53][54][55] This rules out a link to massive stars, confirming that short events are physically distinct from long events. In addition, there has been no association with supernovae.[56] The true nature of these objects (or even whether the current classification scheme is accurate) remains unknown, although the leading hypothesis is that they originate from the mergers of binary neutron stars[57] or a neutron star with a black hole. The mean duration of these events of 0.2 seconds suggests a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms: less than 0.2 light-seconds or 5% of the Sun's diameter. This alone suggests a very compact object as the source. The observation of minutes to hours of X-ray flashes after a short gamma-ray burst is consistent with small particles of a primary object like a neutron star initially swallowed by a black hole in less than two seconds, followed by some hours of lesser energy events, as remaining fragments of tidally-disrupted neutron star material (no longer neutronium) remain in orbit to spiral into the black hole, over a longer period of time.[51] A small fraction of short gamma-ray bursts are probably produced by giant flares from soft gamma repeaters in nearby galaxies.[58][59]

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Energetics and beaming

Gamma-ray bursts are very bright as observed from Earth despite their typically immense distances. An average long GRB has a bolometric flux comparable to a bright star of our galaxy despite a distance of billions of light years (compared to a few tens of light years for most visible stars). Most of this energy is released in gamma rays, although some GRBs have extremely luminous optical counterparts as well. GRB 080319B, for example, was accompanied by an optical counterpart that peaked at a visible magnitude of 5.8,[60] comparable to that of the dimmest naked-eye stars despite the burst's distance of 7.5 billion light years. This combination of brightness and distance requires an extremely energetic source. Assuming the gamma-ray explosion to be spherical, the energy output of GRB 080319B would be within a factor of two of the rest-mass energy of the Sun (the energy which would be released were the Sun to be converted entirely into radiation).[33]

Artist's illustration of a bright gamma-ray burst occurring in a star-forming region. Energy from the explosion is beamed into two narrow, oppositely directed jets.

No known process in the Universe can produce this much energy in such a short time. However, gamma-ray bursts are thought to be highly focused explosions, with most of the explosion energy collimated into a narrow jet traveling at speeds exceeding 99.995% of the speed of light.[61][62] The approximate angular width of the jet (that is, the degree of beaming) can be estimated directly by observing the achromatic "jet breaks" in afterglow light curves: a time after which the slowly decaying afterglow abruptly begins to fade rapidly as the jet slows down and can no longer beam its radiation as effectively.[63][64] Observations suggest significant variation in the jet angle from between 2 and 20 degrees.[65] Because their energy is strongly beamed, the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected. When a gamma-ray burst is pointed towards Earth, the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically. When this effect is taken into account, typical gamma-ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 1044J, or about 1/2000 of a Solar mass energy equivalent.[65] This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib/c supernova (sometimes termed a "hypernova") and within the range of theoretical models. Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs.[27] Additional support for strong beaming in GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova[66] and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic.[67] Short GRBs appear to come from a lower-redshift (i.e. less distant) population and are less luminous than long GRBs.[68] The degree of beaming in short bursts has not been accurately measured, but as a population they are likely less collimated than long GRBs[69] or possibly not collimated at all in some cases.[70]

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Progenitors
Because of the immense distances of most gamma-ray burst sources from Earth, identification of the progenitors, the systems that produce these explosions, is particularly challenging. The association of some long GRBs with supernovae and the fact that their host galaxies are rapidly star-forming offer very strong evidence that long gamma-ray bursts are associated with massive stars. The most widely accepted mechanism for the origin of long-duration GRBs is the collapsar model,[71] in which the core of an extremely massive, low-metallicity, rapidly rotating star collapses into a black hole in the final stages of its evolution. Matter near the star's core rains down towards the center and swirls into a high-density accretion disk. The infall of this material into a black hole drives a pair of relativistic jets out along the rotational Hubble Space Telescope image of WolfRayet axis, which pummel through the stellar envelope and eventually break star WR 124 and its surrounding nebula. through the stellar surface and radiate as gamma rays. Some alternative WolfRayet stars are candidates for being models replace the black hole with a newly formed magnetar,[72] progenitors of long-duration GRBs. although most other aspects of the model (the collapse of the core of a massive star and the formation of relativistic jets) are the same. The closest analogs within the Milky Way galaxy of the stars producing long gamma-ray bursts are likely the WolfRayet stars, extremely hot and massive stars which have shed most or all of their hydrogen due to radiation pressure. Eta Carinae and WR 104 have been cited as possible future gamma-ray burst progenitors.[73] It is unclear if any star in the Milky Way has the appropriate characteristics to produce a gamma-ray burst.[74] The massive-star model probably does not explain all types of gamma-ray burst. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and where no massive stars are present, such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos.[68] The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars. According to this model, the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other due to the release of energy via gravitational radiation[75][76] until the neutron stars suddenly rip each other apart due to tidal forces and collapse into a single black hole. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma-ray bursts, including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole, the accretion-induced collapse of a neutron star, or the evaporation of primordial black holes.[77][78][79][80]

Emission mechanisms
The means by which gamma-ray bursts convert energy into radiation remains poorly understood, and as of 2010 there was still no generally accepted model for how this process occurs.[81] Any successful model of GRB emission must explain the physical process for generating gamma-ray emission that matches the observed diversity of light-curves, spectra, and other characteristics.[82] Particularly challenging is the need to explain the very high efficiencies that are inferred from some explosions: some gamma-ray bursts may convert as much as half (or more) of the explosion energy into gamma-rays.[83] Recent observations of the bright optical counterpart of GRB 080319B, whose light curve was correlated with the gamma-ray light curve,[60] has suggested that inverse Compton may be the dominant process in some events. In this model, pre-existing low-energy photons are scattered by relativistic electrons within the explosion, augmenting their energy by a large factor and transforming them into gamma-rays.[84] The nature of the longer-wavelength afterglow emission (ranging from X-ray through radio) that follows gamma-ray bursts is better understood. Any energy released by the explosion not radiated away in the burst itself takes the form

Gamma-ray burst of matter or energy moving outward at nearly the speed of light. As this matter collides with the surrounding interstellar gas, it creates a relativistic shock wave that then propagates forward into interstellar space. A second shock wave, the reverse shock, may propagate back into the ejected matter. Extremely energetic electrons within the shock wave are accelerated by strong local magnetic fields and radiate as synchrotron emission across most of the electromagnetic spectrum.[85][86] This model has generally been successful in modeling the behavior of many observed afterglows at late times (generally, hours to days after the explosion), although there are difficulties explaining all features of the afterglow very shortly after the gamma-ray burst has occurred.[87]

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Rates and potential effects on life on Earth

All the bursts astronomers have recorded so far have come from distant galaxies and have been harmless to Earth, but if one occurred within our galaxy and were aimed straight at us, the effects could be devastating. Currently orbiting satellites detect an average of about one gamma-ray burst per day. The closest known GRB so far was GRB 031203.[88] Measuring the exact rate is difficult, but for a galaxy of approximately the same size as the Milky Way, the expected rate (for long GRBs) is about one burst every 100,000 to 1,000,000 years.[89] Only a small percentage of these would be beamed towards Earth. Estimates of rates of short GRBs are even more uncertain because of the unknown degree of collimation, but are probably comparable. Gamma-ray bursts are thought to emerge mainly from the poles of a collapsing star. This creates two oppositely-shining beams of radiation shaped like narrow cones. Planets not lying in these cones would be comparatively safe; the chief worry is for those that do.[90] Depending on distance, a gamma flash and its ultraviolet radiation could damage even the most radiation resistant organism known, the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans. These bacteria can endure 2,000 times more radiation than humans. Life surviving an initial onslaught would have to contend with a potentially lethal aftereffect, depletion of the atmosphere's protective ozone layer by the burst.[91]

Hypothetical effects of gamma-ray bursts in the past

GRBs close enough to affect life in some way might occur once every five million years or so around a thousand times since life on Earth began.[92] The major Ordovician-Silurian extinction event of 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB. The late Ordovician species of trilobite that spent some of its life in the plankton layer near the ocean surface was much harder hit than deep-water dwellers, which tended to stay put within quite restricted areas. Usually it is the more widely spread species that fare better in extinction, and hence this unusual pattern could be explained by a GRB, which would probably devastate creatures living on land and near the ocean surface, but leave deep-sea creatures relatively unharmed.[5]

Hypothetical effects of gamma-ray bursts in the future

The greatest danger is believed to come from WolfRayet stars, regarded by astronomers as likely GRB candidates. When such stars transition to supernovae, they may emit intense beams of gamma rays, and if Earth were to lie in the beam zone, devastating effects may occur. Gamma rays would not penetrate Earth's atmosphere to impact the surface directly, but they would chemically damage the stratosphere.[5] For example, if WR 104 were to hit Earth with a burst of 10 seconds duration, its gamma rays could deplete about 25 percent of the world's ozone layer. This would result in mass extinction, food chain depletion, and starvation. The side of Earth facing the GRB would receive potentially lethal radiation exposure, which can cause radiation sickness in the short term, and in the long term result in serious impacts to life due to ozone layer depletion.[5]

Gamma-ray burst

67

Effects after exposure to the gamma-ray burst on Earth's atmosphere

Longer-term, gamma ray energy may cause chemical reactions involving oxygen and nitrogen molecules which may create nitrogen oxide then nitrogen dioxide gas, causing photochemical smog. The GRB may produce enough of the gas to cover the sky and darken it. Gas would prevent sunlight from reaching Earth's surface, producing a cosmic winter effect, and may even further deplete the ozone layer, thus exposing the whole of the Earth to all types of cosmic radiation.[5]

Footnotes
[1] "Gamma Rays" (http:/ / missionscience. nasa. gov/ ems/ 12_gammarays. html). NASA. . [2] Vedrenne & Atteia 2009 [3] Tsang, David and Read, Jocelyn S. and Hinderer, Tanja and Piro, Anthony L. and Bondarescu, Ruxandra (2012). "Resonant Shattering of Neutron Star Crust". Physical Review Letters 108: pp.5. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.011102. [4] Podsiadlowski 2004 [5] Melott 2004 [6] Hurley 2003 [7] Schilling 2002, p.1216 [8] Klebesadel R.W., Strong I.B., and Olson R.A. (1973). "Observations of Gamma-Ray Bursts of Cosmic Origin". Astrophysical Journal Letters 182: L85. Bibcode1973ApJ...182L..85K. doi:10.1086/181225. [9] Meegan 1992 [10] Vedrenne & Atteia 2009, p. 16-40 [11] Schilling 2002, p.3637 [12] Paczyski 1999, p. 6 [13] Piran 1992 [14] Lamb 1995 [15] Hurley 1986, p. 33 [16] A notable exception is the 5 March event of 1979, an extremely bright burst that was successfully localized to supernova remnant N49 in the Large Magellanic Cloud. This event is now interpreted as a magnetar giant flare, more related to SGR flares than "true" gamma-ray bursts. [17] Pedersen 1987 [18] Hurley 1992 [19] Fishman & Meegan 1995 [20] Paczynski 1993 [21] GRBs are named after the date on which they are discovered: the first two digits being the year, followed by the two-digit month and two-digit day and a letter with the order they were detected during that day. The letter 'A' is appended to the name for the first burst identified, 'B' for the second, and so on. For bursts before the year 2010 this letter was only appended if more than one burst occurred that day. [22] van Paradijs 1997 [23] Vedrenne & Atteia 2009, p. 90 93 [24] Schilling 2002, p. 102 [25] Reichart 1995 [26] Schilling 2002, p. 118123 [27] Galama 1998 [28] Ricker 2003 [29] McCray 2008 [30] Gehrels 2004 [31] Akerlof 2003 [32] Akerlof 1999 [33] Bloom 2009 [34] Reddy 2009 [35] Katz 2002, p. 37 [36] Marani 1997 [37] Lazatti 2005 [38] Simi 2005 [39] The duration of a burst is typically measured by T90, the duration of the period which 90 percent of the burst's energy is emitted. Recently some otherwise "short" GRBs have been shown to be followed by a second, much longer emission episode that when included in the burst light curve results in T90 durations of up to several minutes: these events are only short in the literal sense when this component is excluded. [40] Kouveliotou 1994 [41] Horvath 1998

Gamma-ray burst
[42] Hakkila 2003 [43] Chattopadhyay 2007 [44] Virgili 2009 [45] Woosley & Bloom 2006 [46] Pontzen et al 2010 [47] Krolick & Piran 11 [48] Science Daily 2011 [49] Levan 2011 [50] Bloom 2011 [51] In a Flash NASA Helps Solve 35-year-old Cosmic Mystery (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ swift/ bursts/ short_burst_oct5. html). NASA (2005-10-05) The 30% figure is given here, as well as afterglow discussion. [52] Bloom 2006 [53] Hjorth 2005 [54] Berger 2007 [55] Gehrels 2005 [56] Zhang 2009 [57] Nakar 2007 [58] Frederiks 2008 [59] Hurley 2005 [60] Racusin 2008 [61] Rykoff 2009 [62] Abdo 2009 [63] Sari 1999 [64] Burrows 2006 [65] Frail 2001 [66] Mazzali 2005 [67] Frail 2000 [68] Prochaska 2006 [69] Watson 2006 [70] Grupe 2006 [71] MacFadyen 1999 [72] Metzger 2007 [73] Plait 2008 [74] Stanek 2006 [75] Abbott 2007 [76] Kochanek 1993 [77] Vietri 1998 [78] MacFadyen 2006 [79] Blinnikov 1984 [80] Cline 1996 [81] Stern 2007 [82] Fishman, G. 1995 [83] Fan & Piran 2006 [84] Wozniak 2009 [85] Meszaros 1997 [86] Sari 1998 [87] Nousek 2006 [88] Chandra Contributes to ESA's Integral Detection of Closest Gamma-Ray Burst (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ press/ 04_releases/ press_080404. html). chandra.harvard.edu (2004-08-04) [89] "Gamma-ray burst 'hit Earth in 8th Century'" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-21082617). Rebecca Morelle. BBC. 2013-01-21. . Retrieved January 21, 2013. [90] Welsh, Jennifer (2011-07-10). "Can gamma-ray bursts destroy life on Earth?" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 44823014/ ns/ technology_and_science-science/ #. Tqoe10K5PvI). MSN. . Retrieved October 27, 2011. [91] "Death from across the galaxy" (http:/ / www. world-science. net/ exclusives/ 070226_grb-life. htm). World-science.net. . Retrieved 2012-12-30. [92] New Scientist print edition, 15 December 2001, p 10). John Scalo and Craig Wheeler of the University of Texas at Austin

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Gamma-ray burst

69

Notes Books
Vedrenne, G and Atteia, J.-L. (2009). Gamma-Ray Bursts: The brightest explosions in the Universe (http:// books.google.com/?id=jZHSdrvzz0gC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Springer/Praxis Books. ISBN978-3-540-39085-5. Chryssa Kouveliotou, Stanford E. Woosley, Ralph A. M. J., ed. (2012). Gamma-ray bursts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521662095.

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Gamma-ray burst Rykoff, E. et al. (2009). "Looking Into the Fireball: ROTSE-III and Swift Observations of Early GRB Afterglows". Astrophysical Journal 702: 489. arXiv:0904.0261. Bibcode2009ApJ...702..489R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/702/1/489. Sari, R; Piran, T; Narayan, R (1998). "Spectra and Light Curves of Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows". Astrophysical Journal Letters 497 (5): L17. arXiv:astro-ph/9712005. Bibcode1998ApJ...497L..17S. doi:10.1086/311269. Sari, R; Piran, T; Halpern, J.P (1999). "Jets in Gamma-Ray Bursts". Astrophysical Journal Letters 519: L17L20. arXiv:astro-ph/9903339. Bibcode1999ApJ...519L..17S. doi:10.1086/312109. Schilling, Govert (2002). Flash! The hunt for the biggest explosions in the universe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-80053-6. "Gamma-Ray Flash Came from Star Being Eaten by Massive Black Hole" (http://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2011/06/110616142709.htm). Science Daily web site (http://www.sciencedaily.com/). ScienceDaily LLC. 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2011-06-19. Simi, S. et al. (2005). "A model for temporal variability of the GRB light curve". In Bulik, T., Rudak, B, and Madejski, G.. Astrophysical Sources of High Energy Particles and Radiation. American Institute of Physics Conference Series. 801. pp.139140. Bibcode2005AIPC..801..139S. doi:10.1063/1.2141849. Stanek, K.Z. et al. (2006). "Protecting Life in the Milky Way: Metals Keep the GRBs Away" (http://acta. astrouw.edu.pl/Vol56/n4/pap_56_4_3.pdf). Acta Astronomica. arXiv:astro-ph/0604113. Bibcode2006AcA....56..333S. Stern, Boris E. and Poutanen, Juri (2004). "Gamma-ray bursts from synchrotron self-Compton emission". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 352 (3): L35L39. arXiv:astro-ph/0405488. Bibcode2004MNRAS.352L..35S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08163.x. Thorsett, S.E. (1995). "Terrestrial implications of cosmological gamma-ray burst models". Astrophysical Journal Letters 444: L53. arXiv:astro-ph/9501019. Bibcode1995ApJ...444L..53T. doi:10.1086/187858. "TNG caught the farthest GRB observed ever" (http://www.tng.iac.es/news/2009/04/24/grb/). Fundacin Galileo Galilei. 24 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-25. van Paradijs, J. et al. (1997). "Transient optical emission from the error box of the gamma-ray burst of 28 February 1997". Nature 386 (6626): 686. Bibcode1997Natur.386..686V. doi:10.1038/386686a0. Vedrenne, G and Atteia, J.-L. (2009). Gamma-Ray Bursts: The brightest explosions in the Universe (http:// books.google.com/?id=jZHSdrvzz0gC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Springer/Praxis Books. ISBN978-3-540-39085-5. Vietri, M. and Stella, L. (1998). "A Gamma-Ray Burst Model with Small Baryon Contamination". Astrophysical Journal Letters 507: L45L48. arXiv:astro-ph/9808355. Bibcode1998ApJ...507L..45V. doi:10.1086/311674. Virgili, F.J., Liang, E.-W. and Zhang, B. (2009). "Low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts as a distinct GRB population: a firmer case from multiple criteria constraints". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 392: 91103. arXiv:0801.4751. Bibcode2009MNRAS.392...91V. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14063.x. Wanjek, Christopher (4 June 2005). "Explosions in Space May Have Initiated Ancient Extinction on Earth" (http:/ /www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/gammaray_extinction.html). NASA. Retrieved 2007-09-15. Watson, D. et al. (2006). "Are short -ray bursts collimated? GRB 050709, a flare but no break". Astronomy and Astrophysics 454: L123L126. arXiv:astro-ph/0604153. Bibcode2006A&A...454L.123W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065380. Woosley, S.E. and Bloom, J.S. (2006). "The Supernova Gamma-Ray Burst Connection". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 44: 507556. arXiv:astro-ph/0609142. Bibcode2006ARA&A..44..507W. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.43.072103.150558. Wozniak, P.R. et al. (2009). "Gamma-Ray Burst at the Extreme: The Naked-Eye Burst GRB 080319B". Astrophysical Journal 691: 495502. arXiv:0810.2481. Bibcode2009ApJ...691..495W. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/1/495.

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Gamma-ray burst Zhang, B.; et al. (2009). "Discerning the physical origins of cosmological gamma-ray bursts based on multiple observational criteria: the cases of z = 6.7 GRB 080913, z = 8.2 GRB 090423, and some short/hard GRBs". Astrophysical Journal 703 (2): 16961724. arXiv:0902.2419. Bibcode2009ApJ...703.1696Z. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/703/2/1696.

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External links
GRB Mission Sites Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission: Official NASA Swift Homepage (http://swift.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/swift/swiftsc.html) UK Swift Science Data Centre (http://www.swift.ac.uk/) Swift Mission Operations Center at Penn State (http://www.swift.psu.edu/) HETE-2: High Energy Transient Explorer (http://space.mit.edu/HETE/) (Wiki entry) INTEGRAL: INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (http://www.esa.int/science/integral) (Wiki entry) BATSE: Burst and Transient Source Explorer (http://www.batse.msfc.nasa.gov/batse/) Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (http://fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov/) (Wiki entry)

AGILE: Astro-rivelatore Gamma a Immagini Leggero (http://agile.rm.iasf.cnr.it/) (Wiki entry) EXIST: Energetic X-ray Survey Telescope (http://exist.gsfc.nasa.gov/) GRB Follow-up Programs The Gamma-ray bursts Coordinates Network (GCN) (http://gcn.gsfc.nasa.gov/) (Wiki entry) BOOTES: Burst Observer and Optical Transient Exploring System (http://bootes.iaa.es/) (Wiki entry) GROND: Gamma-Ray Burst Optical Near-infrared Detector (http://www.mpe.mpg.de/~jcg/GROND/) (Wiki entry) KAIT: The Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope (http://astro.berkeley.edu/~bait/kait.html) (Wiki entry) MASTER: Mobile Astronomical System of the Telescope-Robots (http://observ.pereplet.ru/) PAIRITEL: Peters Automated Infrared Imaging Telescope (http://pairitel.org/) PROMPT: Panchromatic Robotic Optical Monitoring and Polarimetry Telescopes (http://www.physics.unc. edu/skynet/observatories/prompt/) (Wiki entry) RAPTOR: Rapid Telescopes for Optical Response (http://www.raptor.lanl.gov/) ROTSE: Robotic Optical Transient Search Experiment (http://www.umich.edu/~rotse/) (Wiki entry) REM: Rapid Eye Mount (http://www.rem.inaf.it/)

Carbon detonation

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Carbon detonation
Carbon detonation is the violent re-ignition of thermonuclear fusion in a white dwarf, which produces a Type Ia supernova. A white dwarf undergoes carbon detonation only if it has a normal binary companion which is close enough for the dwarf star to siphon sufficient amounts of matter onto the dwarf, expelled during the process of the companion's own late stage evolution. If the companion supplies enough matter to the dead star, the white dwarf's internal pressure and temperature will rise high enough to fuse the previously unfusable carbon in the white dwarf's core. Carbon detonation generally occurs when the accreted matter pushes the white dwarf's mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit of roughly 1.4 solar masses. Computer simulations show that the fusion front proceeds as a series of turbulent, expanding "bubbles" that exhibit RayleighTaylor instability.[1] The turbulence of the unstable fusion front makes it ragged, and the high surface area of the ragged front results in an extremely rapid "burn", known as a "thermonuclear flame". This rapid "burn" erupts explosively through the dwarf star's surface, which is seen as a type Ia supernova.

References
[1] http:/ / www. jinaweb. org/ docs/ nuggets/ truran-3-1. pdf#search=%22type%20Ia%20supernova%20simulation%22

External links
JINA: Type Ia Supernova Flame Models (http://www.jinaweb.org/docs/nuggets/truran-3-1.pdf) A Computer Simulation of Carbon Detonation/Deflagration (http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/mpa/research/ current_research/hl2004-10/hl2004-10-en.html)

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Selected supernovae
SN 185
Supernova SN 185

Combined X-ray image from Chandra and XMM-Newton of RCW 86. Low energy X-rays are in red, medium energies in green, and high energies in blue. RCW 86 is the probable remnant of SN 185. Observation data (Epoch J2000) Supernova type Remnant type Host galaxy Constellation Right ascension Declination Galactic coordinates Discovery date Peak magnitude (V) Distance Type Ia? Shell Milky Way Circinus and Centaurus 14h43m 6230 G315.42.3 December 7, 185 "as much as -8" 2,800pc (ly) Physical characteristics Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V) Notable features ? ? ? Ancient records of SN 185 may be the earliest written description of a supernova. [1]

[2]

SN 185 (aka RCW 86) was a supernova which appeared in the year 185 AD, near the direction of Alpha Centauri, between the constellations Circinus and Centaurus, centered at RA 14h43m Dec -6230, in Circinus. This "guest star" was observed by Chinese astronomers in the Book of Later Han,[3] and may have been recorded in Roman literature.[1] It remained visible in the night sky for eight months. This is believed to have been the first supernova recorded.

SN 185 The gaseous shell RCW 86 is probably the supernova remnant of this event and has a relatively large angular size of roughly 45 arc minutes[2] (larger than the apparent size of the full moon, which varies from 29 to 34 arc minutes). The distance to RCW 86 is estimated to be 2,800 parsecs (light-years).[2] Recent X-ray studies show a good match for the expected age.[4] New infrared observations from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope and Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) reveal how the supernova occurred and how its shattered remains ultimately spread out to great distances. The findings show that the stellar explosion took place in a hollowed-out cavity, allowing material expelled by the star to travel much faster and farther than it would have otherwise.[5] Differing modern interpretations of the Chinese records of the guest star have led to quite different suggestions for the astronomical mechanism behind the event, from a core-collapse supernova[5] to a distant, slow-moving comet[6] with correspondingly wide-ranging estimates of its apparent visual magnitude (8 to +4). The recent Chandra results suggest that it was most likely a Type Ia supernova (a type with consistent absolute magnitude),[5][7] similar therefore to Tycho's star (which had apparent magnitude 4 at a similar distance).

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References
[1] Stothers, Richard (1977). "Is the Supernova of CE 185 Recorded in Ancient Roman Literature". Isis 68 (3): 443447. doi:10.1086/351822. JSTOR231322. [2] Vlk HJ, Berezhko EG, Ksenofontov LT (2005). "Magnetic field amplification in Tycho and other shell-type supernova remnants" (http:/ / www. aanda. org/ index. php?option=article& url=/ articles/ aa/ full/ 2005/ 13/ aa2015/ aa2015. right. html& access=standard). Astron Astrophys. 433 (1): 22940. arXiv:astro-ph/0409453. Bibcode2005A&A...433..229V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042015. . [3] Zhao FY, Strom RG, Jiang SY (2006). "The Guest Star of AD185 Must Have Been a Supernova". Chinese J Astron Astrophys. 6 (5): 63540. Bibcode2006ChJAA...6..635Z. doi:10.1088/1009-9271/6/5/17. [4] "New evidence links stellar remains to oldest recorded supernova" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaCP/ SEMGE58LURE_index_0. html). ESA News. 2006-09-18. . Retrieved 2006-05-24. [5] "NASA Telescopes Help Solve Ancient Supernova Mystery" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ spitzer/ news/ spitzer20111024. html). NASA. 2011-10-24. . Retrieved 2011-10-25.

Infrared images from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope and WISE are combined with X-ray data from the Chandra X-ray Observatory and ESA's XMM-Newton Observatory in this image of RCW 86.

[6] Chin YN, Huang YL. "Identification of the Guest Star of AD 185 as a comet rather than a supernova" (http:/ / mail. tku. edu. tw/ einmann/ papers/ SN185. ps). . [7] Brian J. Williams et al. (October 2011). "RCW 86: A Type Ia Supernova in a Wind-blown Bubble". The Astrophysical Journal 741 (2): 96. arXiv:1108.1207v1. Bibcode2011ApJ...741...96W. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/741/2/96.

External References
APOD, 28 September 2006 (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap060928.html) APOD, 10 November 2011 (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap111110.html) BBC News (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15445688) Ancient supernova mystery solved (25 October 2011)

Crab Supernova

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Crab Supernova
Supernova SN 1054

The Crab Nebula, remnant of SN 1054. Credit: NASA/ESA. Observation data (Epoch ?) Supernova type Remnant type Host galaxy Constellation Right ascension Declination Galactic coordinates Discovery date Peak magnitude (V) Distance Type II Nebula Milky Way Taurus 5h 34.5m +22 01' G.184.65.8 1054 -6 [1]

6.5kly (kpc) Physical characteristics

Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V)

Unknown Unknown Unknown

Crab Supernova

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SN 1054 is a supernova that was first observed as a new "star" in the sky on 4 July 1054 AD, hence its name, and that lasted for a period of around two years. The event was recorded in multiple Chinese and Japanese documents and in one document from the Arab world. While it has been hypothesized that SN 1054 was also observed by American-Indian tribes and Europeans, it has not been conclusively proven. The remnant of SN 1054, which consists of debris ejected during the explosion, is known as the Crab Nebula. It is located in the sky near the star Zeta Tauri ( Tauri). Some of the remnant of the explosion The Crab Nebula is a remnant of an exploded star. This is the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the formed a pulsar, called the Crab Pulsar (or PSR HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6 B0531+21). The nebula and the pulsar it contains are wide. the most studied astronomical objects outside the Solar System. It is one of the few Galactic supernovae where the date of the explosion is well known. The two objects are the most luminous in their respective categories. For these reasons, and because of the important role it has repeatedly played in the modern era, SN 1054 is the best known supernova in the history of astronomy. The Crab nebula is easily observed by amateur astronomers thanks to its brightness, and was also catalogued early on by professional astronomers, long before its true nature was understood and identified. When the French astronomer Charles Messier watched for the return of Halley's Comet in 1758, he confused the nebula for the comet, as he was unaware of the former's existence. Due to this error, he created his catalogue of non-cometary nebulous objects, the Messier Catalogue, to avoid such mistakes in the future. The nebula is catalogued as the first Messier object, or M1.

Collection of historical records

SN 1054 is one of eight supernovae that can be identified because written testimony describing the explosion has survived. In the nineteenth century, astronomers began to take an interest in the historic records. They compiled and examined the records as part of their research on recent novae, comets, and later, the supernovae. The first people to attempt a systematic compilation of records from China were the father and son Biot. In 1843, the sinologist douard Biot translated for his father, the astronomer Jean-Baptiste Biot, passages from the astronomical treatise of the 348-volume Chinese encyclopaedia, the Wenxian Tongkao. Almost 80 years later, in 1921, Knut Lundmark undertook a similar effort based on a greater number of sources. In 1942, Jan Oort, convinced that the Crab Nebula was the "guest star" of 1054 described by the Chinese, asked sinologist J.J.L. Duyvendak to help him compile new evidence on the observation of the event.

Authenticated documents
China
Stars which appeared temporarily in the sky were generically called guest stars by Chinese astronomers. The guest star of 1054 occurred during the reign of the Emperor Renzong of the Song dynasty (9601279). The relevant year is recorded in Chinese documents as "the first year of the Zhihe era". "Zhihe" was an era name used during the reign of Emperor Renzong, and corresponds to the years 10541056 C.E., so the first year of the Zhihe era corresponds to the

Crab Supernova year 1054 C.E. Six accounts from China relate the observation of the phenomenon. Like almost all of the records relating to the guest star, none of them are first hand: the oldest was about a century after the apparition of the star. Some of these accounts are nevertheless remarkably well preserved, and are used to reconstruct the essential information concerning the observation of the explosion. Wenxian Tongkao The Wenxian Tongkao is the first East Asian source that came to the attention of Western astronomers; it was translated by douard Biot in 1843. This source, compiled by Ma Duanlin in 1280, is relatively brief. The text states: Zhihe era of the reign, first year, fifth lunar month, ji-chou day. A guest star has appeared to the south-east of Tianguan, perhaps several inches away. After a year or more, it gradually disappeared. "Tianguan" is the traditional Chinese name for Zeta Tauri. Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian The Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian ("Long compilation of the continuation of the Zizhi Tongjian"), a book covering the period of 9601126 and written 40 years or so later by Li Tao (11141183), contains the oldest Chinese testimonies relating to the observation of the star. It was rediscovered in 1970 by the specialist in Chinese civilisations Ho Peng Yoke and collaborators. It is relatively imprecise in the case of the explosion of SN 1054. A loose translation of what was stated : "First year of the Zhihe era, fifth lunar month, ji-chou day. A guest star has appeared to the south-east of Tianguan, perhaps several inches away [of this star]. (The star disappeared in the third lunar month of the first year of the Jiayou era.)" Song Huiyao The Song Huiyao (literally "Collected important documents of the Song dynasty") covers the period 9601220. Huiyao is a traditional form of history books in China which aimed mainly to preserve primary sources, and as such are important sources supplementing the official Twenty-Four Histories. The Song dynasty had a specific government department dedicated to compiling the Huiyao, and some 2,200 volumes were published in ten batches during the Song dynasty. However, most of these documents were lost by the time of the Qing Dynasty except for the synopsis and a relatively small portion preserved as part of the imperial Yongle Encyclopedia. In 1809, the portion preserved in the Yongle Encyclopedia was extracted and re-published as the Song Huiyao Jigao (the "draft extract of the Song Huiyao"). Subsequent scholars have worked on the project further and the current edition dates from 1936. This document recounts the observation of the guest star, by focusing on the astronomical aspect, but gives more important information relating to the visibility of the star, by day and by night. Zhihe era, first year, seventh lunar month, 22nd day. [...] Yang Weide declared: "I humbly observe that a guest star has appeared; above the star there is a feeble yellow glimmer. If one examines the divination regarding the Emperor, the interpretation [of the presence of this guest star] is the following: The fact that the star has not overrun Bi and that its brightness must represent a person of great value. I demand that the Office of Historiography is informed of this." All officials congratulated the Emperor, who ordered his congratulations be [back] forwarded to the Office of Historiography. First year of the era of Jiayou, third lunar month, the director of the Astronomical Office said "The guest star has disappeared, which means the departure of the host [that it represents]." Previously, during the first year of the Zhihe era, during the fifth lunar month, it had appeared at dawn, in the direction of the east, under the watch of Tianguan. It had been seen in daylight, like Venus. It had rays stemming in all directions, and its colour was reddish white. Altogether visible for 23 days

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Crab Supernova Song Shi The Song Shi is the official annals of the Song dynasty. Chapter 12 mentions the guest star, not its appearance but rather the moment of its disappearance. The corresponding entry dated 6 April 1056 indicates : Jiayou era, first year, third lunar month, xinwei day, the director of the Office of Astronomy reported during the fifth lunar month of the first year of the Zhihe era, a guest star had appeared at dawn, in the direction of the east, under the watch of Tianguan. Now it has disappeared. In chapter 56 ("Astronomical treaty") of the same document, the guest star is again mentioned in a chapter dedicated to this type of phenomenon, this time focusing on its appearance, and this is in terms very close to Wenxian Tongkao : Zhihe era of the reign, first year, fifth lunar month, jichou day. A guest star has appeared to the south-east of Tianguan, perhaps several inches away. After a year or more, it gradually disappeared. Qidan Guozhi There is an account of the star from the Khitan Liao Dynasty, which ruled in the area around Manchuria from 9071125. The book in question, the Qidan Guozhi, was compiled by Ye Longli in 1247. It includes various astronomical notes, some of which are clearly copied from the Song Shi. This entry referring to the star of 1054 seems unique: Chongxi era of the reign of [King Xingzong], twenty-third year eighth lunar moon, the ruler of the realm is dead. It happened before a solar eclipse at noon, and a guest star appeared. The highest office at the Office of History, Liu Yishou had said "These are omens of the death of the King." This prediction has been realised. Interpretation of Chinese reports The sky on the morning of 4 July, probable date of the first Chinese observation of the supernova (blue square). The supernova emerged from its conjunction with the Sun, and rose about two hours before it, being observed during part of this period and day. Three of these accounts clearly emanate from the same source: those of Wenxian Tongkao, of Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, and of chapter 56 of Songshi, who had evaluated the angular distance from the star to Tianguan according to the formula "perhaps several inches away". The three documents however are in apparent disagreement about the date of appearance of the star. Two mention the day jichou, and the third, the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, the day yichou. These terms refer to the Chinese sexagenary cycle, corresponding to numbers 26 and 2 of the cycle, which corresponds, in the context where they are cited, respectively, to 4 July and 10 June. The latter date is considered incorrect for several reasons. On the one hand, the terms yichou and jichou are different from one and other by only one character, the first, and these characters are very similar, yichou and jichou written respectively and , so a typographical error in re-transcription seems possible. For others, the entries of Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian follow a strict chronological order, and previous entries also refer to the Chinese sexagenary cycle, concerning the days yiyou (22) and bingxu (24), while later entries relate to the days yiwei (32, part of the sixth lunar moon), bingshen (33), then renyin (39). In this context, it seems far more likely that the use of yichou is a result of an error in re-transcription rather than a chronological misplacing of the entry. The duration of visibility is explicitly mentioned in chapter 12 of Songshi, and slightly less accurately, in the Song Huiyao, the last sighting was on 6 April 1056, after a very long period of visibility of 642 days. This duration is supported by the Wenxian Tongkao and chapter 56 of the Songshi. According to the Song Huiyao the visibility of the guest star was for only 23 days, but this is after mentioning visibility during daylight. This period of 23 days applies in all likelihood solely to visibility during the day. The account of Qidan Guozhi alluded to the notable astronomical events that preceded the death of King Xingzong. Various historical documents allow us to establish the date of death of the Emperor Xingzong as 28 August 1055, during the eighth lunar month of the twenty-fourth (and not twenty-third) year of his reign. The dates of the two astronomical events mentioned (the eclipse and the appearance of the guest star) are not specified, but were probably

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Crab Supernova before the obituary (2 or 3 years at most). Two solar eclipses were visible shortly before that date in the Khitan kingdom, on 13 November 1053 and 10 May 1054. Of these, only one occurred around noon, that of 13 November; it seems likely that this is what the document mentions. As for the guest star, only a rough estimate of location is given, corresponding to the moon mansion Mao. This mansion is situated just east of where the star appeared, as mentioned in the other testimonies (see the section General localisation of the Event below). Since no other known significant astronomical event occurred in this region of the sky during the two years that preceded the death of Xingzong, it seems likely that the text is actually referring to the star of 1054. The location of the guest star can in principle be deducted from the statement to the south-east of Tianguan, perhaps several inches away , which for a long time perplexed modern astronomers, because if Tianguan is almost universally regarded as a correspondent for the star Zeta Tauri ( Tauri), the Crab nebula, following a clearly old explosion of stars about 1000 years ago, and therefore a natural candidate for this guest star, is not situated in the south-east but to the north-west of this star (see the General localisation of the Event section below).

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Japan
Three texts from Japan mention the guest star. The most detailed of these is that of Meigetsuki. One of the other two, which is less precise, can be taken as his, or at least share a common origin with him. The last record, which is extremely brief, gives very little information. Meigetsuki Fujiwara no Teika (11621241), a poet and courtier, mentions the guest star of 1054 in his famous diary, the Meigetsuki. Better known for his literary works than for his interest in astronomy, he supplied the most detailed description of the supernova of 1054. His interest in the guest star seems to have come accidentally whilst observing a comet in December 1230, which prompted him to search for evidence of past guest stars, among those SN 1054 (as well as SN 1006 and SN 1181, the two other historic supernovas from the early second millennium). The entry relating to SN 1054 can be translated as: Tengi era of the emperor Go-Reizei, second year, fourth lunar month, after the middle period of ten days. At chou [a Chinese term for 1-3am], a guest star appeared in the degrees of the moon mansions of Zuixi and Shen. It has been viewed in the direction of the East and has emerged from the Tianguan star. It was as big as Jupiter. SN 1054 in Meigetsuki is not a historical record. It was mentioned about relations between the guest stars and ominous incidents; it was an onmyodo superstition. As a result, he concluded that there are relations between them. The source used by Fujiwara no Teika is the records of Yasutoshi Abe (Onmyd doctor), but it seems to have been based, for all the astronomical events he has recorded, on documents of Japanese origin. The date he gives is prior to the third part of ten days of the lunar month mentioned, which corresponds to the period of between 30 May and 8 June 1054 of the Julian calendar, which is around one month earlier than Chinese documentation. This difference is usually attributed to an error in the lunar months (fourth place and fifth place). The location of the guest star, clearly straddling the moon mansions Shen and Zuixi, corresponds to what would be expected of a star appearing in the immediate vicinity of Tianguan. Ichidai Yoki Another account exists, taken from Ichidai Yoki, an anonymous document probably compiled during the course of the 14th century. He described the star in a way very similar to the Meigetsuki, omitting several details (hour of apparition, and possibly erroneous parts of the lunar month). The comparison with Jupiter is not present; neither is the possibly incorrect month. In addition, the short text contains many typographical errors, especially involving the second character of Tianguan. Everything suggests that this testimony is from the same source as the Meigetsuki, which could also have been copied.

Crab Supernova Dainihonshi Finally, an even shorter text is included in the astronomical treaty of Dainihonshi (litt. History of Great Japan). This text can be translated as : Era of Tengi of the Emperor Go-Reizei, second year, fourth lunar month. A guest star was seen. The brevity contrasts with the more detailed descriptions of guest stars (actually supernovas) of 1006 and 1181. The reason for the little detail on the entry of 1054 is not known. Like the other two Japanese mentions of the star, it mentions the fourth month and not the fifth. Interpretation of Japanese reports Japan's three documents are in agreement as to the month of observation, corresponding to the fourth lunar moon, one month earlier than the Chinese texts. Whatever the exact date during this month, there seems to be a contradiction between this period and the observation of the guest star: the star was close to the sun, making daytime and nighttime observation impossible. This inconsistency of the dates is further confirmed by a detail in the Meigetsuki: the mention of the double hour chou which corresponds to 1 am 3 am. This is a long time from sunrise and, since the star and the sun are close, the star could not possibly rise before the sun. The Japanese and Chinese testimonies can be reconciled if one considers that there is an error in the month stated in the Japanese observation records. The fact that all the Japanese sources make the same mistake can be interpreted as the fact that they are all from the same source. Doubts as to the month of the observation could have been relieved if the day determined by the Chinese sexagenary cycle had been included, in addition to the observation month, but this is not the case in the Japanese documents. In contrast, the day of the cycle given in the Chinese documents is compatible with the months that they state, reinforcing the idea that the month on the Japanese document is incorrect. For others, the study of other medieval supernovas (SN 1006 and SN 1181) reveals a proximity in the dates of discovery of a guest star in China and Japan, although clearly based on different sources. Considering the mention of the fourth lunar month, it would then be accurate to imagine that in that event, the Japanese have significantly outperformed their Chinese counterparts, a mystery for which an explanation is not forthcoming. The Japanese documents do not specify the visibility in daylight, but compare it to Jupiter, which is visible in daylight, and reports of which appear in the astronomical records of the contemporary Chinese world. The visibility in daylight as described by the Chinese texts is thus validated by the Japanese documents, and is consistent with a period of moderate visibility, which implies that the star's period of diurnal visibility was very short, even during favourable conditions for observation (a star visible during sunrise is relatively easy to spot if its position is known and as the background sky becomes more and more luminous).

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Korea
No reports of Korean observations of SN 1054 have survived. This has probably because all astronomical records from the year 1054 are missing from the Koryo-sa, the official chronicle relating to this period. It is the same for 1055. In contrast, the years 1052 and 1053 contain a large number of entries related to astronomy. The Koryo-sa was compiled in 1451 and it appears likely that, by that time, any document relating to astronomical events observed in 1054 had been lost. No other Korean documents relating to the guest star of 1054 have been found since.

Arab world
Traditionally, the astronomers of the Arab world were more interested in cyclic and predictable phenomena than those of an unexpected nature such as a guest star, perhaps under the influence of Aristotle, who said that comets and other novae should be considered as weather events rather than astronomy, due to the immutability of the heavens. This would explain the low number of guest stars, a term that has no equivalent in medieval Europe or in the Arab world. If SN 1006, which was significantly brighter, was mentioned by several Arab chroniclers, there exist no Arab reports relating to the rather faint SN 1181. Only one Arab account has been found concerning SN 1054, whose brightness is between those of the last two stars mentioned. This account, discovered in 1978, is that of a

Crab Supernova Nestorian Christian doctor, Ibn Butlan, transcribed in the Uyun al-Anba, a book compiled by Ibn Abi Usaybi'a (11941270) in the mid-thirteenth century. This is the passage in question: "I copied the following hand written testimony [that of Ibn Butlan]. He stated: One of the famous epidemics of our time has occurred when a spectacular star appeared in [the zodiac star] Gemini, of the year 446 [of the Muslim calendar]. In the autumn of that year, fourteen thousand people were buried in Constantinople. Thereafter, in the middle of the summer of 447, the majority of the Fostat people [Le Caire] and all foreigners died. He [Ibn Butlan] continues: While this spectacular star appeared during the sign of Gemini [...] it provoked the beginning of the Fostat epidemic when the Nile was low in 445. " The three years cited (445, 446, 447) refer, respectively, to: 23 April 1053 11 April 1054, 12 April 1054 1 April 1055, and 2 April 1055 20 March 1056. There is an apparent inconsistency in the year of occurrence of the star, first announced as 446, then 445. This problem is solved by reading other entries in the book, which quite explicitly specify that the Nile was low at 446.This year of the Muslim calendar ran from 12 April 1054 to 1 April 1055, which is compatible with the appearance of the star in July 1054, as its location (admittedly rather vague), is in the astrological sign of Gemini (which, due to Axial precession, covers the eastern part of the Constellation Taurus).The date of the event in 446 is harder to determine, but the reference to the level of the Nile refers to the period preceding its annual flood, which happens during the summer.

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Disputed accounts
Europe
Since the 1980s, several old European documents have been identified as possible observations of the supernova.[2][3][4][5][6] The relevance of these documents has been criticised, as the dating that they indicate does not correspond to that of the Chinese documents, which they precede by 2 or 3 months, with no mention of any subsequent sightings of the supernova. They are also very imprecise and unconvincing from an astronomical perspective, even when collated. They would also be impossible to interpret in the sense of an observation of a supernova if no information had been preserved from the Chinese accounts. These attempts at linking a genuine celestial event to very imprecise documents have been strongly criticized by a number of authors,[7] who view them as seeking to promote the existence of sightings of the event in Europe and as being "anxious to ensure that this event was recorded by Europeans". The lack of accounts from European chroniclers has long raised questions. In fact, it is known that supernova of 1006 was recorded in a large number of European documents, albeit not in astronomical terms. Among the proposed explanations for the lack European accounts of SN 1054 is its concurrence with the East-West Schism[8] is prominent. In fact, the date of the excommunication of the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael I Cerularius (16 July) corresponds to the star reaching its maximum brightness and being visible in the daytime. This is only an unverifiable hypothesis, and it is difficult to explain how an account of an event which was visible a priori to everyone could have disappeared without a trace. The fact is however, that European documents of the 11th century were written by people who, despite their extensive learning, possessed extremely limited knowledge of astronomy, and could not even consistently recognise the stars which form various astronomical conjunctions (see examples below).

Crab Supernova Jacobus Malvecius' account The first suggestion of a European account of a sighting of the supernova was made in 1980 by the Italian astronomer Umberto Dall'Olmo (19251980).[2] The following passage which reports an astronomical sighting is taken from an account compiled by Jacobus Malvecius in the 15th century: " And in those days, an immensely bright star appeared in the circle of the moon, around the first day of its separation from the sun." The date that this passage was written is not specified, but in it, there is a reference to an earthquake in Brescia, which has been identified as taking place on 11 April 1064. Dall'Olmo did not propose any explanation of this apparent mismatch of ten years between the supernova and the earthquake, besides the hypothesis that it could be the result of a transcription error. Even if this were not the case, the absence of a precise date and position makes the phenomenon difficult to identify, and it could simply be a conjunction between the moon and a planet (probably Venus or Jupiter), or a concealment of a planet by the moon. The Cronaca Rampona The account of a supernova sighting which is considered the most feasible comes from a medieval chronicle from the region of Bologna, the Cronaca Rampona. This text, a subject of astronomers' attention since 1972,[9] was interpreted as a possible sighting of the supernova in 1981,[3] and again in 1999.[6] The part of the chronicle that was highlighted indicates that: In the year of Christ Ml8, Pope Stephen IX has come to the throne [...] Also in this year of Christ Ml8, Henry III reigned [or "lived"] for xl9 years. He went to Rome for the first time in the month of May. At this time, famine and death was upon the whole world. He stayed in the province of Tibur for three days in the month of June [...] At that moment, a very brightly-shining star entered into the circle [or the circuit] or the new moon, in the thirteenth Calends at the beginning of the night."[10]
Henry before Tivoli pointing up at a new star.

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Without even discussing the last, astronomical part of the text, skeptics point out at least two discrepancies in the following : Pope Stephen IX became Pope in 1057, not 1058, and Emperor Henry III who is mentioned, actually Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, was born in 1017, 39 and not 49 years before 1058, his reign having started in 1039 (King of the Romans, then as emperor of the Romans from 1046 after being consecrated by Pope Clement II during the course of his brief pontificate). Henry III, therefore, was dead in 1056, and his reign could not have coincided with that of Stephen IX. It seems more likely that the text was the subject of various alterations, as the date format (for example Ml8 for 1058, the second character of Ml8 being the lower case letter L), with a mix of Roman (upper and lower case) and Arab characters, was common in the period when the Cronaca Rampona was written (15th century) but not that of the supernova four centuries earlier.[3] Furthermore, associating the event described with the sighting of a supernova in 1054 would require the supposition that the Cronaca Rampona entry was in the wrong place in relation to the rest of the document, as the different entries are in chronological order and several previous entries are later than 1054 ( in order, the previous entries refer to 1046, 1049, 1051, 1055, 1056, written in a mix of Arab and Roman characters, namely Mxl6, Mxl9, Mli, Mlv and Ml6). Additionally, there is a discrepancy with the date of the new moon. The term Calends, which refers to the Roman calendar, can be written in the ordinary form of the Gregorian calendar, and the phase of the moon can be calculated from it. It is clear that the new moon did not occur on the thirteenth day of the Calends in any month in 1054. All of this is in strong opposition to the precision of the dates of references to eclipses in medieval European chronicles : a

Crab Supernova study of 48 partial or total solar eclipses from 733 to 1544, reveals that 42 dates out of 48 are correct, and of the six remaining, three are incorrect by one of two days and the three others give the correct day and month, but not the year.[11] Finally, even considering that the stated event corresponds to May or June 1054 nevertheless, and describes a conjunction between the already visible supernova and the moon, another problem arises : during those months, the moon did not pass very close to the location of the supernova. Incidentally, the vocabulary used in the Latin text is somewhat unusual. The Latin word translated into English as circle is circuitu, used in place of the more commonly used circulus, but this semantic variant does not seem to change the sense of the text, which, in all possible translations of circuitu, suggests an object which is found on or close to the moon's path of travel. Therefore, it is possible that the account describes an approach or a concealment of a planet by the moon, contemporary to the suggested date (1058). This scenario is corroborated by two contemporary documents which are perfectly dated and describe a conjunction and a planetary concealment by the moon in relatively similar terms. These two documents, unearthed by Robert Russell Newton,[9] are taken from the Annales Cavenses, Latin chronicles from la Trinit della Cava (Province of Salerno, Southern Italy). They mention a bright star that entered into the circle of the new moon[12] on dates corresponding to 17 February 1086 and 6 August 1096. Calculations indicate that Venus was eclipsed by the moon for half an hour on 17 February. On 6 August, Jupiter passed to less than one degree from the moon after a lunar eclipse which was also mentioned in the chronicle.[7] The fact that the chronicler or chroniclers did not realise that they had seen a planet rather than a new star demonstrates the weak astronomical knowledge of the scholars of the time, whose astronomical accounts are actually very difficult to interpret and attribute to a rare event. The Church of Oudenburg's account In 1992, a group of Italians proposed a Flemish text as an account of a sighting of the supernova.[4] The text, from Saint Paul's churchno longer existentin the Flemish town of Oudenberg, describes the death of Pope Leo IX in Spring 1054. On the eighteenth calends of May, on the second day of the week at around midday, the soul [of Pope Leo IX] departed. At the moment it left his body, in Rome, where he rests, but also everywhere on earth, a circle of extraordinary brightness appeared in the sky for half an hour.[13] The date described corresponds to 14 April 1054. This simple date causes several problems: numerous historical documents describing the death of the Pope state the date as 19 April and not the 14th. Additionally, neither of these days were Mondays. The astronomical part of the text is also difficult to interpret and associate with the supernova. The description of the phenomenon, which is difficult to identify, is very brief, which contrasts with the timescale of a supernova. Il is not given a location in the sky and the time of the sighting is not given, not even whether it was during the day or the night. There are a priori numerous optical or atmospheric phenomena which can impress a chronicler who is not a specialist in astronomy, such as auroras (at night) or a solar halo (in the daytime). Most importantly, the reference to "everywhere on earth" could correspond to a non-localised event, but it is not possible to know the exact meaning of such a reference.

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Crab Supernova Albertus' account In a work entitled De Obitus Leonis, the author, Libuinus, reported an unusual celestial phenomenon which was seen on the day that LeoIX died by a group of pilgrims lead by a certain Albertus, who were in the region of Todi (Umbria north of Rome). He seems to have confirmed seeing : like a path by which his soul had been escorted by the angels to the Heavens, clothed in brightness and countless [14] lamps. The nature of the observed phenomenon is difficult to identify, as View of the sky at dusk on the day of the death of Pope Leo IX. The three planets the subject is enshrouded in mystery. Mercury, Mars and Venus are seen together on the West-South-West horizon (at the Certain authors[4][6] have proposed that bottom-right of the image), with Jupiter the furthest away (top right), all next to the constellation of Orion (centre-bottom) and its bright peripheral stars (notably Sirius, he actually described the supernova. A bottom-left, and Capella, top right). They could be countless lamps caused by Albertus favourable moment would have been at cited in De Obitus Leonis, that the supernova had been present or not. dusk, when the sun was setting before the star Tauri. However, on that night, a concentration of planets was in that area of the sky : Mars, Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter slightly further away. That area of the sky is also rich in bright stars (the constellation of Orion, Sirius, Capella etc.), and it is possible that these, along with the planets, formed the countless lamps in Albertus' account. Considering this vast concentration of brightness, the supernova's presence would not have been remarkable. Just like the preceding account, this text directly links the death of the Pope to an extraordinary event, which could have been done to justify a miracle associated with the deceased, in order to facilitate his canonisation (which was carried out by Pope Victor III in 1087). References in Irish annals In 1997, two Irish authors proposed an extract from an Irish chronicle as a European sighting of the supernova.[5] This chronicle indicates the following for 1054 : A round circle of fire was seen at Ros Ela on the Sunday of the feast day of Saint George over five hours during the day, and countless black birds passed before it, in the centre of which there was a larger bird [...] The date of the event corresponds to 24 April,[15] long before the sighting noted by the Chinese. The astronomical nature of the account remains very uncertain, and it could simply be mystical in nature, like the previous documents. The location in the sky of the event in question (if it is real) is not mentioned. The time of the event is also not known, but it seems that the event only happened on one day and not for a longer period as would have been the case for a sighting of the supernova. Additionally, the reference to birds strongly suggests an object with some kind of angular extension. An interpretation as a solar halo or aurora depending on the time of the sighting (day or night) also seems more probable, if it is in fact an astronomical event that was described.

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Crab Supernova Reference in an Armenian chronicle In 1969, two Armenian authors published a list of accounts of meteor sightings from Armenian chronicles.[16] One of the authors stated some years later that one of the documents could correspond to a sighting of the supernova of 1054.[17] The full translation of the relevant piece of that Armenian cronicle (of Hetum) is given in:[18] 1048AD. There was the 5th year, 2nd month, 6th day of Pope Leo in Rome. Robert Kijart arrived in Rome and sieged the Tiburtina town. There was starvation over the whole world. That year a bright star appeared within the circle of the Moon, the Moon was new, on May 14th, in the first part of the night. In the latter reference it is concluded that, the Armenian cronicle and Cronaca Rampona would have a common source. This brief description strongly suggests a closening or concealment of a planet or bright star by the moon. In fact, calculations indicate that on the date mentioned, the moon got closer by around 3 degrees, when Cancer was in conjunction with Jupiter, a fact which the theorists advocating a sighting of the supernova failed to verify or even mention.[19]

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Summary of the European documents

Among the six European documents, one does not seem to correspond to the year of the supernova (the chronicle of Jacobus Malvecius). Another (the Cronaca Rampona) has large dating and internal coherence problems. The four others are relatively precisely dated, but contradict the Chinese documents : they date from Spring and not Summer 1054, that is to say before the conjunction between the supernova and the sun. Three of the documents (the chronicle of Jacobus Malvecius, the Cronaca Rampona and the Armenian chronicle) make reference relatively explicitly to conjunctions between the moon and stars, of which one is identified (Jupiter, in the Armenian chronicle). Calculations indicate that the moon never got significantly close to the supernova in Spring 1054. The three other documents are very unclear and have almost unusable astronomical content, if it is even real. None of the documented phenomena lasted very long (half an hour in the Church of Oudenberg's account, five hours in the Irish annals and an undetermined, but explicitly short, duration in Albertus' account). No document stipulates the region of the sky where the phenomena took place, and there were no indications as to when the sightings occurred. Supposing the phenomena described have a real physical base, numerous atmospheric phenomena could be the cause. In a more general manner, these documents are not actually astronomical, but produced by learned chroniclers who had limited astronomical knowledge. This is evident in the most workable document, the Armenian chronicle, where the usual conjunction between the moon and Jupiter is not recognised as such, as is the case for numerous other conjunctions.[20]

A reinterpretation of the European sightings

In 1999, George W. Collins and his colleagues proposed a radical reinterpretation of the European documents and claimed that they convincingly indicate that the Europeans had seen the supernova well before Chinese astronomers.[6] Concerning the Chinese documents, they point out their various date errors (see above) as proof that the quality of their observations was inferior to what is commonly accepted, and therefore that nothing rules out the possibility that more hardened observers may have seen the supernova beforehand. They also make their point by bringing up the problem of the localisation of the supernova in relation to the star Tauri (see below). Finally, based on a controversial translation of the document from khitan people, they claim that the supernova was probably visible at the time of the solar eclipse of 10May1054.[21] In the opposite way, they reinterpret the European documents as relatively corroborating in relation to the fact that a notable astronomical event occurred in Spring 1054, before the conjunction between the supernova and the sun. They believe that the metaphoric aspect of certain documents only reflects the observers' limited knowledge of the sky, without prejudicing their ability to observe., Furthermore, they claim that the date problems in the Cronoca Rampona are not errors, as the European chroniclers are not interested in being very precise concerning dates. They

Crab Supernova also mention, without further elaboration, that the Chinese observations of guest stars was primarily of an astrological, and not scientific, nature, which could make their content biased. As for the reference to the supernova in d'IbnButlan scripture, they trust the date of 445 in the Muslim calendar (23 April 1053 11 April 1054) and not 446 (12 April 1054 1 April 1055) to confirm that the supernova was visible from April 1054, without taking into account the fact that other parts of the scripture are more coherent with the date of 446, not 445. The works of Collins et al. were strongly criticised by F. Richard Stephenson and David A. Green, who pointed out a lack of seriousness in the analysis of their colleagues.[7] Notably, they insist that date problems in Asian documents are easily resolved. One of them (the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian) corresponds in a relatively obvious way to a typographic error, and the other (the month of observation of Japanese documents) to a common date error in this set of documents. They mention that claiming that the supernova was visible at the time of the solar eclipse on 10 May 1054 is based on an inappropriate interpretation of the translation and is contrary to astronomical reality. In fact, this eclipse having only been partial, no star close to the sun could have been seen at that time. Finally, they insist on the lack of astronomical knowledge of the European chroniclers compared to the Chinese atronomers. According to them, this point makes it difficult to attribute these documents to an observation of the supernova. If this was the case, it would be necessary to explain why no European document mentions the supernova in Summer, when it was perfectly visible according to the Chinese documents, and how the more experienced Chinese and Japanese observers could have missed the supernova at this time. They also note that even in the case of a concordance of dates, nothing proves that events which occurred in the same year correspond to a single astronomical phenomenon. The guest stars of 837 are an example of two different novas which occurred in the same year (additionally marked by the spectacular passing of Halley's comet). The four guest stars of 1592 reinforce this comment. Green and Stephenson's conclusions add to previous works dating from 1995 where the different European observations had already been rejected due to their lack of precision and the impossibility to draw clear astronomical sense from them.[22] The thesis of Collins et al. was not broadly taken up in scientific literature afterwards,[23] but has nevertheless enjoyed a certain visibility to the general public, notably being taken up by the magazine Ciel & Espace[24][25] with a certain enthusiasm.

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North America
Two Native American paintings in Arizona show a crescent moon located next to a circle that could represent a star.[26] It has been proposed that this represents a conjunction between the moon and the supernova, made possible by the fact that, seen from the Earth, the supernova occurred in the path of the Ecliptic. This theory is compatible with the datings in these paintings. In fact, on the morning of 5 July, the moon was located in the immediate proximity of the supernova, which could reinforce the idea that it was this proximity that

Petroglyph of the Chaco Canyon which is suspected to represent the historic supernova SN 1054 at the time of its conjunction with the moon in the morning of 5 July.

Crab Supernova

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had been represented in these paintings. This interpretation cannot be confirmed. The dating of the paintings is extremely imprecise (between the 10th and 12th century), and only one of them shows the crescent moon with the correct orientation in relation to the supernova. Moreover, this type of drawing could well represent a proximity of the moon with Venus or Jupiter.[27][28][29][30] Another, better known document was updated during the 1970s at the Chaco Canyon site (New Mexico), occupied around 1000 AD by the Anasazi. On a vertical surface plane of a construction, it represents a hand, below which there The sky on the morning of 5 July, showing the conjunction between the supernova (blue square) and the moon. If the orientation of the phenomenon does not correspond to the is a crescent moon facing a star at the petroglyph, the relative orientation of the crescent moon in relation to the star bottom-left. On the ground in front of corresponds, along with the order of size of the angular distance between the two stars. the petroglyph there is a drawing which could be the core and tail of a comet. Apart from the petroglyph, which could represent the configuration of the moon and supernova on the morning of 5 July 1054, this period corresponds to the apogee of the Anasazi civilisation. It seems possible to propose an interpretation of the other petroglyph, which, if it is more recent than the other one, could possibly correspond to the passing of Halley's Comet in 1066. Although plausible, this interpretation is impossible to confirm and does not explain why it was the supernova of 1054 that was represented, rather than the supernova of 1006, which was brighter and also visible to this civilisation.

Nature of the reported event

Location
The most precise indications of the localisation of the event make reference to a Chinese constellation (asterism in Western astronomical science) called Tianguan by Chinese astronomers. The constellations (asterisms) of Chinese astronomy are generally smaller than the constellations of the western world, and some of these named "asterisms" can consist of a single star. They were catalogued around the 2nd century BC. Depending on the brightness of the stars and their astronomical or symbolic importance, they were more or less well described by the Chinese astronomers, only a part of whose literature has come down to the present day. The asterisms with the brightest stars in the sky were compiled in a work called Shi Shi. Tianguan is a part of it. Its localisation is made relatively easy by the combination of several factors. For the majority of asterisms in Shi Shi, the coordinates of a star in the asterism are given, which generally corresponds to the star which is furthest to the West. In the case of asterisms with only one star, it is enough, in principle, to locate the star. The way in which the coordinates are given by the Chinese astronomers have things in common with the equatorial coordinate system, the equivalent of the longitude and latitude on the celestial sphere, where the poles are determined by the axis of the Earth's rotation, these coordinates are called right ascension and declination respectively in astronomy. The Chinese astronomers noted the angular distance of the star, not in relation

Crab Supernova to the celestial equator, but in relation to the north celestial pole (which is called the Colatitude in other contexts), along with the brightness in the right ascension not in relation to a reference point (the equinox in modern astronomy), but in relation to a set of reference stars of a particular class of asterisms called the twenty-eight mansions. This kind of measurement was carried out very early for numerous asterisms by Chinese astronomers. It is possible that the composition of a given asterisms can change over time, although this is very rarely made explicit star by star in astronomical reports. This is more likely to happen when the asterism does not consist of bright stars. But the positioning measures for reference stars were made regularly over time because it seems that the Chinese did not think that the skies were unchangeable. They had observed that the relative positions of the stars were susceptible to change, and that the equatorial coordinate system changed over time due to the slow drift in the direction of the axis of rotation of the Earth. This phenomenon, known since Ancient Greece, was discovered independently some centuries later by the Chinese under the name of axial precession. In the case of Tianguan, the position of the asterism was reevaluated some months before the arrival of the guest star. Independent of these new measures, the astronomical reports generally specify the relative position of the asterisms between them. Thus, an asterism is able to be located if its neighbours are robust. In the case of Tianguan, it is indicated that it is located at the foot of the Five Chariots asterism, the nature of which is left in hardly any doubt by representation on maps of the Chinese sky: it consists of a large pentagon containing the bright stars of the Auriga. As Tianguan is also represented to the north of the Three Stars asterism, the composition of which is well known, corresponding to the bright stars of Orion, its possible localisation is strongly restricted to the immediate proximity of the star Tauri, located between Five Chariots and Three Stars. This star, of medium brightness (apparent magnitude of 3.3), is the only star of its level of brightness in this area of the sky (there is no other star that is brighter than an apparent magnitude of 4.5 within 7degrees of Tauri), and therefore the only one likely to figure among the asterisms of Shi Shi. All of these elements, along with some others, allow Tianguan to be confirmed beyond doubt as corresponding to the star Tauri.

91

Comet, nova or supernova?

Guest stars reported by the Chinese astronomers correspond to three distinct types of astronomical phenomena: comets, novas and supernovas (and more rarely, meteors). The distinction between comets and the others is made by observing whether the star in question moves or not. Over the very long period of observation of the guest star of 1054 (642 days, between 4 July 1054 and 6 April 1056), there is no mention of movement, and the very long duration of the phenomenon is three times that of the longest reported duration of a comet (just over six months). The guest star is therefore without a shadow of a doubt a nova or a supernova. The distinction between these two possibilities is made by considering the duration of the phenomenon and its location in the sky. Novae are explosions which occur on the surface of certain stars, from which the curve of light fades very rapidly, rarely lasting longer than a few months. Even though longer novae do exist (one of four guest stars of 1592 is probably an example), they are relatively rare. In addition, novae are less bright phenomena than supernovae. A nova that is visible in the daytime comes from a star that is close to the sun, where the position in the sky is relatively insecure. By contrast, supernovae are a lot more rare, and even though they are visible to the naked eye in our Galaxy, they are generally a lot further away, in the centre of the spiral arm, meaning that they are seen from Earth in the galactic plane, in other words, in the bright band which is characteristic of our Galaxy. The guest star of 1054, having a very long period of visibility and being situated on a very weak galactic latitude, presents all the characteristics of a supernova. In order to be able to prove this assertion, what is left of the explosion, meaning the associated supernova remnant, needs to be found. The region of Tauri is location in the opposite region to the Galactic Center. It is there that the depth of the disc of our Milky Way is the shallowest, and therefore the area where there are the least supernovae. In fact, there are only very few identified remnants of supernovas in this area.[31] If we centre the research on the star Tauri, there is a remnant located in the immediate proximity: the Crab Nebula. There is no other remnant within 5 degrees of it. The

Crab Supernova closest, SNR G180.01.7, has a pulsar PSR J0538+2817 in the centre of it, whose characteristic age is hundreds of thousands of years, and the remnant itself has a considerable angular size (3 degrees). Such characteristics indicate an old object.[32] The Crab Nebula is the only object which presents the expected characteristics of a young remnant and is therefore considered to the product of the explosion which was observed in 1054.

92

The Problem of the Precise Localisation of the Residue

Three Chinese documents indicate that the guest star was located perhaps a few inches South-East of Tianguan. Song Shi and Song Huiyao stipulate that it was standing guard for the asterism, corresponding to the star Tauri. The South-Eastorientation has a simple astronomical meaning, the celestial sphere having, like the Earth's globe, both north and south celestial poles, the South-East direction thus corresponding to a bottom-left location in relation to the reference object (in this case, the star Tauri) when it appears at the South. However, this South-East direction has long left modern astronomers perplexed in the context of this event: the logical remnant of the supernova corresponding to the guest star is the Crab Nebula, but it is not situated to the southeast of Tauri, rather in the opposite direction, to the northwest.

Northeast region of the Taurus constellation, with and Tauri stars and the location of the supernova of 1054 between them (M1).

This problem is fully resolved if one simply realizes that the Chinese traditionally situated the south at the top of maps and north at the bottom, a 180 degree rotation of the European convention. Angular distance The term perhaps a few inches (ke chi cun in the Latin transliteration) is relatively uncommon in Chinese astronomical documents. The first term, ke, is translated as approximately or perhaps, the latter being currently preferred. The second term, chi, means several, and more specifically any number between 3 and 9 (limits included). Finally, cun resembles a unit of measurement for angles translated by the term inch. It is part of a group of three angular units, zhang (also written chang), chi (foot) and cun (inch). Different astronomical documents indicate without much possible discussion that a zhang corresponds to ten chi, and that one chi corresponds to ten cun. The angular units are not the ones used to determine stars' coordinates, which are given in terms of du, an angular unit corresponding to the average angular distance travelled by then sun per day, which corresponds to around 360/365.25 degrees, in other words barely one degree. The use of different angular units can be surprising, but it is hardly different to the current situation in modern astronomy, where the angular unit used to measure angular distances between two points is certainly the same as for declination (the degree), but is different for right ascension (which is expressed in angular hours; an angular hour corresponds to exactly 15degrees. In Chinese astronomy, right ascension and declination have the same unit, which is not the one used for other angular distances. The reason for this choice to use different units in the Chinese world is not well known.

Crab Supernova However, the exact value of these new units (zhang, chi and cun) was never stipulated, but can be deduced by the context in which they are used. For example, the spectacular passing of Halley's comet in 837 indicates that the tail of the comet measured 8 zhang. Even if it is not possible to know the angular size of the comet at the time it passed, it is certain that 8 zhang correspond to 180 degrees at the most (maximum visible angle on the celestial sphere), which means that one zhang can hardly exceed 20 degrees, and therefore one cun cannot exceed 0.2 degrees. A more rigorous estimation was made from 1972 on the basis of references of minimal separations expressed in chi or cun between two stars in the case of various conjunctions.[33] The results suggest that one cun is between 0.1 and 0.2 degrees and that one chi is between 0.44 and 2.8 degrees, a range which is compatible with the estimations for one cun. A more solid estimation error is that it is generally accepted that one chi is in the order of one degree (or one du), and that one cun is in the order of one tenth of a degree. The expression perhaps a few inches therefore suggests an angular distance in the order of one degree or less. The direction If all the available elements strongly suggest that the star of 1054 was a supernova, and that in the area next to where the star was seen, there is a remnant of a supernova which has all of the characteristics expected of an object that is around 1000 years old, a major problem arises: the new star is described as being to the South-East of Tianguan, while the Crab Nebula is to the North-East. This problem has been known since the 1940s and has long been unsolved. In 1972 for example, Ho Peng Yoke and his colleagues suggested that the Crab Nebula was not the product of the explosion of 1054, but that the true remnant was to the South-East, as indicated in several Chinese sources. For this, they envisaged that the angular unit cun corresponds to a considerable angle of 1 or 2 degrees, meaning that the distance from the remnant to Tauri was therefore considerable. Aside from the fact that this theory does not account for the large angular sizes of certain comets, expressed in zhang, it comes up against the fact that there it does not make sense to measure the gap between a guest star and a star located so far away from it, when there are closer asterisms that could be used. In their controversial article (see above) Collins and his colleagues make another suggestion:[6] on the morning of 4 July, the star Tauri was not bright enough and too low on the horizon to be visible. If the guest star, which was located close to it, was visible, it is only because its brightness was comparable to Venus. However, there was another star, brighter and higher on the horizon, which was possibly visible, for reference: Beta Tauri ( Tauri). This star is located at around 8 degrees north-north-west of Tauri. The Crab Nebula is south-south-east of Tauri. Collins et al. suggest therefore that at the time of its discovery, the star was seen to the south-east of Tauri, and that as the days passed and visibility improved, astronomers were able to see that it was in fact a lot closer to Tauri, but that the direction south-east used for the first star was kept in error.[34] The solution to this problem was suggested (without proof) by A.Breen and D.McCarthy in 1995.[22] and proved very convincingly by D.A.Green et F.R.Stephenson[35] The term stand on guard obviously signifies a proximity between the two stars, but also means a general orientation: a guest star standing on guard for a fixed star is systematically located below it. In order to support this theory, Green and Stephenson investigated other entries in Song Shi, which also includes reference to standing on guard. They selected entries relating to conjunctions betweens the stars identified and planets, of which the trajectory can be calculated without difficulty and with great precision on the indicated dates. Of the 18 conjunctions analysed, spreading from 1172 (the Jupiter-Regulus conjunction on 5 December) to 1245 (the Saturn-Gamma Virginis conjunction on 17 May), the planet was more to the north[36] in 15 cases, and in the three remaining cases, it was never in the south quadrant of the star. In addition, . F.R.Stephenson and another colleague, David H. Clark had already highlighted such an inversion of direction in a planetary conjunction: on 13 September 1253, an entry in the astronomical report Koryo-sa indicated that Mars had hidden the star to the south-east of the twenty-eight mansions sign Ghost (Chinese constellation) (Delta Cancri), while in reality, it approached the star north-west of the asterism (Eta Cancri)[37].

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94

Modern identification of the supernova

In modern times, the star of 1054 was identified as a supernova between the 1920s and the 1940s. In 1921, Carl Otto Lampland was the first to announce that he had seen changes in the structure of the Crab Nebula.[38] This announcement occurred at a time when the nature of the nebulas in the sky was completely unknown. Their nature, size and distance was subject to debate. Observing changes in such objects allows astronomers to determine if their spatial extension is small or large, in the sense that notable changes in an object as vast as our Milky Way cannot be seen over a small time period, such a few years, while such changes are possible if the size of the object does not exceed a few light-years.[39] Lampland's comments were confirmed some weeks later by John Charles Duncan, an astronomer at the Mount Wilson Observatory. He benefitted from photographic material which has not changed since 1909 and in fact made the comparison with older snapshots easy, highlighting a general movement of expansion of the cloud. The points were moving away from the centre, and did so faster as they got further from the centre.[40] Also in 1921, Knut Lundmark compiled the data for the guest stars mentioned in the Chinese chronicles known in the West.[41] He based this on older works, having analysed various sources such as the Wenxian Tongkao, studied for the first time from an astronomical perspective by Jean-Baptiste Biot in the middle of the 19th century. Lundmark gives a list of 60 suspected novae, the generic term for a stellar explosion, in fact covering two defined phenomena, novae and supernovae. The nova of 1054, already mentioned by the Biots in 1843,'[42] is part of the list. It stipulates the location of this guest star in a note at the bottom of the page as being close to NGC 1952, one of the names for the Crab Nebula, but it does not seem to create an explicit link between them. In 1928, Edwin Hubble was the first to note that the changing aspect of the Crab nebula, which was growing bigger in size, suggests that it is the remains of a stellar explosion. He realised that the apparent speed of change in its size signifies that the explosion which it comes from occurred only nine centuries ago, which puts the date of the explosion in the period covered by Lundmark's compilation. He also noted that the only possible nova in the region of the Taurus constellation (where the cloud is located) is that of 1054, whose age is estimated to correspond precisely to an explosion dating from the start of the second millennium.[43] Hubble therefore deduced, correctly, that this cloud was the remains of the explosion which was observed by Chinese astronomers.[44] Hubble's comment remains relatively unknown as the physical phenomenon of the explosion was not known at the time. Eleven years later, when the fact that supernovae are very bright phenomena was highlighted by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky[45] and when their nature was suggested by Zwicky[46] Nicholas Mayall proposed that the star of 1054 was actually a supernova,[47] based on the speed of expansion of the cloud, measured by spectroscopy, which allows astronomers to determine its physical size and distance, which he estimated at 5000 light-years. This was under the assumption that the velocities of expansion along the line of sight and perpendicularly to it were identical.[48] Based on the reference to the brightness of the star which featured in the first documents discovered in 1934, he deduced that it was a supernova rather than a nova. This deduction was subsequently refined, which pushed Mayall and Jan Oort in 1942 to analyse historic accounts relating to the guest star more closely (see section Compilation of Historic Accounts below). These new accounts, globally and mutually concordant, confirm the initial conclusions by Mayall and Oort in 1939 and the identification of the guest star of 1054 is established beyond all reasonable doubt. Most other historical supernovas are not confirmed so conclusively: supernovas of the first millennium (SN185, SN386 and SN393) are established on the basis of a single document each, and so they cannot be confirmed; in relation to the supposed historical supernova which followed the one in 1054, SN1181, there are legitimate doubts concerning the proposed remnant (3C58) and an object of less than 1000 years of age. Other historical supernovae of which there are written accounts which precede the invention of the Telescope (SN1006, SN1572 and SN1604) are however established with certitude.

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95

Importance in the development of modern astronomy

SN 1054 has been involved several times, sometimes fortuitously, in the history of astronomy.[49] Its remnant, the Crab Nebula, was one of the first to be discovered in 1731 by John Bevis. In 1757, Alexis Clairaut reexamined the calculations of Edmund Halley and predicted the return of Halley's comet in late 1758 (more precisely, he predicted it would pass the perihelion in Spring 1759, with the start of its period of visibility some months earlier).[50] It is in searching in vain for the comet that Charles Messier found the Crab nebula, which he at first thought to be Halley's comet. After some observation, noticing that the object that he was observing was not moving across the sky, Messier concluded that the object was not a comet. Messier then realised the usefulness of compiling a catalogue of celestial objects of a cloudy nature, but fixed in the sky, to avoid incorrectly cataloging them as comets.[51] William Herschel observed the Crab nebula numerous times between 1783 and 1809, but we do not know whether he was aware of its existence in 1783, or if he discovered it independently of Messier and Bevis. After several observations, he concluded that it was composed of a group of stars. In 1844, William Parsons was the first to sketch the cloud, which he named the "Crab Nebula" from 1848. Although the appearance of the drawing is more suggestive of an insect than a crustacean, the epithet "crab" was quickly accepted. In 1913, when Vesto Slipher registered his spectroscopy study of the sky, the Crab nebula was again one of the first objects to be studied. The American astronomer noticed its unique characteristics immediately. Changes in the cloud, suggesting its small extent, were discovered by Carl Lampland in 1921.[38] That same year, John Charles Duncan demonstrated that the remnant is expanding,[40] while Knut Lundmark noted its proximity to the guest star of 1054, but did not mention the comments of his two colleagues. In 1928, Edwin Hubble proposed associating the cloud to the star of 1054 (see above), an idea which remained confidential until the nature of supernovae was understood, and it was Nicholas Mayall who indicated that the star of 1054 was undoubtedly the supernova whose explosion produced the Crab Nebula. The search for historical supernovae started at that moment: seven other historical sightings have been found by comparing modern observations of supernova remnants with astronomical documents of past centuries. The oldest historical supernova sighting identified, SN 185, dates from the end of the 2nd century AD. In the 1960s, due to the prediction and discovery of pulsars, the Crab nebula again became a major centre of interest. It was then that Franco Pacini predicted the existence of a neutron star for the first time, which would explain the brightness of the cloud. This neutron star was observed shortly afterwards in 1968, a shining confirmation of the theory of the formation of these objects at the time of certain supernovae. The discovery of the Crab pulsar, and the knowledge of its exact age (almost to the day) allows for the verification of basic physical properties of these objects, such as characteristic age and spin-down luminosity, the orders of magnitude involved (notably the strength of the magnetic field), along with various aspects related to the dynamics of the remnant. The particular role of this supernova to the scientific understanding of supernova remnants was crucial, as no other historical supernova created a pulsar whose precise age we can know for certain. The only possible exception to this rule would be SN1181 whose supposed remnant, 3C58, is home to a pulsar, but its identification using Chinese observations from 1181 is sometimes contested.

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96

Notes
[1] SEDS, Supernova 1054 Creation of the Crab Nebula (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ more/ m001_sn. html) [2] U. Dall'Olmo, Latin Terminology Relating to Aurorae Comets Meteors and Novae, Journal for the History of Astronomy, 11, 1027 (1980) Bibcode:1980JHA....11...10D [3] L. P. Williams, The Supernova of 1054: A Medieval Mystery. In H. Woolf (ed.), The Analytic Spirit: Essays in the History of Science in Honor of Henry Guerlac, Cornell University Press, Ithaca (1981), ISBN 0-8014-1350-8, pp. 329349 [4] Guidoboni, E.; Marmo, C.; Polcaro, V. F. (1994). "Do we need to redate the birth of the Crab Nebula?". Mem. S.A.It. 65 (2): 623637. Bibcode1994MmSAI..65..623G. ISSN0037-8720. [5] D. McCarthy & A. Breen, An evaluation of astronomical observations in the Irish annals, Vistas in Astronomy, 41, 117138 (1997) Bibcode:1997VA.....41..117M [6] George W. Collins, William P. Claspy & John C. Martin, A Reinterpretation of Historical References to the Supernova of A.D. 1054, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 111, 871880 (1999), arXiv:astro-ph/9904285 Bibcode:1999PASP..111..871C. [7] F. Richard Stephenson & David A. Green, Was the supernova of AD 1054 reported in European history?, Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 6 4652 (2003) Bibcode:2003JAHH....6...46S [8] See the references in the Collins et al. article cited already. [9] Robert Russell Newton, Medieval chronicles and the rotation of the earth, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (1972) Bibcode:1972QB542.N57...... [10] The interesting part of the Latin text says (Latin) Huius tempore stella clarissima in circuitu prime lune ingressa tercio decimo kalendas in noctis initio, Martinus Polonus. Codex Saec. XIII. Teplenus, Pragae 1859. [11] F. Richard Stephenson, Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 573 pages, ISBN 0-521-46194-4 [12] (Latin) [Martii incipiente nocte] stella clarissima in circulum lunae primae ingressa est for 17 February 1086 and (Latin) stella clarissima venit in circulum lunae for 6 August. [13] in the original Latin: Verum etiam in toto orbe terrarum circulus eximiae claritatis hominibus apparuit in caelo per spatium fere mediae horae (Latin) [14] original text : (Latin) quasi stratam palliis fulgentibus adornatam at innumeris coruscantem lampadibus. [15] Saint George's Day is 23 April and fell on a Saturday in 1054. The mention of the "Sunday of Sain George's Day" corresponds to the next day, 24 April. [16] I. S. Astapovich & B. E. Tumanyan, Selected records of astronomical phenomena (meteor events) from old Armenian chronicles, Uch. zap. Erevansk. un-t. Estestv. n., 2, 4047 (1969) Bibcode:1969UcZEE...2...40A [17] I. S. Astapovich, The earliest observations of SN 1054 in Tau in Armenia, Astronomicheskij Tsirkulyar, 826, 68 (1974) Bibcode:1974ATsir.826....6A [18] V. G. Gurzadyan, The Supernova of 1054AD, the Armenian chronicle of Hetum, and Cronaca Rampona, The Observatory (UK), 132 (2012) No.5. http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 1207. 3865 [19] This conjunction is not in the article of Collins et al., which actually claims to have calculated the event as occurring on the night of 11 May 1054. [20] For example those in the aforementioned Annales Cavenses. [21] NASA Solar eclipse of 10 May 1054 (http:/ / eclipse. gsfc. nasa. gov/ 5MCSEmap/ 1001-1100/ 1054-05-10. gif) [22] A. Breen & D. McCarthy, A re-evaluation of the Eastern and Western records of the supernova of 1054, Vistas in Astronomy, 39, 363379 (1995) Bibcode:1995VA.....39..363B [23] The ADS database only includes three articles that cite this reference: (list) (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-ref_query?bibcode=1999PASP. . 111. . 871C& amp;refs=CITATIONS& amp;db_key=AST) [24] Serge Jodra, Contre-enqute sur la mort d'une toile , Ciel & Espace No.355, 5863 (1999) [25] Yal Naz, 1054 : les mystres de l'toile invite (http:/ / www. groupeastronomiespa. be/ supernova1054. pdf), Public conference for an astronomy group in Spa [26] William C. Miller, Two Prehistoric Drawings of Possible Astronomical Significance, Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, 7, 105112 (1955) Bibcode:1955ASPL....7..105M [27] Dorothy Mayer, Miller's Hypothesis: Some California and Nevada Evidence, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement, 10, S51-S74 (1979) Bibcode:1979JHAS...10...51M [28] Klaus F. Wellmann, Further Remarks on an Astronomical Petroglyph in Capitol Reef National Park, Utah, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement, 10, S75-S77 (1979) Bibcode:1979JHAS...10...75W [29] John C. Brandt & Ray A. Williamson, The 1054 Supernova and Native American Rock Art, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement, 10, S1-S38 (1979) Bibcode:1979JHAS...10....1B [30] Seymour H. Koenig, Stars, Crescents, and supernovae in Southwestern Indian Art, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement, 10, S39-S50 (1979) Bibcode:1979JHAS...10...39K [31] However, this statement could be biased by the fact that research on remnants of supernovae mainly concentrate in the direction of the galactic center where it is expected that there are more of them; however, the remnants are more easily detectable in the opposite direction to the galactic center, because background emissions are low there, which allows better detection of the remnants with weak surface brightness. For more information, see the discussion in F.R.Stephenson et D.A.Green's book cited in the reference section, pages 38 to 44.

Crab Supernova
[32] The most precise estimation of the system's age results in its cinematic age, which is tens of thousands of years. [33] T. Kiang, The past orbit of Halley's Comet, Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, 76, 2666 (1972) Bibcode:1972MmRAS..76...27K [34] The objective of this demonstration by Collins et al. is not so much to explain the direction problem, but to show that the Chinese observations were not done very seriously. It also seems biased by the presuppositions of these authors. [35] See work cited in the Reference section. [36] In the sense of a lower declination [37] , p. 152 [38] C. O. Lampland, Observed Changes in the Structure of the "Crab" Nebula (N. G. C. 1952), Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 33, 7984 (1921) Bibcode:1921PASP...33...79L [39] The question of knowing if all of these clouds are small objects located in our Galaxy or much larger objects located outside was the object of a set of discussions named The Great Debate. It was closed by the highlighting of the extragalactic nature of some of these objects, thanks primarily to the observations of Edwin Hubble. [40] John C. Duncan, Changes Observed in the Crab Nebula in Taurus, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 7, 179181 (1921) Bibcode:1921PNAS....7..179D [41] Knut Lundmark, Suspected New Stars Recorded in Old Chronicles and Among Recent Meridian Observations, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 33, 225239 (1921) Voir en ligne (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1921PASP. . . 33. . 225L). [42] douard Biot, "Catalogue des toiles extraordinaires observes en Chine depuis les temps anciens jusqu lan 1203 de notre re", published in Connaissance des temps ou des mouvements clestes, lusage des astronomes et des navigateurs, pour lan 1846. 1843. (French) [43] By extrapolating the current expansion of the cloud in the east, we find a date of birth in the course of the 12th century and not in the middle of the 11th century. This apparent dating problem is a result of the fact that the expansion of the cloud is affected by the central pulsar, which tends to accelerate its expansion over time. The average level of expansion of the cloud is thus less than what is currently observed. [44] Edwin Hubble, Novae or Temporary Stars, Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, 14, 5558 (1928) Bibcode:1928ASPL....1...55H [45] Walter Baade & Fritz Zwicky, On Super-novae, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 20, 254259 (1934) Bibcode:1934PNAS...20..254B [46] Fritz Zwicky, On Collapsed Neutron Stars, Astrophysical Journal, 88, 522525 (1938) Bibcode:1938ApJ....88..522Z [47] Nicholas U. Mayall, The Crab Nebula, a Probable Supernova, Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, 3, 145154 (1939) Bibcode:1939ASPL....3..145M [48] Rossi, B.B.. "The Crab Nebula Ancient History and Recent Discoveries" (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ search. jsp?R=19700008151). NASA. NTRS. . Retrieved 1 October 1969. [49] Most events in this section were presented in Nicholas Mayall's article, published in 1939. [50] The exact time of the comet's return required the consideration of perturbations to its orbit caused by planets in the Solar System such as Jupiter, which Clairaut and his two colleagues Joseph Jrme Lefranois de Lalande and Nicole-Reine Lepaute carried out more precisely than Halley, finding that the comet should appear in the constellation of Taurus (constellation). [51] It was Johann Georg Palitzsch who first observed the return of Halley's comet, in late December 1758.

97

References
Stephenson-Green. A chapter (pages 100 to 149) on SN 1054.

Tycho's Supernova

98

Tycho's Supernova
Supernova SN 1572

Composite X-ray and infrared image of the SN 1572 remnant as seen by Chandra X-Ray Observatory, Spitzer Space Telescope, and Calar Alto Observatory Observation data (Epoch ?) Supernova type Remnant type Host galaxy Constellation Right ascension Declination Galactic coordinates Discovery date Peak magnitude (V) Distance Type Ia Nebula Milky Way Cassiopeia 0h 25.3m +64 09 G.120.1+1.4 November 1572 -4 between 8,000ly (kpc) and 9,800ly (kpc) Physical characteristics Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V) Unknown Unknown Unknown [1]

SN 1572 (Tycho's Supernova, Tycho's Nova), "B Cassiopeiae" (B Cas), or 3C 10 was a supernova of Type Ia[1] in the constellation Cassiopeia, one of about eight supernovae visible to the naked eye in historical records. It burst forth in early November 1572 and was independently discovered by many individuals.[2]

Tycho's Supernova

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Historic description
The appearance of the Milky Way supernova of 1572 was perhaps one of the two or three most important events in the history of astronomy. The "new star" helped to revise ancient models of the heavens and to inaugurate a revolution in astronomy that began with the realized need to produce better astrometric star catalogues (and thus the need for more precise astronomical observing instruments). The supernova of 1572 is often called "Tycho's supernova", because of the extensive work De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella ("Concerning the Star, new and never before seen in the life or memory of anyone," published in 1573, 1602, and 1610) that contains both Tycho Brahe's own observations and the analysis of many other observers. But Tycho was not even close to being the first to observe the 1572 supernova, although he was apparently the most accurate observer of the object (though not by much over some of his European colleagues like Wolfgang Schuler, Thomas Digges, John Dee and Francesco Maurolico).

Star map of the constellation Cassiopeia showing the position (labelled I) of the supernova of 1572; from Tycho Brahe's De nova... stella

In England, Queen Elizabeth called to her the mathematician and astrologer Thomas Allen, "to have his advice about the new Star that appeared in the Cassiopeia to which he gave his Judgement very learnedly," the antiquary John Aubrey recorded in his memoranda a century later.[3] The more reliable contemporary reports state that the new star itself burst forth sometime between November 2 and 6, in 1572, when it rivalled Venus in brightness. The supernova remained visible to the naked eye into 1574, gradually fading until it disappeared from view.

Supernova remnant
The distance to the supernova remnant has been estimated to between 2 and 5 kpc (approx. 6,500 and 16,300 light-years), but recent studies suggest a value closer to 2.5 and 3 kpc (approx. 8,000 and 9,800 light-years).[4]

Radio detection
The search for a supernova remnant was negative until 1952, when Hanbury Brown and Hazard reported a radio detection at Tour of Tycho's Supernova Remnant. [5] 158.5MHz. This was confirmed at wavelength 1.9 m by Baldwin and Edge (1957),[6] and the remnant was also identified tentatively in the second Cambridge radio-source catalogue as object "2C 34" and identified more firmly as "3C 10" in the third Cambridge list (Edge et al. 1959). There is no dispute that 3C 10 is the remnant of the supernova observed in 1572-1573. Following a review article by Minkowski (1964),[7] the designation 3C 10 appears to be that most commonly used in the literature when referring to the radio remnant of B Cas (though some authors use the tabulated Galactic designation

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G120.7+2.1 of Green 1984, and many authors commonly refer to it as "Tycho's supernova remnant". Because the radio remnant was reported before the optical supernova-remnant wisps were discovered, the designation 3C 10 is used by some to signify the remnant at all wavelengths.

Optical detection
The supernova remnant of B Cas was discovered in the 1960s by scientists with a Palomar Mountain telescope as a very faint nebula. It was later photographed by a telescope on the international ROSAT spacecraft. The supernova has been confirmed as Type Ia,[1] in which a The red circle visible in the upper left part of this white dwarf star has accreted matter from a companion until it WISE image is SN 1572. approaches the Chandrasekhar limit and explodes. This type of supernova does not typically create the spectacular nebula more typical of Type II supernovas, such as SN 1054 which created the Crab Nebula. A shell of gas is still expanding from its center at about 9,000km/s. A recent study indicates a rate of expansion below 5,000km/s.[8]

Discovery of the companion star

In October 2004, a letter in Nature reported the discovery of a G2 star, similar in type to our own Sun.[9] It is thought to be the companion star that contributed mass to the white dwarf that ultimately resulted in the supernova. A subsequent study, published in March 2005, revealed further details about this star: labeled Tycho G, it was probably a main-sequence star or subgiant prior to the explosion, but had some of its mass stripped away and its outer layers shock-heated from the effects of the supernova. Tycho G's current velocity is perhaps the strongest evidence that it was the companion star to the white dwarf, as it is traveling at a rate of 136km/s, which is more than four times faster than the mean velocity of other stars in its stellar neighbourhood. This find has been challenged in recent years. The star is relatively far away from the center and does not show rotation which might be expected of a companion star.

Observation of light echo

In September 2008, the Subaru telescope obtained the optical spectrum of Tycho Brahe's supernova near maximum brightness from a scattered-light echo.[10] It has been confirmed that SN 1572 belongs to the majority class of normal SNe Ia.

X-ray observation
An X-ray source designated Cepheus X-1 (or Cep X-1) was detected by the Uhuru X-ray observatory at 4U 0022+63. Earlier catalog designations are X120+2 and XRS 00224+638. Cepheus X-1 is actually in the constellation Cassiopeia, and it is SN 1572, the Tycho SNR.[11]

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In literature
In the November 1998 issue of Sky & Telescope magazine, three researchers from Southwest Texas State University, Don Olson and Russell Doescher of the Physics Department and Marilynn Olson of the English Department, argued that this supernova is described in Shakespeare's Hamlet, specifically by Bernardo in Act I, Scene i.[12]

References
[1] Krause, Oliver; et al. (2008). "Tycho Brahe's 1572 supernova as a standard type Ia as revealed by its light-echo spectrum". Nature 456 (7222): 617619. arXiv:0810.5106. Bibcode2008Natur.456..617K. doi:10.1038/nature07608. PMID19052622. [2] Blast From The Past: Astronomers Resurrect 16th-Century Supernova (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2008/ 12/ 081203133809. htm) ScienceDaily (Dec. 4, 2008) [3] Oliver Lawson Dick, ed. Aubrey's Brief Lives. Edited from the Original Manuscripts, 1949, s.v. "Thomas Allen" p. 5. [4] Wenwu Tian; Denis A. Leahy (December 26, 2010). "Tycho SN 1572: A Naked Ia Supernova Remnant without Associated Ambient Molecular Cloud". Astrophysical Journal Letters 729: L15. arXiv:1012.5673. Bibcode2011ApJ...729L..15T. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/729/2/L15. [5] Hanbury-Brown, R.; Hazard, C. (1952). "Radio-Frequency Radiation from Tycho Brahe's Supernova (A.D. 1572)". Nature 170 (4322): 364365. Bibcode1952Natur.170..364H. doi:10.1038/170364a0. [6] Baldwin, J. E.; Edge, D. O. (1957). "Radio emission from the remnants of the supernovae of 1572 and 1604". The Observatory 77: 139143. Bibcode1957Obs....77..139B. [7] Minkowski, R. (1964). "Supernovae and Supernova Remnants". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2 (1): 247266. Bibcode1964ARA&A...2..247M. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.02.090164.001335. [8] Asami Hayato; Hiroya Yamaguchi; Toru Tamagawa; Satoru Katsuda; Una Hwang; John Patrick Hughes; Midori Ozawa; Aya Bamba et al. (2010). "Expansion Velocity of Ejecta in Tycho's Supernova Remnant Measured by Doppler Broadened X-ray Line Emission". arXiv:1009.6031[astro-ph.HE]. [9] Ruiz-Lapuente, Pilar; et al. (2004). "The binary progenitor of Tycho Brahe's 1572 supernova". Nature 431 (7012): 10691072. arXiv:astro-ph/0410673. Bibcode2004Natur.431.1069R. doi:10.1038/nature03006. PMID15510140. [10] Oliver Krause; Masaomi Tanaka; Tomonori Usuda; Takashi Hattori; Miwa Goto; Stephan Birkmann; Ken'ichi Nomoto (October 28, 2008). "Tycho Brahe's 1572 supernova as a standard type Ia explosion revealed from its light echo spectrum". Nature 456 (7222): 617619. arXiv:0810.5106. Bibcode2008Natur.456..617K. doi:10.1038/nature07608. PMID19052622. [11] Wood KS, Meekins JF, Yentis DJ, Smathers HW, McNutt DP, Bleach RD (December 1984). "The HEAO A-1 X-ray source catalog". Ap J Suppl Ser. 56 (12): 507649. Bibcode1984ApJS...56..507W. doi:10.1086/190992. [12] http:/ / www. txstate. edu/ news/ news_releases/ news_archive/ 1998/ 09/ supernova092898. html

External links
Astronomy Picture of the Day: Tycho's Supernova Remnant (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap090317.html) solstation.com: Tycho's Star (http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/tycho-s.htm) The Search for the Companion Star of Tycho Brahe's 1572 Supernova (http://www.ing.iac.es/PR/newsletter/ news9/science7.html) cnn.com: Important days in history of universe (http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/01/01/ important.days/index.html)

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SN 1987A
SN 1987A

Circumstellar rings around SN 1987A, with the ejecta from the supernova explosion at the center of the inner ring. Observation data (Epoch J2000.0) Supernova type Remnant type Host galaxy Constellation Right ascension Declination Galactic coordinates Discovery date Peak magnitude (V) Distance Type II-P (unusual) unknown Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) Dorado 05h 35m 28.03s (J2000) [1] [1]

69 16 11.79 (J2000) G279.7-31.9

24 February 1987 (23:00 UTC) +2.9

[2]

167,885 light-years, or 51.47 kpc Physical characteristics

Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V) Notable features

Sanduleak -69 202 B3 supergiant +0.085 Closest recorded supernova since invention of telescope

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SN 1987A was a supernova in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a nearby dwarf galaxy. It occurred approximately 51.4 kiloparsecs from Earth, approximately 168,000 light-years,[1] close enough that it was visible to the naked eye. It could be seen from the Southern Hemisphere. It was the closest observed supernova since SN1604, which occurred in the Milky Way itself. The light from the new supernova reached Earth on February 23, 1987.[4] As it was the first supernova discovered in 1987, it was labeled 1987A. Its brightness peaked in May with an apparent magnitude of about 3 and slowly declined in the following months. It was the first opportunity for modern astronomers to see a supernova up close and observations have provided much insight into core-collapse supernovae.

A time sequence of Hubble Space Telescope images, taken in the 15 years from 1994 to 2009, showing the collision of the expanding supernova remnant with a ring of dense material ejected by the progenitor star 20,000 [3] years before the supernova.

Discovery
SN 1987A was discovered by Ian Shelton and Oscar Duhalde at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile on February 24, 1987, and within the same 24 hours independently by Albert Jones in New Zealand.[2] On March 412, 1987 it was observed from space by Astron, the largest ultraviolet space telescope of that time.[5]

SN1987A and the Honeycomb Nebula. Credit ESO

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The expanding supernova remnant around Supernova 1987A and its interaction with its surroundings, seen in X-ray and visible light.

Progenitor
Four days after the event was recorded, the progenitor star was tentatively identified as Sanduleak -69 202, a blue supergiant.[7] This was an unexpected identification, because at the time a blue supergiant was not considered a possibility for a supernova event in existing models of high mass stellar evolution. Many models of the progenitor have attributed the color to its chemical composition, particularly the low levels of heavy elements, among other factors.[8] There has been some speculation that the star may have merged with a companion star prior to the supernova.[9] However it is now widely understood that blue supergiants are natural progenitors of supernovae, although there is still speculation that the evolution of such stars requires mass loss involving a binary companion.[10] It is of note that the supernova of the Supernova SN 1987A, one of the brightest stellar blue giant Sanduleak -69 202 was about one-tenth as luminous as the explosions since the invention of the telescope [6] more than 400 years ago average observed type II supernova, which is associated with the denser makeup of the star. Since blue supergiant supernovae are not as bright as those generated by red supergiants, we would not expect to see as many of them, and so they might not be as rare or unusual as previously thought.

Neutrino emissions
Approximately two to three hours before the visible light from SN 1987A reached the Earth, a burst of neutrinos was observed at three separate neutrino observatories. This is likely due to neutrino emission (which occurs simultaneously with core collapse) preceding the emission of visible light (which occurs only after the shock wave reaches the stellar surface).[11] At 7:35a.m. Universal time, Kamiokande II detected 11 antineutrinos; IMB, 8 antineutrinos; and Baksan, 5 antineutrinos; in a burst lasting less than 13 seconds. Approximately three hours earlier, the Mont Blanc liquid scintillator detected a five-neutrino burst, but this is generally not believed to be associated with SN 1987A.[8] Although the actual neutrino count was only 24, it was a significant rise from the previously observed background level. This was the first time neutrinos emitted from a supernova had been observed directly, which marked the beginning of neutrino astronomy. The observations were consistent with theoretical supernova models in which 99% of the energy of the collapse is radiated away in neutrinos. The observations are also consistent with the models' estimates of a total neutrino count of 1058 with a total energy of 1046 joules.[12]

SN 1987A The neutrino measurements allowed upper bounds on neutrino mass and charge, as well as the number of flavors of neutrinos and other properties.[8] For example, the data show that within 5% confidence, the rest mass of the electron neutrino is at most 16 eV. The data suggests that the total number of neutrino flavors is at most 8 but other observations and experiments give tighter estimates. Many of these results have since been confirmed or tightened by other neutrino experiments such as more careful analysis of solar neutrinos and atmospheric neutrinos as well as experiments with artificial neutrino sources.

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Missing neutron star?

SN 1987A appears to be a core-collapse supernova, which should result in a neutron star given the size of the original star.[8] Indeed, the neutrino data indicate that a compact object did form at the star's core. However, since the supernova first became visible, astronomers have been searching for the collapsed core but have not detected it. The Hubble Space Telescope has taken images of the supernova regularly since August 1990, but, so far, the images have shown no evidence of a neutron star. A number of possibilities for the 'missing' neutron star are being considered, although none are clearly favored. The first is that the neutron star is enshrouded in dense dust clouds so that it cannot be seen. Another is that a pulsar was formed, but with either an unusually large or small magnetic field. It is also possible that large amounts of material fell back on the neutron star, so that it further collapsed into a black hole. Neutron stars and black holes often give off light when material falls onto them. If there is a compact object in the supernova remnant, but no material to fall onto it, it could be very dim and therefore could avoid detection. Other scenarios have also been considered, such as if the collapsed core became a quark star.[13][14]

Light curve
Much of the "light curve," or graph of luminosity as a function of time after the explosion of SN 1987A, required radioactive decay processes to explain. Near the time of maximum luminosity, the spectrum contains lines of intermediate-mass elements from oxygen to calcium; these are the main constituents of the outer layers of the star. Months after the explosion, when the outer layers had expanded to the point of transparency, the spectrum was dominated by light emitted by material near the core of the star, heavy elements synthesized during the explosion; most prominently isotopes close to the mass of iron (or iron peak elements). The radioactive decay of nickel-56 through cobalt-56 to iron-56 produced high-energy photons which dominated the energy output of the ejecta at intermediate (several weeks) to late times (several months).[15] The peak of the light curve was caused by the decay of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 (half life 6 days) while the later light curve of SN 1987A in particular fit very closely with the 77.3 day half-life of cobalt-56 decaying to iron-56. Since the complete decay of cobalt-56 the luminosity of the SN 1987A ejecta have been powered by the radioactive decay of titanium-44 isotope with the half life of about 85 years. Observations by the INTEGRAL mission showed that the total mass of radioactive Ti synthesized during the explosion was 3.1 0.8104 M.[16]

Interaction with circumstellar material

The three bright rings around SN 1987A (or SNR1987A) are material from the stellar wind of the progenitor. These rings were ionized by the ultraviolet flash from the supernova explosion, and consequently began emitting in various emission lines. These rings did not "turn on" until several months after the supernova; the turn-on process can be very accurately studied through spectroscopy. The rings are large enough that their angular size can be measured accurately: the inner ring is 0.808 arcseconds in radius. Using the distance light must have traveled to light up the inner ring as the base of a right angle triangle and the angular size as seen from the Earth for the local angle, one can use basic trigonometry to calculate the distance to SN1987A, which is about 168,000 light-years.[17] The material from the explosion is catching up with the material expelled during its red giant phase and heating it, so we observe ring structures around the star.

SN 1987A Around 2001, the expanding (>7000km/s) supernova ejecta collided with the inner ring. This caused its heating and the generation of x-rays the x-ray flux from the ring increased by 3 times between 2001 and 2009. A part of the x-ray radiation, which is absorbed by the dense ejecta close to the center, is responsible for a comparable increase in the optical flux from the supernova remnant in 20012009. This increase of the brightness of the remnant reversed the trend observed before 2001, when the optical flux was decreasing due to the decaying of 44Ti isotope.[3]

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Origin of the rings

The two stars observed close to SNR1987A have bracelets of pearls and outside weaker radii. This figure, similar to images provided by multimode lasers, are called "daisy modes". A common explanation: The very hot stars are in a cloud of hydrogen which, heated, generate a Strmgren sphere made up of fully ionized hydrogen (protons+electrons). Strmgren showed that outside is a plasma shell containing atoms which radiate strongly the lines of hydrogen. A superradiant emission and a competition of the modes explain the generation of the pearl bracelets. Many authors showed that the rings of SNR1987A coincide with the rim of a structure having the shape of an hourglass. The hourglass may be a Strmgren shell distorted by the inhomogeneity of the gas or of the radiation of the star. The brightness of the rings and the disappearance of the star resulted from a multiphotonic, scattering of light emitted by the star, induced by the superradiant rays: it explains that the star disappeared when the rings light up.

References
[1] "SN1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud" (http:/ / heritage. stsci. edu/ 1999/ 04/ fast_facts. html). Hubble Heritage Project. . Retrieved 2006-07-25. [2] "IAUC4316: 1987A, N. Cen. 1986" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 04300/ 04316. html). 24 February 1987. . [3] Larsson, J.; Fransson, C.; stlin, G.; Grningsson, P.; Jerkstrand, A.; Kozma, C.; Sollerman, J.; Challis, P. et al. (2011). "X-ray illumination of the ejecta of supernova 1987A". Nature 474 (7352): 484486. doi:10.1038/nature10090. PMID21654749. [4] Bibcode:1987A&A...177L...1W [5] Observations on Astron: Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1987PAZh. . . 13. . 739B) [6] "Hubble Revisits an Old Friend" (http:/ / www. spacetelescope. org/ images/ potw1142a/ ). Picture of the Week. ESA/Hubble. . Retrieved 17 October 2011. [7] Sonneborn, G. (1987). "The Progenitor of SN1987A". In Minas Kafatos. Supernova 1987a in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-35575-3 [8] Arnett, W.D.; et al. (1989). "Supernova 1987A". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 27: 629700. Bibcode1989ARA&A..27..629A. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.27.090189.003213. [9] (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1992PASP. . 104. . 717P). Podsiadlowski, Philipp, PASP 104:717-729,1992.Podsiadlowski, Philipp (1992). "The progenitor of SN 1987 A". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 104: 717. Bibcode1992PASP..104..717P. doi:10.1086/133043. [10] Dwarkadas, V. V. (2011). "On luminous blue variables as the progenitors of core-collapse supernovae, especially Type IIn supernovae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 412 (3): 16391649. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.18001.x. [11] Nomoto, Ken'ichi; Shigeyama, Toshikazu (1987). "Supernova 1987A: Constraints on the Theoretical Model". In Minas Kafatos. Supernova 1987a in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Cambridge University Press. section 3.2 Shock propagation time. ISBN0-521-35575-3 [12] Improved analysis of SN1987A antineutrino events. (http:/ / arXiv. org/ abs/ 0810. 0466) G. Pagliaroli, F. Vissani, M.L. Costantini, A. Ianni, Astropart.Phys.31:163-176,2009. [13] Chan, T. C.; Cheng, K. S.; Harko, T.; Lau, H. K.; Lin, L. M.; Suen, W. M.; Tian, X. L. (2009). "Could the compact remnant of SN 1987A be a quark star?". The Astrophysical Journal 695: 732. arXiv:0902.0653. Bibcode2009ApJ...695..732C. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/695/1/732. [14] Parsons, Paul (February 21, 2009). "Quark star may hold secret to early universe" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20126964. 700-quark-star-may-hold-secret-to-early-universe. html). New Scientist. . [15] Hillebrandt, W.; Niemeyer, J. C. (2000). "Type IA Supernova Explosion Models". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (1): 191230. arXiv:astro-ph/0006305. Bibcode2000ARA&A..38..191H. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.191. [16] Grebenev, S. A.; Lutovinov, A. A.; Tsygankov, S. S.; Winkler, C. (2012). "Hard-X-ray emission lines from the decay of 44Ti in the remnant of supernova 1987A". Nature 490 (7420): 373375. doi:10.1038/nature11473. PMID23075986. [17] Panagia, N. (1998). "New Distance Determination to the LMC". Memorie della Societa Astronomia Italiana 69: 225. Bibcode1998MmSAI..69..225P.

SN 1987A Graves, G.J.M; et al. (2005). "Limits from the Hubble Space Telescope on a point source in SN 1987A". Astrophysical Journal 629 (2): 944959. arXiv:astro-ph/0505066. Bibcode2005ApJ...629..944G. doi:10.1086/431422.

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External links
Picture of Supernova 1987A (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap970124.html) AAVSO: More information on the discovery of SN 1987A (http://www.aavso.org/vsots_sn1987a) Rochester Astronomy discovery timeline (http://www.rochesterastronomy.org/snimages/sn1987a.html) Light echoes from Sn1987a, Movie with real images by the group EROS2 (http://eros.in2p3.fr/ EchoesSN1987a/) Animation of light echoes from SN1987A (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060125.html) Supernova 1987A (http://cosmos.colorado.edu/stem/courses/common/documents/chapter6/l6S6.htm), by Richard McCray (http://jilawww.colorado.edu/~dick/) (astrophysicist, University of Colorado at Boulder (http://www.colorado.edu/)) SN 1987A at ESA/Hubble (http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/archive/freesearch/SN+1987A/viewall/ 1) Supernova 1987A, WIKISKY.ORG (http://www.wikisky.org/?ra=5.5911&de=-69.2696&zoom=16& img_source=IMG_60007:all) More information at Phil Plait's Bad Astronomy site (http://www.badastronomy.com/bitesize/ sn87a_discovery.html)

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SN 1006
Supernova SN 1006

SN 1006 supernova remnant Observation data (Epoch ?) Supernova type Remnant type Host galaxy Constellation Right ascension Declination Type Ia (presumably) Shell Milky Way Lupus 15h 2m 8s 41 57

Galactic coordinates G.327.6+14.6 Discovery date May 1, 1006

Peak magnitude (V) 7.5[1] Distance 7.2 kilolight-years (kpc) Physical characteristics Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V) Unknown Unknown some sources cite yellowish at visible spectrum Brightest supernova in recorded history, and therefore most described of the pre-telescopic era

Notable features

SN 1006 was a supernova, widely seen on Earth beginning in the year 1006; Earth was about 7,200 light years away from the supernova. It was the brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history, reaching an estimated 7.5 visual magnitude.[2] First appearing in the constellation of Lupus between April 30 and May 1 of that year, this "guest star" was described by observers in China, Egypt, Iraq, Japan, Switzerland, and North America.[3]

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Historic description
Chinese and Arab astronomers provide the most complete historical descriptions of this supernova. The Egyptian Arabic astrologer and astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan, writing in a commentary on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, stated that the "...spectacle was a large circular body, 2 to 3 times as large as Venus. The sky was shining because of its light. The intensity of its light was a little more than a quarter that of Moon light." Like all other observers, Ali ibn Ridwan noted that the new star was low on the southern horizon. Monks at the Benedictine abbey at St. Gallen provide independent data as to its magnitude and location in the sky, writing that "[i]n a wonderful manner this was sometimes contracted, sometimes diffused, and moreover sometimes extinguished. It was seen likewise for three months in the inmost limits of the south, beyond all the constellations which are seen in the sky".[4] This description is often taken as probable evidence that the supernova was of Type Ia. Some sources state that the star was bright enough to cast shadows; it was certainly seen during daylight hours for some time, and the modern-day astronomer Frank Winkler has said that "in the spring of 1006, people could probably have read manuscripts at midnight by its light."[2] The reports from Switzerland are particularly noteworthy, as the supernova would have been very low in the sky there, rising to at most 5 degrees above the southern horizon and being visible for only 45 hours at a time. Atmospheric extinction and the need to find a site with a clear southern horizon make seeing even bright objects this low difficult; the "sometimes contracted, diffused, extinguished" remarks quoted above hint at atmospheric effects caused by the low apparent altitude of the object. According to Songshi, the official history of the Song Dynasty (sections 56 and 461), the star seen on 1 May 1006 appeared to the south of constellation Di, east of Lupus and one degree to the west of Centaurus. The size of the visual explosion was half that of the moon, and shone so brightly that objects on the ground could be seen at night. By December, it was again sighted in the constellation Di. The Chinese astrologer Zhou Keming, who was on his return to Kaifeng from his duty in Guangdong, interpreted the star to the emperor on May 30 as an auspicious star, yellow in color and brilliant in its brightness, that would bring great prosperity to the state over which it appeared. There appear to have been two distinct phases in the early evolution of this supernova. There was first a three-month period at which it was at its brightest; after this period it diminished, then returned for a period of about eighteen months. Most astrologers interpreted the event as a portent of warfare and famine. A petroglyph by the Hohokam in White Tank Mountain Regional Park, Maricopa County, Arizona, has been interpreted as the first known North American representation of the supernova.[3]

Remnant
The associated supernova remnant from this explosion was not identified until 1965, when Doug Milne and Frank Gardner used the Parkes radio telescope to demonstrate that the previously known radio source PKS 1459-41, near the star Beta Lupi, had the appearance of a 30-arcminute circular shell.[5] Over the next few years, both X-ray and optical emission from this remnant were also detected, and in 2010 the H.E.S.S. gamma-ray observatory announced the detection of very-high-energy gamma-ray emission from the remnant.[6] The ~0.5 diameter remnant of SN 1006 lies at an estimated distance of 2.2 kiloparsecs from Earth, making its linear diameter approximately 20 parsecs. As expected for the remnant of a Type Ia supernova, no associated neutron star or black hole has been found. A survey to find surviving companions of the SN 1006 progenitor found no subgiant or giant companion stars,[7] indicating that SN 1006 probably comes from a double degenerate progenitor -that is, the merging of two white dwarfs.

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Gallery

SN 1006 Supernova Remnant Expansion Comparison.

A composite image of the supernova remnant.

References
[1] Winkler, P. Frank; Gupta, Gaurav; Long, Knox S. (2003). "The SN 1006 Remnant: Optical Proper Motions, Deep Imaging, Distance, and Brightness at Maximum". The Astrophysical Journal 585 (1): 324335. arXiv:astro-ph/0208415. Bibcode2003ApJ...585..324W. doi:10.1086/345985. [2] "Astronomers Peg Brightness of Historys Brightest Star" (http:/ / www. noao. edu/ outreach/ press/ pr03/ pr0304. html) (Press release). National Optical Astronomy Observatory. 2003-03-05. . Retrieved 2009-01-12. [3] "CNN.com - Ancient rock art may depict exploding star - Jun 5, 2006" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ space/ 06/ 05/ rock. art/ index. html). CNN. . Retrieved May 23, 2010. [4] The Arabic and Latin texts are in Goldstein, Bernard R. (1965). "Evidence for a Supernova of A.D. 1006". The Astronomical Journal 70 (1): 105114. Bibcode1965AJ.....70..105G. doi:10.1086/109679. [5] Gardner, F. F.; Milne, D. K. (1965). "The supernova of A.D. 1006". The Astronomical Journal 70: 754. Bibcode1965AJ.....70..754G. doi:10.1086/109813. [6] Acero, F.; et al. (2010). "First detection of VHE -rays from SN 1006 by HESS" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ bib_query?arXiv:1004. 2124). Astronomy and Astrophysics 516: A62. arXiv:1004.2124. Bibcode2010A&A...516A..62A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913916. . [7] Gonzlez Hernndez, J. I.; Ruiz-Lapuente, P.; Tabernero, H. M.; Montes, D.; Canal, R.; Mndez, J.; Bedin, L. R. (2012). "No surviving evolved companions of the progenitor of SN 1006". Nature 489 (7417): 533536. doi:10.1038/nature11447. PMID23018963.

External links
Cause of Supernova SN 1006 Revealed (http://www.ub.edu/web/ub/en/menu_eines/noticies/2012/09/049. html) (27 Sept 2012 @ Universitat de Barcelona) Stories of SN 1006 in Chinese literature (http://www.jlab.org/~jiang/supernova/SN1006.ppt) (PowerPoint) National Optical Observatory Press Release for March 2003 (http://www.noao.edu/outreach/press/pr03/ pr0304.html) Space.com Image of the Day 19 December 2005 (http://www.space.com/imageoftheday/ image_of_day_051219.html) Ancient Rock Art Depicts Exploding Star Space.com report, June 6, 2006 (http://www.space.com/ scienceastronomy/060605_rock_art.html) Experts question "supernova" rock art, Sky & Telescope Report, June 7, 2006 (http://skytonight.com/news/ 3422486.html?page=1&c=y,) Entry for supernova remnant of SN 1006 (http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/surveys/snrs/snrs.G327.6+14.6. html) from the Galactic Supernova Remnant Catalogue

SN 1006 X-ray image of supernova remnant of SN 1006 (http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sn1006/), as seen with the Chandra X-ray Observatory Ancient rock art may depict exploding star (http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2006/06/ ancient-rock-art-may-depict-exploding.html) Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030317.html), March 17, 2003 Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap080704.html), July 4, 2008 Margaret Donsbach: The Scholar's Supernova (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200604/the.scholar. s.supernova.htm) SN 1006 on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=15.04,-41.95)

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SN 2003fg

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SN 2003fg
SN 2003fg
Observation data (Epoch J2000.0) Supernova type Right ascension Declination aberrant Ia 14h 16m 18.78s +52 14' 55.4

Galactic coordinates 096.3812 +60.2821 Discovery date 2003

Physical characteristics Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V) Notable features ? ? ? Super Chandrasekhar

The SN 2003fg (designated SNLS-03D3bb by the Canada-France-Hawaii Supernova Legacy Survey and sometimes called the "Champagne Supernova"), was an aberrant type Ia supernova discovered in 2003 and described in the journal Nature on September 21 of 2006.[1] It was nicknamed after the 1996 song "Champagne Supernova" by English rock band Oasis.[2] It may potentially revolutionize thinking about the physics of supernovae because of its highly unusual nature, in particular the mass of its progenitor. According to the current understanding, white dwarf stars go supernova type Ia when they approach 1.4solar masses (1.4times the mass of the Sun), termed the Chandrasekhar limit; the explosion occurs when the central density grows to a critical 2 109 g/cm3. The mass added to the star is believed to be donated by a companion star, either from the companion's stellar wind or the overflow of its Roche lobe as it evolves.[3] However, the progenitor of SN 2003fg reached two solar masses before exploding, more massive than thought possible. The primary mechanism invoked to explain how a white dwarf can exceed the Chandrasekhar mass is unusually rapid rotation; the added support effectively increases the critical mass. An alternative explanation is that the explosion resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs. The evidence indicating a higher than normal mass comes from the light curve and spectra of the supernovawhile it was particularly overluminous the kinetic energies measured from ejecta signatures in the spectra appeared smaller than usual. The explanation is that more of the total kinetic energy budget was expended climbing out of the deeper than usual potential well.[4] This is important because the brightness of type Ia supernovae was thought to be essentially uniform, making them useful "standard candles" in measuring distances in the universe. Such an aberrant type Ia supernova could throw distances and other scientific work into doubt; however, the light curve characteristics of SNLS-03D3bb were such that it would never have been mistaken for an ordinary high-redshift Type Ia supernova. The discovery was made on the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope and the Keck Telescope, both on Mauna Kea in Hawaii, and announced by researchers at the University of Toronto.[1] The supernova occurred in a galaxy some 4 billion light-years from Earth.

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References
[1] Howell, D. Andrew (21 September 2006). "The type Ia supernova SNLS-03D3bb from a super-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarf star" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v443/ n7109/ full/ nature05103. html). Nature 443: 308311. arXiv:astro-ph/0609616. Bibcode2006Natur.443..308H. doi:10.1038/nature05103. . Retrieved 9 August 2011. [2] Branch, David (21 September 2006). "Astronomy: Champagne supernova" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v443/ n7109/ full/ 443283a. html). Nature 443 (7109): 283284. Bibcode2006Natur.443..283B. doi:10.1038/443283a. . Retrieved 1 October 2010. [3] Nugent, Peter (September 20, 2006). "The Weirdest Type Ia Supernova Yet" (http:/ / www. lbl. gov/ Science-Articles/ Archive/ Phys-weird-supernova. html). Research News. . Retrieved 2006-11-02. [4] McKee, Maggie (20 September 2006). "Bizarre supernova breaks all the rules" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn10114). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2007-01-08.

External links
SN 2003fg - SIMBAD (http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=SN+2003fg&NbIdent=1& Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id) 'Champagne supernova' challenges understanding of how supernovae work - University of Toronto (http://www. news.utoronto.ca/bin6/060920-2575.asp) Cosmos Magazine - "Rebellious supernova confronts dark energy" (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/ 680) 'Champagne Supernova' breaks astronomical rules - CBC (http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2006/09/21/ supernova.html) Astronomy: Champagne supernova - Nature (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7109/full/ 443283a.html;jsessionid=CA9FBC89DDC31324D3CCFD44B72BC7C7) (subscription site) Supernovae - NASA GSFC (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/supernovae.html)

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SN 2007bi
SN 2007bi
Observation data (Epoch J2000.0) Supernova type Host galaxy Right ascension Declination type Ic Anon J131920+0855 13h 19m 20.19s +08 55' 44.3

Galactic coordinates 324.1496 +70.6427 Discovery date by Nearby Supernova Factory USA Physical characteristics Progenitor Progenitor type Colour (B-V) Notable features ? ? ? is located near the apparent host galaxy Anon J131920+0855

SN 2007bi was an extremely energetic supernova discovered early in 2007 by the international Nearby Supernova Factory based at the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The precursor star is estimated to have had 200 solar masses at the time of its formation and around 100 solar masses in its core when it went supernova. The explosion ejected more than 22 solar masses of silicon and other heavy elements into space during this supernova including more than 6 solar masses of radioactive nickel which caused the expanding gases to glow very brightly for many months. The supernova has been described as an unambiguous fit for the pair-instability supernova model.

References
SIMBAD data [1]

Further reading
Gal-Yam, A.; Mazzali, P.; Ofek, E. O.; et al., "Supernova 2007bi as a pair-instability explosion", Nature 462 (7273): 624627, arXiv:1001.1156, Bibcode2009Natur.462..624G, doi:10.1038/nature08579

External links
New Scientist, "Death of rare giant star sheds light on cosmic past" [2] Science Daily, "Superbright Supernova Is First of Its Kind" [3] Keck Observatory, "First of its kind superbright supernova" [4] Nature, "Full report submitted by scientists to the journal Nature" [5] Weizmann Institute, "First hand description of the study" [6]

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=sn+ 2007bi& NbIdent=1& Radius=2& Radius. unit=arcmin& submit=submit+ id http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn18228-death-of-rare-giant-star-sheds-light-on-cosmic-past. html http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 12/ 091202153939. htm http:/ / keckobservatory. org/ index. php/ news/ first_of_its_kind_superbright_supernova http:/ / www. weizmann. ac. il/ home/ galyam/ PTF/ SN2007bi. pdf http:/ / www. weizmann. ac. il/ home/ galyam/ SNF20070406-008. html

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Selected supernova remnants

Crab Nebula
Crab Nebula

M1, the Crab Nebula Observation data: J2000.0 epoch Type Right ascension Declination Distance Supernova remnant 05h34m31.94s +220052.2 [1]

[1] [2]

6.5 1.6 kly (2.0 0.5 kpc)

Apparent magnitude (V) +8.4 Apparent dimensions (V) 420 290[3][a] Constellation Taurus Physical characteristics Radius Absolute magnitude (V) Notable features Other designations 5.5 light year (1.7 pc) 3.1 0.5[b] Optical pulsar Messier 1, [1] NGC 1952, [1] Sharpless 244 [4]

The Crab Nebula(catalogue designations M1, NGC 1952, Taurus A) is a supernova remnant and pulsar wind nebula in the constellation of Taurus. The nebula was observed by John Bevis in 1731; it corresponds to a bright supernova recorded by Arab, Chinese and Japanese astronomers in 1054. At X-ray and gamma-ray energies above 30 keV, the Crab is generally the strongest persistent source in the sky, with measured flux extending to above 1012 eV. Located at a distance of about 6,500 light-years (2 kpc) from Earth, the nebula has a diameter of 11 light years (3.4 pc) and expands at a rate of about 1,500 kilometers per second. It is part of the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy. At the center of the nebula lies the Crab Pulsar, a neutron star (or spinning ball of neutrons), 2830km across,[5] which emits pulses of radiation from gamma rays to radio waves with a spin rate of 30.2 times per second. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified with a historical supernova explosion.

Crab Nebula The nebula acts as a source of radiation for studying celestial bodies that occult it. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Sun's corona was mapped from observations of the Crab's radio waves passing through it, and in 2003, the thickness of the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan was measured as it blocked out X-rays from the nebula. The cloudy remnants of SN 1054 are now known as the Crab Nebula. The nebula is also referred to as Messier 1 or M1, being the first Messier Object catalogued in 1758.

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Origins
The creation of the Crab Nebula corresponds to the bright SN 1054 supernova that was independently recorded by Indian, Arabic, Chinese and Japanese astronomers in 1054 AD. The Crab Nebula itself was first observed in 1731 by John Bevis. The nebula was independently rediscovered in 1758 by Charles Messier as he was observing a bright comet. Messier catalogued it as the first entry in his catalogue of comet-like objects. The Earl of Rosse observed the nebula at Birr Castle in 1848, and referred to the object as the Crab Nebula because a drawing he made of it looked like a crab.[6][7] In the early 20th century, the analysis of early photographs of the nebula taken several years apart revealed that it was expanding. Tracing the expansion back revealed that the nebula must have become visible on Earth about 900years ago. Historical records revealed that a new star bright enough to be seen in the daytime had been recorded in the same part of the sky by Chinese astronomers in 1054.[8][9] Given its great distance, the daytime "guest star" observed by the Chinese could only have been a supernovaa massive, exploding star, having exhausted its supply of energy from nuclear fusion and collapsed in on

The Crab Nebula video by NASA

itself. Recent analysis of historical records have found that the supernova that created the Crab Nebula probably appeared in April or early May, rising to its maximum brightness of between apparent magnitude 7 and 4.5 (brighter than everything in the night sky except the Moon) by July. The supernova was visible to the naked eye for about two years after its first observation.[10] Thanks to the recorded observations of Far Eastern and Middle Eastern astronomers of 1054, Crab Nebula became the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion.[9]

Physical conditions
In visible light, the Crab Nebula consists of a broadly oval-shaped mass of filaments, about 6arcminutes long and 4arcminutes wide (by comparison, the full moon is 30arcminutes across) surrounding a diffuse blue central region. In three dimensions, the nebula is thought to be shaped like a prolate spheroid.[3] The filaments are the remnants of the progenitor star's atmosphere, and consist largely of ionised helium and hydrogen, along with carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, neon and sulfur. The filaments' temperatures are typically between 11,000 and 18,000K, and their densities are about 1,300particles per cm3.[11] In 1953 Iosif Shklovsky proposed that the diffuse blue region is predominantly produced by synchrotron radiation, which is radiation given off by the curving motion of electrons in a magnetic field. The
The Crab Nebula seen in infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope.

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radiation corresponded to electrons moving at speeds up to half the speed of light.[12] Three years later the theory was confirmed by observations. In the 1960s it was found that the source of the electrons' curved paths was the strong magnetic field produced by a neutron star at the center of the nebula.[13]

Distance
Even though the Crab Nebula is the focus of much attention among astronomers, its distance remains an open question due to uncertainties in every method used to estimate its distance. In 2008, the consensus was that its distance from Earth is 2.0 0.5 kpc (6.5 1.6 kly). The Crab Nebula is currently expanding outwards at about 1,500km/s.[14] Images taken several years apart reveal the slow expansion of the Hubble Space Telescope image of a small region [15] of the Crab Nebula, showing RayleighTaylor nebula, and by comparing this angular expansion with its instabilities in its intricate filamentary structure. spectroscopically determined expansion velocity, the nebula's distance Credit: NASA/ESA. can be estimated. In 1973, an analysis of many methods used to compute the distance to the nebula reached a conclusion of about 6,300ly.[3] Along its longest visible dimension, it measures about 13 3 light year across.[c] Tracing back its expansion consistently yields a date for the creation of the nebula several decades after 1054, implying that its outward velocity has accelerated since the supernova explosion.[16] This acceleration is believed to be caused by energy from the pulsar that feeds into the nebula's magnetic field, which expands and forces the nebula's filaments outwards.[17]

Mass
Estimates of the total mass of the nebula are important for estimating the mass of the supernova's progenitor star. The amount of matter contained in the Crab Nebula's filaments (ejecta mass of ionized and neutral gas; mostly helium[18]) is estimated to be 4.6 1.8 M.[19]

Helium-rich torus
One of the many nebular components (or anomalies) of the Crab is a helium-rich torus which is visible as an east-west band crossing the pulsar region. The torus composes about 25% of the visible ejecta. However, it is suggested by calculation that about 95% of the torus is helium. As yet, there has been no plausible explanation put forth for the structure of the torus.[20]

Central star
At the centre of the Crab Nebula are two faint stars, one of which is the star responsible for the existence of the nebula. It was identified as such in 1942, when Rudolf Minkowski found that its optical spectrum was extremely unusual.[21] The region around the star was found to be a strong source of radio waves in 1949[22] and X-rays in 1963,[23] and was identified as one of the brightest objects in the sky in gamma rays in 1967.[24] Then, in 1968, the star was found to be emitting its radiation in rapid pulses, becoming one of the first pulsars to be discovered. Pulsars are sources of powerful electromagnetic radiation, emitted in short and extremely regular pulses many times a second. They were a great mystery when discovered in 1967, and the team who identified the first one considered the possibility that it could be a signal from an advanced civilization.[25] However, the discovery of a pulsating radio source in the centre of the Crab Nebula was strong evidence that pulsars were formed by supernova explosions. They

Crab Nebula are now understood to be rapidly rotating neutron stars, whose powerful magnetic field concentrates their radiation emissions into narrow beams. The Crab Pulsar is believed to be about 2830km in diameter;[26] it emits pulses of radiation every 33milliseconds.[27] Pulses are emitted at wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to X-rays. Like all isolated pulsars, its period is slowing very gradually. Occasionally, its rotational period shows sharp changes, known as 'glitches', which are believed to be caused by a sudden realignment inside the neutron star. The energy released as the pulsar slows down is enormous, and it powers the emission of the synchrotron radiation of the Crab Nebula, which has a total luminosity about 75,000 times greater than that of the Sun.[28] The pulsar's extreme energy output creates an unusually dynamic region at the centre of the Crab Nebula. While most astronomical objects evolve so slowly that changes are visible only over timescales of many years, the inner parts of the Crab show changes over timescales of only a few days.[29] The most dynamic feature in the inner part of the nebula is the point where the pulsar's equatorial wind slams into the bulk of the nebula, forming a shock front. The shape and position of this feature shifts rapidly, with the equatorial wind appearing as a series of wisp-like features that steepen, brighten, then fade as they move away from the pulsar to well out into the main body of the nebula.

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The Crab Pulsar. This image combines optical data from Hubble (in red) and X-ray images from Chandra X-ray Observatory (in blue).

Data from orbiting observatories show unexpected variations in the Crab Nebula's X-ray output, likely tied to the environment around its central neutron star.

NASA's Fermi spots 'superflares' in the Crab Nebula.

Progenitor star
The star that exploded as a supernova is referred to as the supernova's progenitor star. Two types of stars explode as supernovae: white dwarfs and massive stars. In the so-called Type Ia supernovae, gases falling onto a white dwarf raise its mass until it nears a critical level, the Chandrasekhar limit, resulting in an explosion; in Type Ib/c and Type II supernovae, the progenitor star is a massive star which runs out of fuel to power its nuclear fusion reactions and collapses in on itself, reaching such phenomenal This sequence of Hubble Space Telescope images shows features in the inner Crab Nebula changing over a period of four months. Credit: NASA/ESA. temperatures that it explodes. The presence of a pulsar in the Crab means that it must have formed in a core-collapse supernova; Type Ia supernovae do not produce pulsars.

Crab Nebula Theoretical models of supernova explosions suggest that the star that exploded to produce the Crab Nebula must have had a mass of between 9 and 11M.[20][30] Stars with masses lower than 8solar masses are thought to be too small to produce supernova explosions, and end their lives by producing a planetary nebula instead, while a star heavier than 12solar masses would have produced a nebula with a different chemical composition to that observed in the Crab.[31] A significant problem in studies of the Crab Nebula is that the combined mass of the nebula and the pulsar add up to considerably less than the predicted mass of the progenitor star, and the question of where the 'missing mass' is remains unresolved.[19] Estimates of the mass of the nebula are made by measuring the total amount of light emitted, and calculating the mass required, given the measured temperature and density of the nebula. Estimates range from about 15solar masses, with 23solar masses being the generally accepted value.[31] The neutron star mass is estimated to be between 1.4 and 2solar masses. The predominant theory to account for the missing mass of the Crab is that a substantial proportion of the mass of the progenitor was carried away before the supernova explosion in a fast stellar wind, a phenomenon commonly seen in Wolf-Rayet stars. However, this would have created a shell around the nebula. Although attempts have been made at several wavelengths to observe a shell, none has yet been found.[32]

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Transits by solar system bodies

The Crab Nebula lies roughly 1 away from the eclipticthe plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. This means that the Moonand occasionally, planetscan transit or occult the nebula. Although the Sun does not transit the nebula, its corona passes in front of it. These transits and occultations can be used to analyse both the nebula and the object passing in front of it, by observing how radiation from the nebula is altered by the transiting body. Lunar transits have been used to map X-ray emissions from the nebula. Before the launch of X-ray-observing satellites, such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory, X-ray observations generally had quite low angular resolution, but when the Moon passes in front of the nebula, its position is very accurately known, and so the variations in the nebula's brightness can be used to create maps of X-ray emission.[33] When X-rays were first observed from the Crab, a lunar occultation was used to determine the exact location of their source.[23] The Sun's corona passes in front of the Crab every June. Variations in the radio waves received from the Crab at this time can be used to infer details about the corona's density and structure. Early observations established that the corona extended out to much greater distances than had previously been thought; later observations found that the corona contained substantial density variations.[34] Very rarely, Saturn transits the Crab Nebula. Its transit in 2003 was the first since 1296; another will not occur until 2267. Observers used the Chandra X-ray Observatory to observe Saturn's moon Titan as it crossed the nebula, and found that Titan's X-ray 'shadow' was larger than its solid surface, due to absorption of X-rays in its atmosphere. These observations showed that the thickness of Titan's atmosphere is 880km (mi).[35] The transit of Saturn itself could not be observed, because Chandra was passing through the Van Allen belts at the time.

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In popular culture
In the British television programme Doctor Who, The Master says in the serial Colony in Space that the Crab Nebula was the result of the Uxariean race testing the Doomsday Weapon, which is capable of making stars go supernova.

Notes
a. Size as measured on a very deep plate taken by Sidney van den Bergh in late 1969.[3][36] b. Apparent Magnitude of 8.4 - distance modulus of 11.5 0.5 = 3.1 0.5 c. distance tan( diameter_angle = 420 ) = 4.1 1.0 pc diameter = 13 3 light year diameter

References
[1] "SIMBAD Astronomical Database" (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ Simbad). Results for NGC 1952. . Retrieved February 12, 2012. [2] Kaplan, D. L.; Chatterjee, S.; Gaensler, B. M.; Anderson, J. (2008). "A Precise Proper Motion for the Crab Pulsar, and the Difficulty of Testing Spin-Kick Alignment for Young Neutron Stars". Astrophysical Journal 677 (2): 1201. arXiv:0801.1142. Bibcode2008ApJ...677.1201K. doi:10.1086/529026. [3] Trimble, Virginia Louise (1973). "The Distance to the Crab Nebula and NP 0532". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 85 (507): 579. Bibcode1973PASP...85..579T. doi:10.1086/129507. [4] Carroll, Bradley W.; Ostlie, Dale A. (2007). An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, Second Edition. Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-8053-0402-9. [5] "Crab Nebula: The Spirit of Halloween Lives on as a Dead Star Creates Celestial Havoc" (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ photo/ 2006/ crab/ ). Chandra X-ray observatory. October 24, 2006. . Retrieved February 11, 2012. "12 miles across" [6] Glyn Jones, K. (1976). "The Search for the Nebulae". Journal for the History of Astronomy 7: 67. Bibcode1976JHA.....7...67B. [7] Rossi, B.B.. "The Crab Nebula ancient history and recent discoveries" (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ search. jsp?R=19700008151). NASA. NTRS. . Retrieved October 1, 1969. [8] Lundmark, K. (1921). "Suspected New Stars Recorded in Old Chronicles and Among Recent Meridian Observations". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 33: 225. Bibcode1921PASP...33..225L. doi:10.1086/123101. [9] Mayall, N.U. (1939). "The Crab Nebula, a Probable Supernova". Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 3: 145. Bibcode1939ASPL....3..145M. [10] Collins, George W., II; Claspy, William P.; Martin, John C. (1999). "A Reinterpretation of Historical References to the Supernova of A.D. 1054". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 111 (761): 871880. arXiv:astro-ph/9904285. Bibcode1999PASP..111..871C. doi:10.1086/316401. [11] Fesen, R. A.; Kirshner, R. P. (1982). "The Crab Nebula. I - Spectrophotometry of the filaments". Astrophysical Journal 258 (1): 110. Bibcode1982ApJ...258....1F. doi:10.1086/160043. [12] Shklovskii, Iosif (1953). "On the Nature of the Crab Nebulas Optical Emission". Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 90: 983. Bibcode1957SvA.....1..690S. [13] Burn B.J. (1973). "A synchrotron model for the continuum spectrum of the Crab Nebula". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 165: 421. Bibcode1973MNRAS.165..421B. [14] Bietenholz, M. F.; Kronberg, P. P.; Hogg, D. E.; Wilson, A. S. (1991). "The expansion of the Crab Nebula". Astrophysical Journal Letters 373: L59L62. Bibcode1991ApJ...373L..59B. doi:10.1086/186051. [15] "Animation showing expansion from 1973 to 2001" (http:/ / apod. nasa. gov/ apod/ ap011227. html). Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. December 27, 2001. . Retrieved March 20, 2010. [16] Trimble, Virginia Louise (1968). "Motions and Structure of the Filamentary Envelope of the Crab Nebula". Astronomical Journal 73: 535. Bibcode1968AJ.....73..535T. doi:10.1086/110658. [17] Bejger, M.; Haensel, P. (2003). "Accelerated expansion of the Crab Nebula and evaluation of its neutron-star parameters". Astronomy and Astrophysics 405 (2): 747751. arXiv:astro-ph/0301071. Bibcode2003A&A...405..747B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030642. [18] Green, D. A.; Tuffs, R. J.; Popescu, C. C. (2004). "Far-infrared and submillimetre observations of the Crab nebula". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 355 (4): 13151326. arXiv:astro-ph/0409469. Bibcode2004MNRAS.355.1315G. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08414.x. [19] Fesen, Robert A.; Shull, J. Michael; Hurford, Alan P. (1997). "An Optical Study of the Circumstellar Environment Around the Crab Nebula". Astronomical Journal 113: 354363. Bibcode1997AJ....113..354F. doi:10.1086/118258. [20] MacAlpine, Gordon M.; Ecklund, Tait C.; Lester, William R.; Vanderveer, Steven J.; Strolger, Louis-Gregory (2007). "A Spectroscopic Study of Nuclear Processing and the Production of Anomalously Strong Lines in the Crab Nebula". Astronomical Journal 133 (1): 8188. arXiv:astro-ph/0609803. Bibcode2007AJ....133...81M. doi:10.1086/509504. [21] Minkowski, R. (1942). "The Crab Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 96: 199. Bibcode1942ApJ....96..199M. doi:10.1086/144447. [22] Bolton, J. G.; Stanley, G. J.; Slee, O. B. (1949). "Positions of three discrete sources of Galactic radio frequency radiation". Nature 164 (4159): 101102. Bibcode1949Natur.164..101B. doi:10.1038/164101b0.

Crab Nebula
[23] Bowyer, S.; Byram, E. T.; Chubb, T. A.; Friedman, H. (1964). "Lunar Occultation of X-ray Emission from the Crab Nebula". Science 146 (3646): 912917. Bibcode1964Sci...146..912B. doi:10.1126/science.146.3646.912. PMID17777056. [24] Haymes, R. C.; Ellis, D. V.; Fishman, G. J.; Kurfess, J. D.; Tucker, W. H. (1968). "Observation of Gamma Radiation from the Crab Nebula". Astrophysical Journal Letters 151: L9. Bibcode1968ApJ...151L...9H. doi:10.1086/180129. [25] Del Puerto, C. (2005). "Pulsars In The Headlines". EAS Publications Series 16: 115119. doi:10.1051/eas:2005070. [26] Bejger, M.; Haensel, P. (2002). "Moments of inertia for neutron and strange stars: Limits derived for the Crab pulsar". Astronomy and Astrophysics 396 (3): 917921. arXiv:astro-ph/0209151. Bibcode2002A&A...396..917B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021241. [27] Harnden, F. R.; Seward, F. D. (1984). "Einstein observations of the Crab nebula pulsar". Astrophysical Journal 283: 279285. Bibcode1984ApJ...283..279H. doi:10.1086/162304. [28] Kaufmann, W. J. (1996). Universe (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. p.428. ISBN0-7167-2379-4. [29] Hester, J. J.; Scowen, P. A.; Sankrit, R.; Michel, F. C.; Graham, J. R.; Watson, A.; Gallagher, J. S. (1996). "The Extremely Dynamic Structure of the Inner Crab Nebula". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 28 (2): 950. Bibcode1996BAAS...28..950H. [30] Nomoto, K. (1985). "Evolutionary models of the Crab Nebula's progenitor". The Crab Nebula and related supernova remnants; Proceedings of the Workshop. Cambridge University Press. pp.97113. Bibcode1985cnrs.work...97N. [31] Davidson, K.; Fesen, R. A. (1985). "Recent developments concerning the Crab Nebula". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 23 (507): 119146. Bibcode1985ARA&A..23..119D. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.23.090185.001003. [32] Frail, D. A.; Kassim, N. E.; Cornwell, T. J.; Goss, W. M. (1995). "Does the Crab Have a Shell?". Astrophysical Journal Letters 454 (2): L129L132. arXiv:astro-ph/9509135. Bibcode1995ApJ...454L.129F. doi:10.1086/309794. [33] Palmieri, T. M.; Seward, F. D.; Toor, A.; van Flandern, T. C. (1975). "Spatial distribution of X-rays in the Crab Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 202: 494497. Bibcode1975ApJ...202..494P. doi:10.1086/153998. [34] Erickson, W. C. (1964). "The Radio-Wave Scattering Properties of the Solar Corona". Astrophysical Journal 139: 1290. Bibcode1964ApJ...139.1290E. doi:10.1086/147865. [35] Mori, K.; Tsunemi, H.; Katayama, H.; Burrows, D. N.; Garmire, G. P.; Metzger, A. E. (2004). "An X-Ray Measurement of Titan's Atmospheric Extent from Its Transit of the Crab Nebula". Astrophysical Journal 607 (2): 10651069. arXiv:astro-ph/0403283. Bibcode2004ApJ...607.1065M. doi:10.1086/383521. Chandra images used by Mori et al. can be viewed here (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ photo/ 2004/ titan/ ). [36] van den Bergh, Sidney (1970). "A Jetlike Structure Associated with the Crab Nebula". Astrophysical Journal Letters 160: L27. Bibcode1970ApJ...160L..27V. doi:10.1086/180516.

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External links
Data on the Crab Nebula (http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/surveys/snrs/snrs.G184.6-5.8.html), on a supernova remnants catalogue managed at University of Cambridge The Crab Nebula at ESA/Hubble (http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/archive/freesearch/crab+nebula/ viewall/1) Messier 1 (http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m001.html), SEDS Messier pages Images of the Crab (http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/0052/) from the Chandra X-ray Observatory Chandra page about the nebula (http://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/crab/crab.html) Images of the Crab (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1996/22/) from the Hubble Space Telescope Lord Rosse's drawings of M1, the Crab Nebula (http://www.seds.org/messier/more/m001_rosse.html) from SEDS NightSkyInfo.com - M1, the Crab Nebula (http://www.nightskyinfo.com/archive/m1_supernova_remnant) M1 The Crab Nebula (http://web.archive.org/web/20071023050057/http://www.dsi-astronomie.de/M1. htm) M1 The Crab Pulsar in Crab Nebula / Video (http://home.fonline.de/ff/freiz_as/page1.htm) The Crab Nebula on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=Crab+Nebula)

Vela Supernova Remnant

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Vela Supernova Remnant

Vela Supernova Remnant

An optical wide field view of the Vela Supernova Remnant from the Southern H-Alpha Sky Survey Atlas (SHASSA) Observation data: J2000.0 epoch Type Right ascension Declination Distance Apparent magnitude (V) Apparent dimensions (V) Constellation Supernova Remnant 08h 35m 20.66s -45 10' 35.2" 81598 12 8 degree (approx.) Vela Physical characteristics Radius Absolute magnitude (V) ?? ??? [1] ly

The Vela supernova remnant (also called Gum 16) is a supernova remnant in the southern constellation Vela. Its source supernova exploded approximately 11,000-12,300 years ago (and was about 800 light years away). The association of the Vela supernova remnant with the Vela pulsar, made by astronomers at the University of Sydney in 1968,[2] was direct observational proof that supernovae form neutron stars.

Position of Vela in the Milky Way. Credit : NASA/DOE/International LAT Team.

The Vela supernova remnant includes NGC 2736. It also overlaps the Puppis Supernova Remnant, which is four times more distant. Both the Puppis and Vela remnants are among the largest and brightest features in the X-ray sky. The Vela supernova remnant (SNR) is one of the closest known to us. The Geminga pulsar is closer (and also resulted from a supernova), and in 1998 another supernova remnant was discovered, RX J0852.0-4622, which from our point of view appears to be contained in the southeastern part of the Vela remnant. One estimate of its distance puts it only 200 parsecs away (about 650 ly), closer than the Vela remnant, and, surprisingly, it seems to have exploded much more recently (in the last thousand years or so) because it is still radiating gamma rays from the

Vela Supernova Remnant decay of titanium-44. This remnant was not seen earlier because in most wavelengths it is lost in the image of the Vela remnant.

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References
[1] Cha, Alexandra N.; Sembach, Kenneth R.; Danks, Anthony C. (1999). "The Distance to the Vela Supernova Remnant". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 515: L25L28. arXiv:astro-ph/9902230. Bibcode1999ApJ...515L..25C. doi:10.1086/311968. [2] Large, M. I.; Vaughan, A. E.; Mills, B. Y. (1968). "A Pulsar Supernova Association?". Nature 220 (5165): 340. Bibcode1968Natur.220..340L. doi:10.1038/220340a0.

External links
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap960612.html http://www.aao.gov.au/images/captions/uks002.html http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap970713.html http://astro.nineplanets.org/twn/velax.html http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap070213.html Bill Blair's Vela supernova Remnant page (http://fuse.pha.jhu.edu/~wpb/hstvela/hstvela.html) http://www.skyfactory.org/vela/vela.htm

The Vela Supernova Remnant on WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?object=Vela+Supernova+Remnant)

Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3

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Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3

G1.9+0.3
Observation data (Epoch {{{epoch}}}) Host galaxy Discovery date Distance Milky Way 1985 25.000 Light-year

Physical characteristics

Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3 is the youngest known supernova remnant (SNR) in the Milky Way Galaxy (Earth's worldline).[1] The remnant's young age was established by combining data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and the VLA radio observatory, and is believed to have exploded about 25,000 years ago, and the signal began reaching us 140 years ago (as of 2008). Prior to this discovery, the youngest-known Milky Way supernova remnant was Cassiopeia A, at about 330 years. The remnant has a radius of over 1.3 light years.

Discovery
G1.9+0.3 was first identified as a SNR in 1984 from observations made with the VLA radio telescope.[2] Because of its unusually small angular size, it was thought to be youngless than about one thousand years old. In 2007, X-ray observations made with the Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed that the object was about 15% larger than in the earlier VLA observations.[3] Further observations made with the VLA in 2008 verified increase in size, implying it is no more than 150 years old.[4] The coordinates of G1.9+0.3 are right ascension 17 hours 48 minutes 45.4 seconds, declination 27 degrees 10 minutes 06 seconds, which places it in the constellation Sagittarius, near its border with Ophiuchus.[5]

Announcement
The discovery that G1.9+0.3 had been identified as the youngest known Galactic SNR was announced on May 14, 2008 at a NASA press conference. In the days leading up to the announcement, NASA would only hint that they were going "to announce the discovery of an object in our Galaxy astronomers have been hunting for more than 50 years."[6]

References
[1] "G1.9+0.3: Discovery of Most Recent Supernova in Our Galaxy." (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ photo/ 2008/ g19/ ). NASA. 2008.05.14. . Retrieved 2008-05-14. [2] Green, D.A.; S.F. Gull (December 1984). "Two new young galactic supernova remnants". Nature (Nature) 312 (5994): 527529. Bibcode1984Natur.312..527G. doi:10.1038/312527a0. [3] Reynolds, S.P.; K.J. Borkowski, D.A. Green, U. Hwang, I. Harrus, R. Petre (June 2008). "The Youngest Galactic Supernova Remnant: G1.9+0.3". Astrophysical Journal Letters (American Astronomical Society) 680 (1): L41L44. arXiv:0803.1487. Bibcode2008ApJ...680L..41R. doi:10.1086/589570. [4] Green, D.A.; S.P. Reynolds, K.J. Borkowski, U. Hwang, I. Harrus, R. Petre (June 2008). "The radio expansion and brightening of the very young supernova remnant G1.9+0.3". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters (Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society) 387 (1): L54L58. arXiv:0804.2317. Bibcode2008MNRAS.387L..54G. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00484.x. [5] "Sagittarius Constellation charts" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ themes/ constellations/ #sgr). The Constellations. International Astronomical Union. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-20. [6] "NASA to Announce Success of Long Galactic Hunt" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2008/ may/ HQ_M08089_Chandra_Advisory. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2008-05-14.

Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3

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External links
Dave Green's research: G1.9+0.3 (http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~dag/my-G1.9+0.3.html)

127

Supernovae and Earth

Near-Earth supernova
A near-Earth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that occurs close enough to the Earth (roughly less than 100light-years away) to have noticeable effects on its biosphere.

Effects on Earth
On average, a supernova explosion occurs within 10parsecs ( light-years) of the Earth every 240 million years. Gamma rays are responsible for most of the adverse effects a supernova can have on a living terrestrial planet. In Earth's case, gamma rays induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere, converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful solar and cosmic radiation. Phytoplankton and reef communities would be particularly affected, which could badly deplete the base of the marine food chain.[2][3]

The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind nebula associated with the 1054 supernova. It is located [1] about 6,500light-years from the Earth.

Risk by type
Speculation as to the effects of a nearby supernova on Earth often focuses on large stars as TypeII supernova candidates. Several prominent stars within a few hundred light years from the Sun are candidates for becoming supernovae in as little as a millennium. One example is Betelgeuse, a red supergiant about 640light-years from Earth.[4] Though spectacular, these "predictable" supernovae are thought to have little potential to affect Earth. Recent estimates predict that a TypeII supernova would have to be closer than eight parsecs (26light-years) to destroy half of the Earth's ozone layer.[5] Such estimates are mostly concerned with atmospheric modeling and considered only the known radiation flux from SN 1987A, a TypeII supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Estimates of the rate of supernova occurrence within 10parsecs of the Earth vary from 0.05-0.5 per Ga[6] to 10 per Ga.[7] Several authors have based their estimates on the idea that supernovae are concentrated in the spiral arms of the galaxy, and that supernova explosions near the Sun usually occur during the ~10 million years that the Sun takes to pass through one of these regions (we are now in or entering the Orion arm). The relatively recent paper by Gehrels et al. uses a value of 3 supernovae less than 10 parsecs away per Ga.[5] The frequency within a distance D is proportional to D3 for small values of D, but for larger values is proportional to D2 because of the finite thickness of the galactic disk (at intergalactic distances D3 is again appropriate). Examples of relatively near supernovae are the Vela Supernova Remnant (~800 ly, ~12,000 years ago) and Geminga (~550 ly, ~300,000 years ago). TypeIa supernovae are thought to be potentially the most dangerous if they occur close enough to the Earth. Because TypeIa supernovae arise from dim, common white dwarf stars, it is likely that a supernova that could affect the Earth will occur unpredictably and take place in a star system that is not well studied. One theory suggests that a TypeIa supernova would have to be closer than 10 parsecs (33light-years) to affect the Earth.[8] The closest known candidate is IK Pegasi.[9] It is currently estimated, however, that by the time it could become a threat, its velocity in relation to the Solar System would have carried IK Pegasi to a safe distance.[5]

Near-Earth supernova

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Past events
Evidence from daughter products of short-lived radioactive isotopes shows that a nearby supernova helped determine the composition of the Solar System 4.5billion years ago, and may even have triggered the formation of this system.[10] Supernova production of heavy elements over astronomic periods of time ultimately made the chemistry of life on Earth possible. In 1996, astronomers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign theorized that traces of past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of metal isotope signatures in rock strata. Subsequently, iron-60 enrichment has been reported in deep-sea rock of the Pacific Ocean by researchers from the Technical University of Munich.[11][12][13] 23 atoms of this iron isotope were found in the top 2cm of crust, and these date from the last 13 million years or so. It is estimated that the supernova must have occurred in the last 5 million years or else it would have had to have happened very close to the solar system to account for so much iron-60 still being here. A supernova occurring as close as would have been needed would have probably caused a mass extinction, which didn't happen in that time frame.[14] The quantity of iron seems to indicate that the supernova was less than 30 parsecs away. On the other hand, the authors estimate the frequency of supernovae at a distance less than D (for reasonably small D) as around (D/10 pc)3 per Ga, which gives a probability of only around 5% for a supernova within 30 pc in the last 5 million years. They point out that the probability may be higher because we are entering the Orion arm of the Milky Way. Adrian L. Melott et al. estimated that gamma ray bursts from "dangerously close" supernova explosions occur two or more times per billion years, and this has been proposed as the cause of the end Ordovician extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.[15] In 1998 a supernova remnant, RX J0852.0-4622, was found in front (apparently) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant.[16] Gamma rays from the decay of titanium-44 (half-life about 60 years) were independently discovered coming from it,[17] showing that it must have exploded fairly recently (perhaps around 1200 CE), but there is no historical record of it. The flux of gamma rays and x-rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us (perhaps 200 parsecs or 660 ly). If so, this is a surprising event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100,000 years.[13] In 2009, researchers have found nitrates in ice cores from Antarctica at depths corresponding to the known supernovae of 1006 and 1054 CE, as well as from around 1060 CE. The nitrates were apparently formed from nitrogen oxides created by gamma rays from the supernovae. This technique should be able to detect supernovae going back several thousand years.[18]

References
[1] Kaplan, D. L.; Chatterjee, S.; Gaensler, B. M.; Anderson, J. (2008). "A Precise Proper Motion for the Crab Pulsar, and the Difficulty of Testing Spin-Kick Alignment for Young Neutron Stars". Astrophysical Journal 677 (2): 1201. arXiv:0801.1142. Bibcode2008ApJ...677.1201K. doi:10.1086/529026 [2] Ellis, John; Schramm, David N. (March 1993). Could a nearby supernova explosion have caused a mass extinction?. ARXIV. arXiv:hep-ph/9303206. Bibcode1993hep.ph....3206E. [3] Whitten, R. C.; Borucki, W. J.; Wolfe, J. H.; Cuzzi, J. (September 30, 1976). "Effect of nearby supernova explosions on atmospheric ozone". Nature 263 (5576): 398400. Bibcode1976Natur.263..398W. doi:10.1038/263398a0. [4] "Supernova Remnants and Neutron Stars" (http:/ / chandra. harvard. edu/ resources/ faq/ sources/ snr/ snr-5. html). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. 2005-08-02. . Retrieved 2006-06-08. [5] Gehrels, Neil; Laird, Claude M. et al. (2003-03-10). "Ozone Depletion from Nearby Supernovae". Astrophysical Journal 585 (2): 11691176. arXiv:astro-ph/0211361. Bibcode2003ApJ...585.1169G. doi:10.1086/346127. [6] Whitten, R. C.; Cuzzi, J.; Borucki W. J.; Wolfe, J. H. (1976). "Effect of nearby supernova explosions on atmospheric ozone" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v263/ n5576/ abs/ 263398a0. html). Nature 263 (5576): 263. Bibcode1976Natur.263..398W. doi:10.1038/263398a0. . Retrieved 2007-02-01. [7] Clark, D. H.; McCrea, W. H.; Stephenson, F. R. (1977). "Frequency of nearby supernovae and climactic and biological catastrophes" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v265/ n5592/ abs/ 265318a0. html). Nature 265 (5592): 318319. Bibcode1977Natur.265..318C. doi:10.1038/265318a0. . Retrieved 2007-02-01.

Near-Earth supernova
[8] Richmond, Michael (2005-04-08). "Will a Nearby Supernova Endanger Life on Earth?" (http:/ / www. tass-survey. org/ richmond/ answers/ snrisks. txt) (TXT). . Retrieved 2006-03-30.see section 4. [9] Gorelick, Mark (March 2007). "The Supernova Menace". Sky & Telescope. [10] Taylor, G. Jeffrey (2003-05-21). "Triggering the Formation of the Solar System" (http:/ / www. psrd. hawaii. edu/ May03/ SolarSystemTrigger. html). Planetary Science Research. . Retrieved 2006-10-20. [11] "Researchers Detect 'Near Miss' Supernova Explosion" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060901084028/ http:/ / www. las. uiuc. edu/ alumni/ news/ fall2005/ 05fall_supernova. html). University of Illinois College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Fall/Winter 20052006. pp.17. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. las. uiuc. edu/ alumni/ news/ fall2005/ 05fall_supernova. html) on 2006-09-01. . Retrieved 2007-02-01. [12] Knie, K. et al. (2004). "60Fe Anomaly in a Deep-Sea Manganese Crust and Implications for a Nearby Supernova Source". Physical Review Letters 93 (17): 171103171106. Bibcode2004PhRvL..93q1103K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.171103. [13] Fields, B. D.; Ellis, J. (1999). "On Deep-Ocean Fe-60 as a Fossil of a Near-Earth Supernova". New Astronomy 4 (6): 419430. arXiv:astro-ph/9811457. Bibcode1999NewA....4..419F. doi:10.1016/S1384-1076(99)00034-2. [14] Fields & Ellis, p. 10 [15] Melott, A. et al. (2004). "Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction?". International Journal of Astrobiology 3 (2): 5561. arXiv:astro-ph/0309415. Bibcode2004IJAsB...3...55M. doi:10.1017/S1473550404001910. [16] Aschenbach, Bernd (1998-11-12). "Discovery of a young nearby supernova remnant". Letters to Nature 396 (6707): 141142. Bibcode1998Natur.396..141A. doi:10.1038/24103. [17] Iyudin, A. F. et al. (November 1998). "Emission from 44Ti associated with a previously unknown Galactic supernova". Nature 396 (6707): 142144. Bibcode1998Natur.396..142I. doi:10.1038/24106. [18] "Ancient supernovae found written into the Antarctic ice" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20126984. 800-ancient-supernovae-found-written-into-the-antarctic-ice. html). New Scientist (2698). 2009-03-04. . Retrieved 2009-03-09. Refers to (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0902. 3446).

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Supernova Early Warning System

The SuperNova Early Warning System (SNEWS) is a network of neutrino detectors designed to give early warning to astronomers in the event of a supernova in the Milky Way galaxy or a nearby galaxy such as the Large Magellanic Cloud or the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy. Enormous numbers of neutrinos are produced in the core of a red giant star as it collapses on itself. In the current model the neutrinos are emitted well before the light from the supernova peaks, so in principle neutrino detectors could give advance warning to astronomers that a supernova has occurred and may soon be visible. The neutrino pulse from supernova 1987A was detected 3 hours before the associated photons (although SNEWS was not yet active). The current members of SNEWS are Borexino, Super-Kamiokande, LVD, SNO and IceCube. SNO is not currently active as it is being upgraded to its successor program SNO+. As of June 2011, SNEWS has not issued any SN alerts.

External links
Official website [1] Antonioli, P.; et al. (2004). "SNEWS: the SuperNova Early Warning System". New Journal of Physics 6: 114114. arXiv:astro-ph/0406214. Bibcode2004NJPh....6..114A. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/6/1/114. Francis Reddy, "Time for SNEWS", Astronomy 3 June 2005 [2] NOVA podcast about SNEWS [3] (the same in MP3 format [4])

Supernova Early Warning System

130

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / snews. bnl. gov http:/ / www. astronomy. com/ asy/ default. aspx?c=a& id=3232 http:/ / broadband. wgbh. org/ nova/ rss/ nova-podcast-pb. xml http:/ / broadband. wgbh. org/ nova/ rss/ media/ nova-a-20060216. mp3

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Research
High-z Supernova Search Team
The High-z Supernova Search Team was an international cosmology collaboration which used Type Ia supernovae to chart the expansion of the universe. The team was formed in 1994 by Brian P. Schmidt, then a post-doctoral research associate at Harvard University, and Nicholas B. Suntzeff, a staff astronomer at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) in Chile. The original team first proposed for the research on September 29, 1994 in a proposal called A Pilot Project to Search for Distant Type Ia Supernova to the CTIO Inter-American Observatory. The original team as co-listed on the first observing proposal was: Nicholas Suntzeff (PI); Brian Schmidt (Co-I); (other Co-Is) R. Chris Smith, Robert Schommer, Mark M. Phillips, Mario Hamuy, Roberto Aviles, Jose Maza, Adam Riess, Robert Kirshner, Jason Spiromilio, and Bruno Leibundgut. The original project was awarded four nights of telescope time on the CTIO Victor M. Blanco Telescope on the nights of February25, 1995, and March6,24, and29, 1995. The pilot project led to the discovery of supernova SN1995Y. The team expanded to roughly 20 astronomers located in the United States, Europe, Australia, and Chile. They used the Victor M. Blanco telescope to discover Type Ia supernovae out to redshifts of z=0.9. The discoveries were verified with spectra taken mostly from the telescopes of the Keck Observatory, and the European Southern Observatory. In a 1998 study led by Adam Riess, the High-z Team became the first to publish evidence that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating (Riess et al. 1998, AJ, 116, 1009, submitted March 13, 1998, accepted May 1998). The team was managed by Brian P. Schmidt of the Mount Stromlo Observatory, which is part of the Australian National University. The team later spawned Project ESSENCE led by Christopher Stubbs of Harvard University and the Higher-z Team led by Adam Riess of Johns Hopkins University and Space Telescope Science Institute. In 2011, Riess and Schmidt, along with Saul Perlmutter of the Supernova Cosmology Project, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.[1]

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Members
Mount Stromlo Observatory and the Australian National University Brian P. Schmidt CTIO Nicholas Suntzeff Robert Schommer R. Chris Smith Mario Hamuy (19941997)

Las Campanas Observatory Mark M. Phillips (19942000) Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile Alejandro Clocchiatti (starting in 1996) University of Chile Jose Maza (19941997) European Southern Observatory Bruno Leibundgut Jason Spyromilio University of Hawaii John Tonry (starting in 1996) University of California, Berkeley Alexei Filippenko (starting in 1996) Weidong Li (starting in 1999) Space Telescope Science Institute Adam Riess Ron Gilliland (19962000) University of Washington Christopher Stubbs (starting in 1995) Craig Hogan (starting in 1995) David Reiss (19951999) Alan Diercks (19951999) Harvard University Christopher Stubbs (starting in 2003) Robert Kirshner Thomas Matheson (starting 1999) Saurabh Jha (starting 1997) Peter Challis University of Notre Dame Peter Garnavich Stephen Holland (starting 2000)
The original telescope time proposal in 1994 to the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory which began the High-Z Team.

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References
[1] "Nobel physics prize honours accelerating Universe find" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-15165371). BBC News. 2011-10-04. .

High-z Supernova Search Team Mainsite (http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/oir/Research/supernova/HighZ.html)

Texas Supernova Search

Texas Supernova Search is one of many ongoing projects to identify and record supernova events. The project is led by Robert Quimby and to date has found 35 supernovae, 29 of which they were the first to report on. In addition they have discovered 12 novae (including a probable LBV), in M31 and M33 and 6 dwarf novae.[1] The project's most notable successes are SN 2005ap and SN 2006gy, the 2 most powerful supernovae yet recorded. SN 2005ap was an extremely energetic type II supernova. It is reported to be the brightest supernova yet recorded, twice as bright as the previous record holder, SN 2006gy. [2] Although SN 2005ap was twice as bright at its peak than SN 2006gy it was not as energetic overall as the former brightened and dimmed in a typical period of a few days whereas the latter remained very bright for many months. SN2005ap was about 300 times brighter than normal for a type II supernova. It has been speculated that this supernaove involved the formation of a quark star. [3] Time magazine listed the discovery of SN 2006gy as third in its Top 10 Scientific Discoveries for 2007.[4]

External links
Project site [1] Most Powerful Supernova Ever [5] New Scientist [2] The Astrophysics journal Extract [6] Supernova blazed like 100 billion suns [7]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] http:/ / grad40. as. utexas. edu/ ~quimby/ tss/ index. html http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ channel/ astronomy/ dn12778-enigmatic-supernova-smashes-brightness-record. html http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2008AAS. . . 212. 6401L http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ specials/ 2007/ top10/ article/ 0,30583,1686204_1686252_1690931,00. html http:/ / mcdonaldobservatory. org/ news/ releases/ 2007/ 1010. html http:/ / www. journals. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ resolve?id=doi:10. 1086/ 522862& erFrom=7094954502098682650Guest http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 21259692/

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Nearby Supernova Factory

The Nearby Supernova Factory (SNfactory) is a collaborative experiment led by Greg Aldering, designed to collect data on more Type Ia supernovae than have ever been studied in a single project before, and by studying them, to increase understanding of the expanding universe and "Dark Energy." The project began as an outgrowth of the Supernova Cosmology Project at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, but while the SCP focused on supernovae with redshifts of approximately 1.2, corresponding to a distance of 8.7 billion light years, SNfactory searches for nearby supernovae with redshifts of 0.03 to 0.08, corresponding to a distance of only 400 million to 1.1 billion light years. SNfactory uses a highly automated "pipeline" in which survey images from NASA's Near Earth Asteroid Tracking project are processed by a supercomputing cluster to find promising candidates, which are then observed using the project's Supernova Integral Field Spectrograph (SNIFS) on the University of Hawaii 88-inch (m) telescope atop Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Results from the project will also be used in refining the planned Supernova/Acceleration Probe.

External links
Nearby Supernova Factory [1]

References
[1] http:/ / snfactory. lbl. gov/

Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey

The Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey (MASAS) is an offshoot of the Monte Agliale Supernovae Search (MASS), conducted from the Monte Agliale Astronomical Observatory. It has netted, on September 11, 2000 (IAUC 7494, September 22, 2000), the discovery by Matteo M. M. Santangelo of supernova SN 2000dl in the distant galaxy UGC 1191, near the center of the galaxy cluster Abell 240. The distance is estimated at roughly 1,000,000,000 light-years, making it the 'first' most distant supernova discovered by an amateur.

External links
Announcement of the discovery of SN 2000dl [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. comune. lucca. it/ ASS_VOL/ ILRA/ novita. htm

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Sloan Digital Sky Survey

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey or SDSS is a major multi-filter imaging and spectroscopic redshift survey using a dedicated 2.5-m wide-angle optical telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico, United States. The project was named after the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Data collection began in 2000, and the final imaging data release covers over 35% of the sky, with photometric observations of around 500 million objects and spectra for more than 1 million objects. The main galaxy sample has a median redshift of z=0.1; there are redshifts for luminous red galaxies as far as z=0.7, and for quasars as far as z=5; and the imaging survey has been involved in the detection of quasars beyond a redshift z=6. Data release 8 (DR8), released in January 2011,[1] includes all photometric observations taken with the SDSS imaging camera, covering 14,555 square degrees on the sky (just over 35% of the full sky). Data release 9 (DR9), released to the public on 31 July 2012,[2] includes all data from previous releases, plus the first results from the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) spectrograph, including over 800,000 new spectra. Over 500,000 of the new spectra are of objects in the Universe 7 billion years ago (roughly half the age of the universe).[3]

Observations
SDSS uses a dedicated 2.5-m wide-angle optical telescope, and takes images using photometric system of five filters (named u, g, r, i and z). These images are processed to produce lists of objects observed and various parameters, such as whether they seem pointlike or extended (as a galaxy might) and how the brightness on the CCDs relates to various kinds of astronomical magnitude. The SDSS telescope uses the drift scanning technique,[4] which keeps the telescope fixed and makes use of the Earth's rotation to record small strips of the sky. The image of the stars in the focal plane drifts along the CCD chip, instead of staying fixed as in tracked telescopes. This method allows consistent astrometry over the widest possible field and precision remains unaffected by telescope tracking errors. The disadvantages are minor distortion effects and the CCD has to be written and read in the same time. The telescope's camera is made up of thirty CCD chips each with a resolution of 20482048 pixels, totaling approximately 120 Megapixels.[5] The chips are arranged in five rows of six chips. Each row has a different optical filter with average wavelengths of 355.1, 468.6, 616.5, 748.1 and 893.1 nm, with 95% completeness in typical seeing to magnitudes of 22.0, 22.2, 22.2, 21.3, and 20.5, for u, g, r, i, z, respectively.[6] The filters are placed on the camera in the order r,i,u,z,g. To reduce noise the camera is cooled to 190 kelvin (about 80C) by liquid nitrogen. Using these photometric data, stars, galaxies, and quasars are also selected for spectroscopy. The spectrograph[7] operates by feeding an individual optical fibre for each target through a hole drilled in an aluminum plate. Each hole is positioned specifically for a selected target, so every field in which spectra are to be acquired requires a unique plate. The original spectrograph attached to the telescope was capable of recording 640 spectra simultaneously, while the updated spectrograph for SDSSIII can record 1000 spectra at once. Over the course of each night, between six and nine plates are typically used for recording spectra. Every night the telescope produces about 200 GB of data.

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SDSS spectroscope cartridge

Aluminum plate close up showing optical fibers

Projects
SDSS-I: 20002005
During its first phase of operations, 20002005, the SDSS imaged more than 8,000 square degrees of the sky in five optical bandpasses, and it obtained spectra of galaxies and quasars selected from 5,700 square degrees of that imaging. It also obtained repeated imaging (roughly 30 scans) of a 300 square degree stripe in the southern Galactic cap.

SDSS-II: 20052008

Quasars Acting as Gravitational Lenses. To find these cases of galaxyquasar combinations acting as lenses, astronomers selected 23.000 quasar [8] spectra from the SDSS.

In 2005 the survey entered a new phase, the SDSS-II, by extending the observations to explore the structure and stellar makeup of the Milky Way, the SEGUE and the Sloan Supernova Survey, which watches after supernova Ia events to measure the distances to far objects. Sloan Legacy Survey The survey covers over 7,500 square degrees of the Northern Galactic Cap with data from nearly 2 million objects and spectra from over 800,000 galaxies and 100,000 quasars. The information on the position and distance of the objects has allowed the large-scale structure of the Universe, with its voids and filaments, to be investigated for the first time. Almost all of these data were obtained in SDSS-I, but a small part of the footprint was finished in SDSS-II.[9] Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration (SEGUE) The Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration obtained spectra of 240,000 stars (with typical radial velocity of 10km/s) in order to create a detailed three-dimensional map of the Milky Way.[10] SEGUE data provide evidence for the age, composition and phase space distribution of stars within the various Galactic components, providing crucial clues for understanding the structure, formation and evolution of our Galaxy. The stellar spectra, imaging data, and derived parameter catalogs for this survey are publicly available as part of SDSS Data Release 7 (DR7).[11]

Sloan Digital Sky Survey Sloan Supernova Survey Running until the end of the year 2007, the Supernova Survey searched for Type Ia supernovae. The survey rapidly scans a 300 square degree area to detect variable objects and supernovae. It detected 130 confirmed supernovae Ia events in 2005 and a further 197 in 2006.[12]

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SDSS III: 20082014

In mid-2008, SDSS-III was started. It comprises four separate surveys, each conducted on the same 2.5m telescope:[13][14] APO Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE) The APO Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE) will use high-resolution, high signal-to-noise infrared spectroscopy to penetrate the dust that obscures the inner Galaxy. APOGEE will survey 100,000 red giant stars across the full range of the galactic bulge, bar, disk, and halo. It will use high-resolution, high signal-to-noise infrared spectroscopy. This will be used in order to penetrate the dust obsuring the inner galaxy.[15][16] APOGEE will increase the number of stars observed at high spectroscopic resolution ((R ~ 20,000 at ~ 1.6m)) and high signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ~ 100) by more than a factor of 100.[17] The high resolution spectra will reveal the abundances of about 15 elements which gives information on the composition of the gas clouds they formed from. APOGEE should be collecting data from 2011 to 2014 with first release of data in July 2013. Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) The SDSS-III's Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) was designed to measure the expansion rate of the Universe.[15] It will map the spatial distribution of luminous red galaxies (LRGs) and quasars to map the spatial distribution and detect the characteristic scale imprinted by baryon acoustic oscillations in the early universe.[18] Sound waves that propagate in the early universe, like spreading ripples in a pond, imprint a characteristic scale on the positions of galaxies relative to each other.[19] Multi-object APO Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey (MARVELS) The Multi-object APO Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey (MARVELS) will monitor the radial velocities of 11,000 bright stars, with the precision and cadence needed to detect gas giant planets that have orbital periods ranging from several hours to two years. This ground-based Doppler survey [20] will use the SDSS telescope and new multi-object Doppler instruments to monitor radial velocities.[20] It is one of four astronomical surveys conducted by SDSS-III, part of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). The main goal of the project is to generate a large-scale, statistically well-defined sample of giant planets. It will search for gaseous planets that have orbital periods ranging from hours to 2 years, and are between 0.5 and 10 Jupiter masses. A total of 11,000 stars will be analyzed with 25-35 observations per star over an 18 month period. It is expected to detect between 150 and 200 new exoplanets, and will be able to study rare systems, such as planets with extreme eccentricity, and objects in the "brown dwarf desert".[20][21] The collected data will be used as a statistical sample for the theoretical comparison and discovery of rare systems.[22] The project started in the fall of 2008, and will continue until spring 2014.[20][23]

Sloan Digital Sky Survey SEGUE-2 The original Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration (SEGUE-1) obtained spectra of nearly 240,000 stars of a range of spectral types. Building on this success, SEGUE-2 spectroscopically observed around 120,000 stars, focusing on the in situ stellar halo of the Galaxy, from distances of 10 to 60 kpc. Combining SEGUE-1 and 2 reveals the complex kinematic and chemical substructure of the Galactic halo and disks, providing essential clues to the assembly and enrichment history of the Galaxy. In particular, the outer halo is expected to be dominated by late-time accretion events. SEGUE can help constrain existing models for the formation of the stellar halo and inform the next generation of high resolution simulations of Galaxy formation. In addition, SEGUE-1 and SEGUE-2 help uncover rare, chemically primitive stars that are fossils of the earliest generations of cosmic star formation. It is an astronomical survey designed to map the outer reaches of the Milky Way with a spectra of 240,000 stars. This survey will double the sample size of SEGUE-1.[15][24]

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Data access
The survey makes the data releases available over the Internet. The SkyServer provides a range of interfaces to an underlying Microsoft SQL Server. Both spectra and images are available in this way, and interfaces are made very easy to use so that, for example, a full color image of any region of the sky covered by an SDSS data release can be obtained just by providing the coordinates. The data are available for non-commercial use only, without written permission. The SkyServer also provides a range of tutorials aimed at everyone from schoolchildren up to professional astronomers. The ninth major data release, DR9, released in July 2012,[2] provides images, imaging catalogs, spectra, and redshifts via a variety of search interfaces. The raw data (from before being processed into databases of objects) are also available through another Internet server, and through the NASA World Wind program.

LRG-4-606 is a Luminous Red Galaxy, and is the acronym given to a large collection of bright red galaxies found in the SDSS.

Sky in Google Earth includes data from the SDSS, for those regions where such data are available. There are also KML plugins for SDSS photometry and spectroscopy layers,[25] allowing direct access to SkyServer data from within Google Sky. The data is also available on Hayden Planetarium with a 3D visualizer. Following from Technical Fellow Jim Gray's contribution on behalf of Microsoft Research with the SkyServer project, Microsoft's WorldWide Telescope makes use of SDSS and other data sources.[26] MilkyWay@home also used SDSS's data for creating a highly accurate three dimensional model of the Milky Way galaxy

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Results
Along with publications describing the survey itself, SDSS data have been used in publications over a huge range of astronomical topics. The SDSS website has a full list of these publications covering distant quasars at the limits of the observable universe,[27] the distribution of galaxies, the properties of stars in our own galaxy and also subjects such as dark matter and dark energy in the universe.

Maps
Based on the release of Data Release 9 a new 3D map of massive galaxies and distant black holes was published on August 8, 2012.[28]

References
[1] "SDSS Data Release 8" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ dr8/ ). sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2011-01-10. [2] "SDSS Data Release 9" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ dr9/ ). sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2012-07-31. [3] http:/ / www. nyu. edu/ about/ news-publications/ news/ 2012/ 08/ 08/ new-3d-map-of-massive-galaxies-and-black-holes-offers-clues-to-dark-matter-dark-energy. html [4] David Rabinowitz (2005) (PDF). Drift Scanning (Time-Delay Integration) (http:/ / msc. caltech. edu/ workshop/ 2005/ presentations/ Rabinowitz. pdf). . Retrieved 2006-12-27. [5] "Key Components of the Survey Telescope" (http:/ / www. sdss. org/ background/ telescope. html). SDSS. 2006-08-29. . Retrieved 2006-12-27. [6] "SDSS Data Release 7 Summary" (http:/ / www. sdss. org/ dr7/ ). SDSS. 2011-03-17. . [7] Newman, Peter R.; et al. (2004). Mass-producing spectra: the SDSS spectrographic system (http:/ / proceedings. spiedigitallibrary. org/ proceeding. aspx?articleid=1280512). Proc. SPIE 5492. pp.533. doi:10.1117/12.541394. . Retrieved 3 December 2012. [8] "Quasars Acting as Gravitational Lenses" (http:/ / www. spacetelescope. org/ images/ potw1212a/ ). ESA/Hubble Picture of the Week. . Retrieved 19 March 2012. [9] "About the SDSS Legacy Survey" (http:/ / www. sdss. org/ legacy/ index. html). . [10] "Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration" (http:/ / segue. uchicago. edu). segue.uchicago.edu. . Retrieved 2008-02-27. [11] Yanny, Brian; Rockosi, Constance, Newberg, Heidi Jo, Knapp, Gillian R., Adelman-McCarthy, Jennifer K., Alcorn, Bonnie, Allam, Sahar, Prieto, Carlos Allende, An, Deokkeun, Anderson, Kurt S. J., Anderson, Scott, Bailer-Jones, Coryn A. L., Bastian, Steve, Beers, Timothy C., Bell, Eric, Belokurov, Vasily, Bizyaev, Dmitry, Blythe, Norm, Bochanski, John J., Boroski, William N., Brinchmann, Jarle, Brinkmann, J., Brewington, Howard, Carey, Larry, Cudworth, Kyle M., Evans, Michael, Evans, N. W., Gates, Evalyn, Gnsicke, B. T., Gillespie, Bruce, Gilmore, Gerald, Gomez-Moran, Ada Nebot, Grebel, Eva K., Greenwell, Jim, Gunn, James E., Jordan, Cathy, Jordan, Wendell, Harding, Paul, Harris, Hugh, Hendry, John S., Holder, Diana, Ivans, Inese I., Ivezi, eljko, Jester, Sebastian, Johnson, Jennifer A., Kent, Stephen M., Kleinman, Scot, Kniazev, Alexei, Krzesinski, Jurek, Kron, Richard, Kuropatkin, Nikolay, Lebedeva, Svetlana, Lee, Young Sun, Leger, R. French, Lpine, Sbastien, Levine, Steve, Lin, Huan, Long, Daniel C., Loomis, Craig, Lupton, Robert, Malanushenko, Olena, Malanushenko, Viktor, Margon, Bruce, Martinez-Delgado, David, McGehee, Peregrine, Monet, Dave, Morrison, Heather L., Munn, Jeffrey A., Neilsen, Eric H., Nitta, Atsuko, Norris, John E., Oravetz, Dan, Owen, Russell, Padmanabhan, Nikhil, Pan, Kaike, Peterson, R. S., Pier, Jeffrey R., Platson, Jared, Fiorentin, Paola Re, Richards, Gordon T., Rix, Hans-Walter, Schlegel, David J., Schneider, Donald P., Schreiber, Matthias R., Schwope, Axel, Sibley, Valena, Simmons, Audrey, Snedden, Stephanie A., Smith, J. Allyn, Stark, Larry, Stauffer, Fritz, Steinmetz, M., Stoughton, C., SubbaRao, Mark, Szalay, Alex, Szkody, Paula, Thakar, Aniruddha R., Thirupathi, Sivarani, Tucker, Douglas, Uomoto, Alan, Berk, Dan Vanden, Vidrih, Simon, Wadadekar, Yogesh, Watters, Shannon, Wilhelm, Ron, Wyse, Rosemary F. G., Yarger, Jean, Zucker, Dan (1 May 2009). "SEGUE: A SPECTROSCOPIC SURVEY OF 240,000 STARS WITH = 14-20". The Astronomical Journal 137 (5): 43774399. arXiv:0902.1781. Bibcode2009AJ....137.4377Y. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/5/4377. [12] Sako, et al; Bassett, Bruce; Becker, Andrew; Cinabro, David; Dejongh, Fritz; Depoy, D. L.; Dilday, Ben; Doi, Mamoru et al. (2008). "The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-II Supernova Survey: search algorithm and follow-up observations". Astronomical Journal 135 (1): 348373. arXiv:0708.2750. Bibcode2008AJ....135..348S. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/1/348. [13] http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ surveys/ [14] http:/ / www. astro. yale. edu/ news/ 20100811-yale-joins-sloan-digital-sky-survey-collaboration [15] "YALE JOINS SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY COLLABORATION | Department of Astronomy, Yale University" (http:/ / www. astro. yale. edu/ news/ 20100811-yale-joins-sloan-digital-sky-survey-collaboration). Astro.yale.edu. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [16] "Sdss-Iii" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ surveys/ apogee. php). Sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [17] "SDSS-III: Massive Spectroscopic Surveys of the Distant Universe, the Milky Way Galaxy, and Extra-Solar Planetary Systems" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ collaboration/ description. pdf). Jan 2008. pp.2940. . [18] "Sdss-Iii" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ surveys/ boss. php). Sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [19] "BOSS: Dark Energy and the Geometry of Space" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ surveys/ boss. php). SDSS III. . Retrieved 26 September 2011. [20] "Sdss-Iii" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ surveys/ marvels. php). Sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2011-08-14.

Sloan Digital Sky Survey

[21] Publicado por Fran Sevilla. "Carnival of Space #192: Exoplanet discovery and characterization" (http:/ / www. vega00. com/ 2011/ 04/ carnival-of-space-192-exoplanet. html). Vega 0.0. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [22] "The Multi-Object APO Radial-Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey (MARVELS)" (http:/ / www. aspbooks. org/ a/ volumes/ article_details/ ?paper_id=29259). aspbooks.org. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [23] Matt Rings (2011-01-23). "Collaboration results in largest-ever image of the night-time sky" (http:/ / www. gizmag. com/ terapixel-color-digital-image-of-sky-released-by-sdss/ 17647/ ). Gizmag.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [24] "Sdss-Iii" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ surveys/ segue2. php). Sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2011-08-14. [25] "Google Earth KML: SDSS layer" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080317182401/ http:/ / earth. google. com/ gallery/ kml_entry. html#tSDSS layer). earth.google.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / earth. google. com/ gallery/ kml_entry. html#tSDSS layer) on 2008-03-17. . Retrieved 2008-03-24. [26] "When did Microsoft first starting looking at the sky?" (http:/ / www. worldwidetelescope. org/ buzz/ FAQ. aspx#mssky). worldwidetelescope.org. . Retrieved 2008-03-24. [27] "SDSS Scientific and Technical Publications" (http:/ / www. sdss. org/ publications/ index. html). sdss.org. . Retrieved 2008-02-27. [28] "SDSS Science Results" (http:/ / www. sdss3. org/ press/ dr9. php). sdss3.org. . Retrieved 2012-08-08.

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Further reading
Ann K. Finkbeiner. A Grand and Bold Thing: An Extraordinary New Map of the Universe Ushering In A New Era of Discovery (2010), a journalistic history of the project

External links
SDSS Homepage (http://www.sdss.org/) The SkyServer (http://cas.sdss.org/) SDSS imagery in NASA World Wind (http://www.worldwindcentral.com/wiki/SDSS) SDSS imagery in WikiSky (http://www.wikisky.org/?img_source=SDSS&ra=13.5&de=47.2&zoom=8) "More of the Universe" article in symmetry magazine (http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/ ?pid=1000192) SEGUE Homepage (http://segue.uchicago.edu/) The Sloan Great Wall: Largest Known Structure? (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap071107.html) on APOD (http://apod.nasa.gov) A Flight Through The Universe (http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap120813.html) on APOD (http://apod.nasa. gov) J-PAS is a new astronomical facility dedicated to mapping the observable Universe in 56 colors. (http://j-pas. org/) Sloan Digital Sky Survey Non-commercial use (http://cas.sdss.org/dr7/en/credits/datause.asp)

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Supernova/Acceleration Probe
The Supernova/Acceleration Probe (SNAP) Mission is expected to provide an understanding of the mechanism driving the acceleration of the universe and determine the nature of dark energy. To achieve these goals, the spacecraft needs to be able detect these supernovas when they are at their brightest moment.[1] The mission is proposed as an experiment for Joint Dark Energy Mission (JDEM). JDEM is a partnership between NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy. The projected cost ranges from $500 million to $1 billion. The cost will be split between NASA and Department of Energy.[2] The satellite observatory would be capable of measuring up to 2,000 distant supernovae each year of its three-year mission lifetime. SNAP will also observe the small distortions of light from distant galaxies to reveal more about the expansion history of the universe.[3] The SNAP is still in the proposal stages, and has yet to receive final approval. Should it be approved, the hoped launch date is 2013. To understand what is driving the acceleration of the universe, scientists need to see greater redshifts from supernovas than what is seen from Earth. The SNAP can detect redshifts of 1.7 from distant supernovas up to 10 billion light years away. At this distance, the acceleration of the universe will be easily seen. To measure the presence of dark energy, a process called weak lensing will be used.[4] The SNAP will use an optical setup called the three-mirror anastigmat. This consists of a main mirror with a diameter of 2 meters to take in light. It reflects this light to a second mirror. Then this light is transferred to two additional smaller mirrors which direct the light to the spacecraft's instruments. It will also contain 72 different cameras. 36 of them are able to detect visible light and the other 36 detect infrared light. Its cameras combined produces the equivalence of a 600 megapixel camera. The resolution of the camera is about 0.2 arcseconds in the visible spectrum and 0.3 arcseconds in the infrared spectrum. The SNAP will also have a spectrograph attached to it. The purpose of it is to detect what type of supernova SNAP is observing, determine the redshift, detect changes between different supernovas, and store supernova spectra for future reference.[5] JDEM has recognized several potential problems of the SNAP project: 1. The supernovas that SNAP will detect may not all be SN 1a type. Some other 1b and 1c type supernovas have similar spectra which could potentially confuse SNAP. 2. Hypothetical gray dust could contaminate results. Gray dust absorbs wavelengths of all light, making supernovas dimmer than they actually are. 3. The behavior of supernovas could potentially be altered by its binary-star system. 4. Any objects between the viewed supernova and the SNAP could gravitationally produce inaccurate results.[6]

External links
Supernova/Acceleration Probe (SNAP) project website [7] at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Sonoma State University SNAP project website [8]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] An Integral Field Spectrograph for SNAP Supernova Identification, http:/ / arxiv. org/ ftp/ astro-ph/ papers/ 0210/ 0210087. pdf SNAP-Kent, http:/ / www. fnal. gov/ directorate/ New_Initiatives/ SNAP-Kent. pdf SNAP homepage, http:/ / snap. lbl. gov/ science/ index. php How Is SNAP Going to Learn About Dark Energy?, http:/ / snap. lbl. gov/ science/ how. php Spacecraft and orbit, http:/ / snap. lbl. gov/ mission/ spacecraft. php Supernova/Acceleration Probe (SNAP): An Experiment to Measure the Properties of the Accelerating Universe, http:/ / supernova. lbl. gov/ ~evlinder/ snap_sum. pdf [7] http:/ / snap. lbl. gov/ [8] http:/ / epo. sonoma. edu/ SNAP/

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Supernova Cosmology Project

The Supernova Cosmology Project is one of two research teams that determined the likelihood of an accelerating universe and therefore a positive Cosmological constant, using data from the redshift of Type Ia supernovae.[1] The project is headed by Saul Perlmutter at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, with 31 members from Australia, Chile, France, Spain, Sweden, UK and USA. This discovery was named "Breakthrough of the Year for 1998" by Science Magazine[2] and, along with the High-z Supernova Search Team, the project team won the Gruber Prize in Cosmology in 2007.[3] In 2011, Perlmutter was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work, alongside Adam Riess and Brian P. Schmidt from the High-z team.[4]

Project Members
The team members listed by the 2007 Gruber Prize in Cosmology are: Saul Perlmutter, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Gregory Aldering, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Brian J. Boyle, Australia Telescope National Facility Patricia G. Castro, Instituto Superior Tcnico, Lisbon Warrick Couch, Swinburne University of Technology Susana Deustua, American Astronomical Society Richard Ellis, California Institute of Technology Sebastien Fabbro, Instituto Superior Tcnico, Lisbon Alexei Filippenko, University of California, Berkeley (later a member of the High-z Supernova Search Team) Andrew Fruchter, Space Telescope Science Institute Gerson Goldhaber, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Ariel Goobar, University of Stockholm Donald Groom, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Isobel Hook, University of Oxford Mike Irwin, University of Cambridge Alex Kim, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Matthew Kim Robert Knop, Vanderbilt University Julia C. Lee, Harvard University Chris Lidman, European Southern Observatory Richard McMahon, University of Cambridge Thomas Matheson, NOAO Gemini Science Center Heidi Newberg, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Peter Nugent, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Nelson Nunes, University of Cambridge Reynald Pain, CNRS-IN2P3, Paris Nino Panagia, Space Telescope Science Institute Carl Pennypacker, University of California, Berkeley Robert Quimby, The University of Texas Pilar Ruiz-Lapuente, University of Barcelona

Bradley E. Schaefer, Louisiana State University Nicholas Walton, University of Cambridge

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References
[1] Goldhaber, Gerson (2009). "The Acceleration of the Expansion of the Universe: A Brief Early History of the Supernova Cosmology Project (SCP)". arXiv:0907.3526v1[astro-ph.CO]. doi:10.1063/1.3232196. [2] Cosmic Motion Revealed (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 282/ 5397/ 2156a) Science 282(5397), 2156-2157 [3] Gruber Foundation Prize in Cosmology Press Release (http:/ / www. gruberprizes. org/ PressReleases/ PressRelease_2007_Cosmology. php) [4] "Nobel physics prize honours accelerating Universe find" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-15165371). BBC News. 2011-10-04. .

External links
Supernova Cosmology Project Mainsite (http://supernova.lbl.gov/)

Supernova Legacy Survey

The Supernova Legacy Survey Program[1] is a project designed to investigate dark energy, by detecting and monitoring approximately 2000 high-redshift supernovae between 2003 and 2008, using MegaPrime, a large CCD mosaic at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. It also carries out detailed spectroscopy of a subsample of distant supernovae.
[1] SNLS Supernova Legacy Survey Home Page (http:/ / cfht. hawaii. edu/ SNLS/ )

144

Other
Supernovae in fiction
In works of fiction, supernovae are often used as plot devices. In the 1999 RTS game Homeworld, one of the missions take place in a dust belt near an active supernova. The protagonists' target is a nearby research station observing the event. Despite the supernova being located lightyears from the mission area, its intense radiation is highly dangerous to ships wandering outside the dust banks. In the Star Trek universe, trilithium-based weapons can cause stars to go supernova by inhibiting their fusion processes.[1] In the Star Wars universe, the Sun Crusher can cause stars to go supernova with its resonance torpedoes.[2] In addition, Centerpoint Station can cause supernovae. In the mythos of the comic book character Superman, his home planet of Krypton is destroyed. Some interpretations of this origin story, such as the 2006 film Superman Returns depict the destruction of Krypton as being caused by its sun (identified in the comics by the name Rao) going supernova. In the Justice League Unlimited episode Patriot Act, many League members are away trying to prevent or smother a supernova explosion threatening a distant star system. In the 2000 film Supernova, the crew of the Nightingale is threatened by a blue giant that can explode at any moment;[3] the star is later destroyed, but by a 9th-dimensional bomb rather than a supernova. The 2005 film Supernova deals with the possibility of the Sun exploding.[4] The 2009 direct-to-video film 2012: Supernova is about life on Earth potentially being destroyed by a nearby supernova. The Futurama episode Roswell That Ends Well involves the main characters being sent back in time after radiation from a nearby supernova interacts with radiation produced by metal being heated in the ship's microwave.[5] The Algae Planet in the re-imagined Battlestar Galactica series is destroyed by its star going nova.[6] In the PC-game FreeSpace 2, the crucial Battle of Capella ends in the explosion of the star in a supernova. The French cartoon Once Upon a Time... Space has one episode in which the protagonists must help to evacuate a planet near of a star that has gone supernova. In Antonella Gambotto-Burke's novel The Pure Weight of the Heart, Angelica, the protagonist, gets stoned with William Grieve, the famous novelist, and says: The first known galactic supernovae were seen in - were seen in Lupus in 1006. And . . . then . . . in, um . . . in 1054 in Taurus . . . and then in . . . was it 1572 or 1575? One or the other. At any rate, they were observed in Cassiopeia. And then . . . then . . . um, then . . . did I mention Taurus? I did? Excellent. But there were more. More Supernovae. More supernovae in Serpens. Fifteenth century. Which is interesting. I think so, dont you? Because I do. Think so. Supernovae in Serpens. Supernovae everywhere. Grieve narrows his eyes and replies: No supernovae in here. As Angelica is an astrophysicist, there are mentions of supernovae throughout the book.[7] On Star Trek: Voyager several stars had exploded at one time. It later turned out that this was caused by the Q Civil War. In the Star Trek episode All Our Yesterdays, the Enterprise attempts to evacuate a planet before its sun becomes a supernova. In the Stargate SG-1 season two episode "A Matter of Time", SG-10 travelled to the planet P3W-451, observing a binary star where one of the stars is an active supernova. As they were watching, the supernova collapsed into a

Supernovae in fiction black hole dangerously close to the planet, the team being stranded by time dilation. In the season four closer "Exodus" the team, working with the Tok'ra, force a star to go nova. They do this by dialing a Stargate to P3W-451 and sending the gate into the star, protected by a force field. When the Stargate entered the star in question, the shield collapsed, and a good deal of stellar matter was sucked through the gate, disrupting the star and forcing it to nova. The Supernova affected the hyperspace windows of escaping ships in such a way that they accelerated out of control and emerged four million light-years away. There is also a short story, ASOV, from the 1960s, which tells the story of an Automated (or Automatic) Stellar Observation Vehicle (hence the name ASOV). One of thousand of millions produced by civilisations strung throughout the galaxy, it observes stars, sending data back 'home'. A chance hit from a passing rock diasables 'our' ASOV. It drifts, seemingly for ever, for aeons at least, to a time when the galaxy is clearly dying; ASOV is re-awakened by the energy of a nearby supernova. In the 2009 movie Star Trek, a supernova destroys the Romulan home planet. The Christopher Rowley novel Starhammer sees the Laowon Empire brought to its knees with the said weapon which induces a Supernova. In the Fantastic Four (movie), Johnny Storm, the Human Torch is said to create temperatures near to those measured in supernovae.

145

In the 1952 novel The Currents of Space by Isaac Asimov, a scientist is assaulted when he predicts a star will go supernova. Although the orbiting planet Florinia is inhabited, it is also an important source of raw materials. A humanitarian crisis is averted when the colonial powers are convinced to evacuate the planet. In the 2002 Disney film Treasure Planet, the crew of the Legacy encounters a supernova on their travels, as well as the resulting black hole. During the supernova, Jim Hawkins (Joseph Gordon-Levitt) saves the life of Long John Silver (Brian Murray) when he falls overboard. In the Poul Anderson short story Supernova, part of his Technic History sequence, published in Analog science-fiction magazine January 1967 with a Chesley Bonestell cover illustration,[8] the homeworld of the reptilian Merseians is threatened by a nearby supernova. Nicolas Falkayn of the Solar Spice and Liquor company, negotiates a trade deal that provides them with the technology to survive the event, but also overturns their social structures. The Merseians do not forget, and figure prominenently as inveterate enemies of the Terran empire in the Dominic Flandry stories, later in the sequence. In the Arthur C. Clarke short story 'The Star' (Infinity Science Fiction, 1955) an earth spaceship finds a museum of a people whose star went supernova. A priest officer wonders why God chose their sun as the Star of Bethlehem. In Robert J. Sawyer's novel Calculating God a race of aliens who had uploaded their consciousness to computers crash a plane full of chemicals into Betelgeuse to cause it to go supernova and sterilize the surrounding area. However, the radiation is then covered up by what is believed to be the hand of God, thus showing that God exists and has a "master plan" for the Universe. The plot of Jeffrey Carver's novel From a Changeling Star is based around the artificial induction of a supernova on Betelgeuse.

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References
[1] Okuda, Michael; Okuda, Denise; Drexler, Doug; Mirek, Debbie (1999). The Star Trek Encyclopedia: A Reference Guide to the Future. Pocket Books. ISBN0-671-03475-8. [2] Slavicsek, Bill (2000). A Guide to the Star Wars Universe. Ballantine Publishing Group. ISBN0-345-42066-7. [3] van Gelder, Lawrence. "Supernova (2000)" (http:/ / movies. nytimes. com/ movie/ 181536/ Supernova/ overview). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [4] Southern, Nathan. "Supernova (2005)" (http:/ / movies. nytimes. com/ movie/ 339506/ Supernova/ overview). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [5] "Roswell That Ends Well" (http:/ / www. tv. com/ futurama/ roswell-that-ends-well/ episode/ 100702/ summary. html). TV.com. . Retrieved 2008-05-02. [6] Potter, Tiffany; Marshall, C. W. (2008). Cylons in America: Critical Studies in Battlestar Galactica. Continuum. ISBN0-8264-2848-7. [7] The Pure Weight of the Heart, Orion Publishing, London, 1999 [8] "Analog Science Fiction January 1967" (http:/ / www. sfcovers. net/ Magazines/ ASF/ ASF_0434. jpg). .

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Article Sources and Contributors

Supernova Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541382598 Contributors: 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D, 73lackluck, 83d40m, A. di M., AFDHKJ, AManWithNoPlan, AVand, Aadiljaleel, Abdul hadi 750, Abeg92, Academic Challenger, Achurch, Aciampolini, Acorah, Acroterion, Adam78, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Adrian.benko, Aen Tan, Afed, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alansohn, Alex.tan, Alexcosta7, AlexiusHoratius, Alfio, Algae, Allstarecho, Allypop1, Altenmann, Anarchy, Anclation, Andreasmperu, AndrewWTaylor, Andrewpmk, Andr Oliva, Andy Dingley, Andycat bossman, Anetode, AnonGuy, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Antonio Lopez, Anurag Garg, Anville, Anxiousswift, Anyeverybody, April, Arbor to SJ, Argondo, Ark, Armbrust, ArnoldReinhold, Arsenijette, Arthena, Ashmoo, AstroNomer, Audacity, Awsomezacste, AxelBoldt, Az99, Babbage, Banus, Barbarinaz, Basawala, Bcasterline, Beano, Bejesus, Belchman, Bender235, Bidgee, Big Jock Knew, BigFatBuddha, Bit Lordy, Bitil Guilderstrone, Bjdabomb777, Bjwilli2, Bk0, BlacksheepPAUL, Blake-, BlisteringFreakachu, Bob freeman1, Bodnotbod, Bongwarrior, Bootstoots, Borislav, Braidanbash, Brandmeister, Brandmeister (old), Brian Pearson, BrianGV, Brighterorange, Brilbri, Brusegadi, Bryan Derksen, Bte99, Burner0718, Bydand, CJackman, Cachedio, CalebNoble, Calham106, Caltas, Calum Macisdean, Calvin 1998, Canadian-Bacon, CanadianLinuxUser, CaptainTickles, CardinalDan, Cassowary, Catmoongirl, Cbane, Ceyockey, Chasecarter, Chaser, Chasingsol, Cheeseyum21, Chem-MTFC, Chemicalcuke, Chenyu, Cherlin, Chesnok, Chris the speller, Chris83, Chrisch, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Christopher Thomas, Chrkl, Chronopsis, Closedmouth, Cluemaster25452, Cmking99, Coastercrazy10, Cocytus, Coemgenus, Coffee Atoms, ColemanJ, Colonies Chris, Commander, ConradPino, Conversion script, Coverman6, Cpl Syx, Cpl-pike, Crazedpostdoc, Crohnie, Curps, Cwf1138, Cybercobra, Czeror, D'Acorah, D-Katana, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMCer, DMPalmer, DV8 2XL, DVD R W, DVdm, Daisysalas, Dan East, Danceroid, Daniel, Daniel Quinlan, Daniel adjaye, DanielCD, DanielEng, Daniellecoley88, DannyZ, Darklilac, Darth Panda, Dave Bowman - Discovery Won, Dave7331, DavidLevinson, Dbfirs, Dcoetzee, DeadEyeArrow, Deathphoenix, Debresser, Decoy, Decumanus, Dedication, Deflective, Dendodge, Deon, DerHexer, Dffgd, Dfrg.msc, Diablo-D3, Diagonalfish, Diliff, Discospinster, Dj thegreat, Djdaedalus, Doc Tropics, DocWatson42, Domminator36, Dondelara07, Donfbreed, Dorftrottel, Doug Bell, Dr. Submillimeter, DrKiernan, DrYak, Dragon of the Pants, DragonflySixtyseven, Dralwik, Dreadstar, Drewtaylor1978, Drmies, Dust Filter, Dugosz, ESkog, Ecthros, Eddie tejeda, Ederiel, Edgar181, Editor at Large, Edward321, Egdcltd, Ekrenor, El C, Elbow94, Ember of Light, Emperorbma, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eric Kvaalen, Ericleimbach, Erimus, Errabee, Ewok Slayer, Exert, Extra999, FT2, Falcon8765, Fallschirmjger, Faradayplank, Fayenatic london, Fbs. 13, Fieldday-sunday, Fjrgynn, Fleurot, Fluffernutter, Flying fish, Fotaun, Francs2000, Frankenschulz, Frebeque, Friendly Neighbour, FrostyBytes, Furrykef, Fvasconcellos, GVOLTT, Gabbe, Gadykozma, Gaius Cornelius, Gameseeker, GarbagEcol, Gary King, Gdarin, GeeJo, Gene Nygaard, GeoGreg, George The Dragon, GeorgeYee, Georgewilliamherbert, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glenn, Gloombringer, Gloverspud, Goatseatgrass, Gogo Dodo, Gold Claw3, GoldenGlory84, Gomphothere, Gorman, Gravitan, Greeneggsandcheese, Griffinofwales, Guanaco, Gunde123456789, Gwernol, GwydionM, Gwyneth99, Gzornenplatz, Hablahablaha, Habou97, Hammer Raccoon, Happykt, Harley peters, Harryboyles, Harryzuoz, Hashte, Headbomb, Heliogabulus, HenryLi, Herakles01, Herbee, HereToHelp, Hfastedge, Hhhippo, Hibernian, Hike395, Hoagssculptor, HorsePunchKid, Hqb, Hububletelescope, HumphreyW, Hunnjazal, Hurricane Angel, Hydramus, I dream of horses, Iadar, Iamjohn102, Iantresman, Iced Kola, Icosmology, Ideogram, Ikihi123, 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Oda Mari, Ohnoitsjamie, OperaJoeGreen, Originalwana, Otvaltak, Outlaw640, OverlordQ, OwenX, Oxymoron83, PL290, PS., Pagrashtak, Pagw, Pajz, Papalew, Parhamr, ParticleMan, Partymetroid, Pascal666, Paul August, Pcorty, Pdcook, Peak, Perry Middlemiss, Peruvianllama, Peter L, Petrb, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Physchim62, Pikiwyn, Pilaf, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Pip2andahalf, Piperh, Pizza Puzzle, Pkeets, Planet photometry, Plinkit, Plumbago, Pmokeefe, PocklingtonDan, Pol098, Porqin, Preds1998, Previously ScienceApologist, Prodego, Projectstar9, Prolog, PsychoJosh, Pundit, Python eggs, Qgain1, QuantumEngineer, Qwyrxian, R Lee E, RA0808, RHB, RJHall, RWyn, RadicalOne, Rama, RandomXYZb, RaseaC, Rassisch, Ratiuglink, Raymondwinn, Razorflame, Rdsmith4, Recognizance, RedRabbit1983, RedSpruce, RekishiEJ, Renesis, Rettetast, Rglovejoy, Rich Farmbrough, Rich Janis, Richtom80, Rick Sidwell, RingtailedFox, RiseUpAgain, Rjwilmsi, Rmky87, Rnt20, Roadrunner, RobertG, Rodhullandemu, Roentgenium111, Roflbater, RomaC, RossPatterson, Roux-HG, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Rrostrom, Rsrikanth05, Rtfisher, Rubicon, Rursus, Ruslik0, Rusty10990, Ryugin, S, SEWilco, SG, SGGH, SUPERUNDEAD, SWAdair, SallyForth123, Sam Korn, Sam10443, SamusAran997, SanGatiche, SandyGeorgia, Saros136, Satori Son, Saturn star, Sbharris, Sbrucetree, Schuetzm, Schumi555, SchuminWeb, Scientizzle, Scwlong, Sfan00 IMG, Sgmuse, Shanes, Shenme, Shijualex, Shopsinc, Siafu, SieteDeMayo, Silent reverie86, Sillylizard, SineWave, Sionus, Sir, Sjakkalle, Skittleys, Skylark42, Slakr, Slightsmile, Slowking Man, Smartech, Smithbrenon, Smkolins, Sn2007Cb, Snowolf, SoSaysChappy, Softcurls55, Solargroovy, Sonicology, Soupguy1234, Spacepotato, Spebudmak, Spellcast, SpellingD, SpuriousQ, SqueakBox, Sriram.aeropsn, Star28, StevenBjerke, Stewartwebster, Stian, Stirling Newberry, Strider12233, StringTheory11, StupendousMan, Sun Creator, Swathi.gadde, Swatjester, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TJSwoboda, Tablizer, Tahlei bon, Tandy1989, Targaryen, Tavilis, Terryn3, The Evil IP address, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Mad Genius, The Smilodon, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wordsmith, The Yeti, The way, the truth, and the light, The-G-Unit-Boss, TheChrisD, TheKMan, TheOtherJesse, Thingg, Thomas Larsen, Tide rolls, Tim lalala, Timwi, Tj2, Tobby72, Tobyklynsmith, Tom, Tom the Goober, TreacherousWays, Trebor, Tresiden, Troy 07, Trusilver, Tubbs334, Twinsday, TwistOfCain, Tyim419, Tyler, Uber nemo, Uncle Dick, UnitedWashclothExpress, Urhixidur, Uruiamme, Uvaphdman, Vectro, Vedran8080, Veesicle, Velvetron, Ventiac, Ventti013, Versus22, Vladsinger, Vractomorph1, Vrenator, Vsmith, Vtr555, WCFrancis, Wapcaplet, Watch37264, Waterden, Wavelength, Wereon, WesleyDodds, Wheresmysocks, Wik, Wiki alf, Wikiborg, WilliamKF, Wimt, Wing gundam, Wk muriithi, Wlegro, Wmahan, Wolficus, WolfmanSF, Wwwwolf, X1987x, Xaagkx, Xiaomao123, Yale.2001, Yamaguchi , Yamamoto Ichiro, Yaush, Yosri, Youcantrustme420, Zalgo, Zeimusu, Zfervent, Zukaz, Zzuuzz, Zzzzzzzzzzz, aaw, , , 1404 anonymous edits Supernova remnant Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539551724 Contributors: -- April, 1981willy, Abdelqader, Alan Peakall, Alfio, Amble, Andrei Stroe, April, AstroNomer, Bebenko, Berek, Binris, BrainMarble, Bryan Derksen, CYD, Conversion script, DabMachine, Dreamer08, Etacar11, Funhistory, George100, Graham87, GregorB, Guy34565, Hairy Dude, IanOsgood, Iantresman, JamesHoadley, Janderk, Jcrocker, Jmencisom, Jyril, KGyST, Kauczuk, Kitch, Krash, La goutte de pluie, Lofty, Marasama, Marcika, Marek69, Martarius, Mav, Medeis, Minesweeper, Mordecai, Negativecharge, Nergaal, Nickshanks, Nono64, Orenburg1, Originalwana, Pagrashtak, Parusaro, Quale, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rleiton, Robofish, RyanGerbil10, Sakkura, The Anome, The Mark, Thunderbird2, Tubbs334, Unbeatable0, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vrenator, WingedSkiCap, Wrightbus, Xlicolts613, Zzuuzz, , 76 anonymous edits History of supernova observation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542304252 Contributors: Auke Slotegraaf, BSVulturis, Bamse, Bigd666, Brandmeister (old), Canon.vs.nikon, ComaDivine, Dekimasu, Dnessett, Eric Kvaalen, Extra999, Falcorian, HalfShadow, Headbomb, JH-man, Jagged 85, Jc3s5h, Jmencisom, John of Reading, Joshua Scott, JoshuaZ, KGyST, Kjaer, LiamE, Liaocyed, Materialscientist, Meisterkoch, Mike Peel, MishaPan, Mr Stephen, Nehrams2020, Nergaal, PSimeon, Polylepsis, Prezbo, RCThomas, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RndmPrsn13, Roentgenium111, Rsellis, Rtfisher, Sonjaaa, Thanatosimii, Thorwald, Tonicthebrown, Tony1, Trilobitealive, WilliamKF, WingedSkiCap, Wknight94, 27 anonymous edits Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541422022 Contributors: -- April, Alan Peakall, Alfio, Anetode, Anthony, Bamyers99, Bovineone, Bryan Derksen, Cburnett, Chaos syndrome, Curps, D6, DanielFrankham, DavidLevinson, Diverman, Gap9551, Gareth Owen, IanOsgood, Jagged 85, James McBride, JeffW, Just plain Bill, Karol Langner, Ken Gallager, Kierano, LouI, Mangoe, Masao, Mike s, Mr. Omnom, Nacen, Nickkid5, Olaf Davis, Onionmon, Patrick, RJHall, Rkmlai, The Yeti, Thorsett, Tony1, Twang, Ulric1313, Vernon39, Wapcaplet, West.andrew.g, XJamRastafire, Yamara, 14 anonymous edits Type Ia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539370124 Contributors: Alansohn, Algae, Bjf, Calabe1992, Ceyockey, Chrkl, Crowsnest, Cyclopia, Daniel.kassl, Devious3144, Drewtaylor1978, Dugosz, EMurciano, Emaus, Etacar11, Falcorian, Fartherred, Fedhere, GambitNC, George The Dragon, Hairy Dude, Headbomb, Hobbema, IVAN3MAN, Ihutchesson, Ilmari Karonen, Jim Fitzgerald, JohnMenninghaus7, KGyST, Keraunos, Khazar2, Lightmouse, Lithopsian, Louiselives, Luiscalcada, Mike Peel, Mnmngb, MythosMagic, Narayan89, Nehrams2020, Nergaal, Newone, Nick Number, Noca2plus, Nv8200p, Originalwana, Orionus, Piano non troppo, R'n'B, RJHall, Reuqr, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, Robertinventor, Rursus, SkyLined, Sn2007Cb, Somerandomjackass, Sp33dyphil, Sun Creator, Topbanana, Ukmaxi, Vestboy Myst, WingedSkiCap, WolfmanSF, 43 anonymous edits Type Ib and Ic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541046524 Contributors: Aircorn, Artichoker, Calle Cool, Chris the speller, Dana boomer, Daniel.o.jenkins, Edoberger, Headbomb, IVAN3MAN, Jordi Burguet Castell, JustAddPeter, Koavf, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lithopsian, Mike s, Mnmngb, Modest Genius, Nergaal, Pie4all88, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, SchumiUCD, Trulystand700, WolfmanSF, 8 anonymous edits Type II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539370151 Contributors: Aircorn, Alcazar84, Andrei Stroe, AstroPaul, Axl, Casliber, Danim, Duk, Ego White Tray, Eltanin, EoGuy, Esurnir, FT2, Gap9551, Gene Nygaard, HACubs, Headbomb, Hellbus, IanOsgood, Immunize, John Darrow, Khazar2, Kilom691, Koavf, Krenair, LelandHerder, Lithopsian, Mike s, Mintrick, Mnmngb, Mortense, Narayan89, Nehrams2020, Nergaal, Physchim62, Pmokeefe, RJHall, Redian, Rich Farmbrough, Rickington, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, SkyLined, Smith609, Smithbrenon, SwordSmurf, TRauscher, Tarlneustaedter, Tom, Trisweb, Tsiolkovsky, UnitedStatesian, WolfmanSF, 46 anonymous edits Pair-instability supernova Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542326062 Contributors: Arkuat, Bender235, CosineKitty, Cs32en, Dorftrottel, Dtgriscom, FT2, Georgewilliamherbert, Hanavy, HarryAlffa, Hellbus, Henning Makholm, JorisvS, Keflavich, Lithopsian, MacsBug, Mazca, McGinnis, Modify, Nergaal, OhioFred, Parkus.aurelius, Pol098,

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Rainald62, Roadrunner, Robert Treat, Rogermw, Ruslik0, Scwlong, Tarlneustaedter, Tom, Warrickball, Whitepaw, Wjhudson, WolfmanSF, 28 anonymous edits Supernova nucleosynthesis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541150911 Contributors: AlexTiefling, Beanyk, Bradkittenbrink, CDN99, Cadillac, Claydonald, Crimson30, DAID, Darth Panda, Dpeinador, Flyguy649, Fokion, Friendly Neighbour, Georgewilliamherbert, Headbomb, Ibmua, James E B, Jmnbatista, Jusses2, Jvandonsel, Karol Langner, Ken Arromdee, King Hildebrand, Kristaoz, MacsBug, MarSch, Mateuszica, Mfuerte, Modify, Mystman666, Nergaal, Orionus, Peterckw, RJHall, Rhadamante, Rjwilmsi, Roberto Mura, Roentgenium111, Rogermw, Rursus, ScottDavis, Seddon, Sheliak, Srleffler, Tedernst, Tycho, Uber nemo, Underpants, UnitedStatesian, Voyajer, Vsmith, Wasted Sapience, Zedshort, 45 anonymous edits p-process Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540651071 Contributors: Belg4mit, Chris the speller, ChrisHodgesUK, DAID, 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Polarscribe, Poochy, Previously ScienceApologist, Prometheusg, Proteins, Q43, Quadell, Quickcrazy78, R'n'B, RA0808, RJHall, Rabsmith, Raddick, RedRabbit1983, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Roadrunner, RobertG, Roberterubin, Robma, Rocketrod1960, RockinRob, Rod57, Rodhullandemu, Ronhjones, Ross Uber, Rothorpe, RoyBoy, Rt66lt, Rursus, Ruslik0, Rydel, Sakkura, Salgueiro, Sbharris, SchuminWeb, Scottyhoohow, Scwlong, Sfan00 IMG, Shanes, Sharkbait784, Siafu, SkyMachine, Slugmaster, Soulpatch, Spellmaster, SpuriousQ, Squiddy, SriMesh, Sstankowitz, Stbalbach, Stevertigo, Tabletop, TechnoFaye, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Yeti, Thecheesykid, Theroadislong, Thiseye, Timwi, Toh, Tom harrison, Tom.Reding, Tripodian, Tsvipiran, Twinsday, Urvabara, Vishnava, Vprashanth87, Vyznev Xnebara, Wadewitz, Waldorfgx, Wavelength, Wazerface, Wereon, WhosAsking, Wikipelli, WolfmanSF, Wwheaton, XJamRastafire, Xiao Li, Yann, Yill577, Ysyoon, , 2010, 427 anonymous edits Carbon detonation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540963041 Contributors: Aroberts03, Asymptote, Crowsnest, Diannaa, Dugosz, Elonka, Foobar, Hamiltondaniel, Henrykus, Hlangeveld, J.delanoy, Kurgus, Modify, Nacen, Omega2064, Robin S, Rominandreu, Rursus, Spacepotato, The Yeti, Tom Lougheed, Venny85, Whoop whoop pull up, WolfmanSF, 4 anonymous edits SN 185 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542074466 Contributors: Alain r, Amatulic, Ancheta Wis, Bender235, Bigturtle, BobQQ, Bongwarrior, Bryan Derksen, CWitte, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Deadkid dk, Elphion, Evercat, Evil-mer0dach, Headbomb, Hunnjazal, IanOsgood, Isoman00, Jagged 85, JasonAQuest, Jkl, John Belushi, Marshallsumter, Mo-Slimy, Modest Genius, Nacen, Newone, Originalwana, Python eggs, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, Roentgenium111, Rursus, Rwflammang, ShakingSpirit, Tillman, 17 anonymous edits Crab Supernova Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542640646 Contributors: A2Kafir, Aaadddaaammm, Arjayay, Arsia Mons, Avalyn, Bender235, Boneyard90, Braniff73, Brianhe, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73, CTL CTL, Capricorn42, Chris the speller, Chuunen Baka, Coemgenus, ComaDivine, Comte0, Conversum, Crisco 1492, Damifb, Dawnseeker2000, Denelson83, Dr. Submillimeter, Dragon2Zero, Egregiouslizard, Epbr123, Eroica, Exadrid, Ferox Seneca, FreplySpang, Fxer, Gareth E Kegg, Graham87, Ground Zero, Headbomb, Hinohino2, Icairns, Itsmejudith, J.P.Lon, JGKWall, Jac16888, Jacobs, Jagged 85, Jaraalbe, Jason Quinn, Jayjg, John of Reading, JoshuaZ, Jyril, Kanguole, Kevinbasil, Khazar, Kheider, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Marshallsumter, Mateus Hidalgo, MegMeg10, Melikamp, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miranche, Nacen, Neier, Newone, NotWith, Nyttend, Ohconfucius, OverSS, PKT, PalaceGuard008, Paul A, Peridon, Peyre, Pikolas, Plastikspork, Pol098, R'n'B, RJHall, Rabbitslayer21, Rami radwan, Reisio, Rursus, Rwflammang, Sajt, Sardur, SchreiberBike, Skpperd, ThreeBlindMice, Thucydides411, Tiger888, UnitedStatesian, Van der Hoorn, Velho, Viriditas, We hope, White whirlwind, Woohookitty, Wrightbus, Wwheaton, Yone, Zidanie5, Zzzzzzzzzzz, 118 anonymous edits Tycho's Supernova Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539780549 Contributors: 84user, Ahoerstemeier, Andi47, Anton Gutsunaev, Bender235, BrainMarble, Bryan Derksen, Captmondo, Clpo13, Coemgenus, ComaDivine, Cricobr, DeAceShooter, DividedByNegativeZero, Etacar11, FeanorStar7, Fotaun, Fueled, Fxer, Headbomb, Hugo999, Incoherent fool, J.P.Lon, Jacobs, Jaraalbe, Joedimaggio0521, JoshuaZ, Kruusamgi, Levydav, Marshallsumter, Meowist, Metre01, Mike Peel, Mu301, Nacen, Naohiro19, Narcberry, Omegatron, Originalwana, Pi lambda, Polylerus, Psychonaut, RJHall, RandomCritic, Raul654, Rjwilmsi, Rothorpe, Sajt, Science History, Sfahey, Smyth, Soerfm, Solipsist, Spacy73, T.E. Goodwin, Tdimhcs, TheChrisD, ThreeBlindMice, Underpants, Warpflyght, Wetman, WikiHannibal, WilliamKF, WingedSkiCap, Woodsylass, Wrightbus, Xaagkx, Yone, 67 , anonymous edits SN 1987A Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540190488 Contributors: -- April, 2001:62A:4:411:D81B:6F93:17B4:295F, Aaronp808, Ahpook, Alfio, Andre Engels, Andrew c, Andrewa, Andycjp, Ashanda, Ashill, Attilios, Axl, B.d.mills, Badzil, BarretB, Bdsmith, Bender235, Bowlhover, Bryan Derksen, Bth, CYD, Chris the speller, Christopher Thomas, Cmapm, CoHenSN1987A, Coemgenus, Colin Henshaw, Comet Tuttle, Conversion script, Craigsjones, CrazyGlu, Cyde, DadaNeem, DmitryKo, Dr. Floyd, Dtgriscom, EAderhold, Egg, Electron9, Eman, Epolk, Eric Kvaalen, Exerda, FT2, Ff1959, Fleurot, FlorianMarquardt, Flying fish, Fosnez, Friendlystar, Fxer, Gene Nygaard, Godhead22, Goudzovski, Gralholey, Greeneto, Hairy Dude, Headbomb, Hellbus, Hgrosser, Housewarmer, Hugo999, Hurricane Devon, Intangir, Ivanbok, JForget, JH-man, JMO, Jack21222, JamesBWatson, Jaraalbe, Jeremy.Lusk, Jfg284, Jkl, Jmencisom, John of Reading, JoshuaZ, Jyril, KenFehling, Khateeb88, LMCBoy, LactoseTI, Lankiveil, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Leandar, Lithopsian, Livajo, Marcika, MarsRover, Maury Markowitz, Mav, Maxim Razin, Mike Peel, Mike s, Minesweeper, Miraceti, Mnmngb, Mortense, MrFish, NOrbeck, Nacen, Newone, Nick Drake, Nickptar, Nickshanks, O18, Parrot of Doom, Patrick, Pauli133, Philippe, Piano non troppo, Piledhigheranddeeper, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Richard L. Peterson, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, Robinh, Roentgenium111, Roiwallace, Rothorpe, Rursus, Ruslik0, Rycecube57, Sajt, Sanders muc, Sbharris, Schneelocke, Shirik, SiegfreidZ, Snowhare, Sodmy, Sonicology, Squash, Strait, Sverdrup, Svick, Tagishsimon, Takkyon, Tarlneustaedter, TechnoFaye, The Yeti, Theroadislong, ThreeBlindMice, Thue, Tomruen, Tubbs334, Umrguy42, Van helsing, Vicki Rosenzweig, Will Beback Auto, WilliamKF, WolfmanSF, Xaagkx, 116 anonymous edits SN 1006 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539780410 Contributors: AkaSylvia, Attilios, BD2412, Bender235, Bkell, Bobblewik, BorgQueen, Bovineone, Brandmeister, Casliber, Chronodm, ComaDivine, CommonsDelinker, Cyclopia, Dang Fool, Dfpawlowski, Egg, Eiorgiomugini, ElectricValkyrie, Evil-mer0dach, FordPrefect42, Friendlystar, Fxmastermind, Galoubet, Headbomb, Hibernian, JAF1970, Jagged 85, Jaraalbe, Jason Quinn, Jfruh, Kheider, Kintetsubuffalo, LarryQ, Ling.Nut, Littlebombs, LuoShengli, Marhorr, Med, Meowist, Mgerb, Mimihitam, Modest Genius, Moritasgus, Nacen, Newone, Novangelis, Oatmeal batman, OldakQuill, Oos, Originalwana, Parrot of Doom, PieroR, Piledhigheranddeeper, Prodego, RJHall, Rastro, Rjwilmsi, Rockysmile11, Runningonbrains, Sajt, Scoutersig, Scwlong, Shanes, Shsilver, Sillylizard, Sonjaaa, StYxXx, SteveMcCluskey, Subramanian, Telescopi, Tlaresch, Trilobitealive, Tstroman, Tubbs334, Varunbhalerao, Wahoofive, Walshie79, Wetman, WikiDao, Wikiborg, Winiar, Wwheaton, Yann, Zachariel, Zawersh, 64 anonymous edits SN 2003fg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541716980 Contributors: Adam Conover, Alfrodull, Anonymous Dissident, Astrotrf, Chris Buckey, CielProfond, Doc Strange, Falcorian, Friendlystar, GeeJo, Goingstuckey, Graf Von Crayola, HFGR, Headbomb, Hellbus, Hydroxonium, Jaraalbe, Jedikaiti, LucasVB, Montrealais, Nacen, PSimeon, RJHall, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, Terraflorin, The Yeti, Videokunst, Wasell, WikHead, William Avery, WolfmanSF, 15 anonymous edits SN 2007bi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541227226 Contributors: Alexchen4836, Bender235, FienX, Grszny, Jared Preston, KConWiki, LiamE, MER-C, WereSpielChequers, 15 anonymous edits Crab Nebula Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539072782 Contributors: AdnanSa, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Pascoe, Albert0, Alexedwards, Alfio, Ancheta Wis, Andy120290, Andypandy.UK, Antandrus, Apteva, Ardric47, Arpingstone, Arsia Mons, AstroMalasorte, Astrofrank, Astroview120mm, Avenue, Awolf002, Bacchus87, Bebenko, Beetstra, Beland, Bender235, Bigchiefbc, Bkell, Bmxerguy, Bobblewik, Bobnorwal, Brian0918, BrianY, Brighterorange, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73, Bulwersator, Caid Raspa, Cam, Carbuncle, Caute AF, Ceranthor, Charles

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Matthews, ChicXulub, Chicago god, Chippym22, Chris the speller, Ckatz, Clh288, Cmapm, Coneslayer, Courcelles, Coyote-37, CrankyScorpion, Crowsnest, Curps, Cwoyte, Cyde, D-Rock, Dale Arnett, Daniel Case, Daniel5127, Darth61, Dascott, DavidBrooks, Deb, Delldot, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dina, Docu, DoomBW, DrKiernan, Dragonnas, Dtrebbien, Duggy 1138, ESkog, Earthandmoon, Edison, Ellard38, Epbr123, Epolk, Etacar11, Eternal Equinox, Everyking, EvocativeIntrigue, Ewok Slayer, Extra999, FKmailliW, Fabiform, Falcorian, Fijal, Flashmorbid, Fooku, Fotaun, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Friendly Neighbour, Frymaster, Fxer, Gene Nygaard, Gnixon, Goobergunch, Grafikm fr, Graham87, GregorB, Headbomb, Henrykus, Heron, Hinohino2, Hotdjdave, Howcheng, Hssrikanthrao, Hyperdeath, IRP, IanOsgood, Ineffable3000, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Jack O'Neill, Jacob1207, Jagged 85, JamesHoadley, Jamie0, Janderk, Jared Hunt, Jauhienij, Jebur, JeremyA, Jerry-va, JesseW, Jivecat, Jklin, JoanneB, John, Joseaperez, Joseph Dwayne, 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JamesHoadley, John Belushi, LoneTrumpeteer, Melaen, Nacen, Ottojack, Poppy, RJHall, RichardMathews, Rjwilmsi, Roberto Mura, Some thing, Spacepotato, Telescopi, Tubbs334, Twang, Xdado, ZayZayEM, 14 anonymous edits Supernova remnant G1.9+0.3 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540801336 Contributors: Alvin-cs, Andre Engels, Bentu, BrainMarble, CommonsDelinker, Eleuther, Headbomb, Jes007, Kevyn, Kingdon, Mxn, Nacen, Newone, Poulpy, RJHall, Rlorenc, Roentgenium111, Rothorpe, Rupertslander, Tony1, Tritium6, Tubbs334, Xenagor, YoshuaMongrain, 25 anonymous edits Near-Earth supernova Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541123662 Contributors: ArcTheLad, Arcades, Atlant, Banus, Beland, Bob0the0mighty, Charonn0, Citizen Premier, DKqwerty, Denelson83, Gap9551, Headbomb, Ian Pitchford, Igiffin, KTC, Karol Langner, M0ffx, Mwhiz, Nacen, PJtP, Pagrashtak, PoptartKing, R Lee E, RJHall, Ragouvamsam, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Sam Hocevar, Spoxjox, Springyard, The Smilodon, TheIrishWarden, 21 anonymous edits Supernova Early Warning System Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541830830 Contributors: Anville, Cybercobra, Daniel Case, Dtgriscom, ERcheck, Eleassar, Flying fish, Gaius Cornelius, Headbomb, JoshuaZ, Nacen, Pjacobi, PuerExMachina, Rod57, Scog, Strait, Tone, WISo, Whitepaw, Xymostech, 6 anonymous edits High-z Supernova Search Team Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494890110 Contributors: Anna Frodesiak, Astrodud, Backpacker314159, Bearcat, Brianpschmidt, Cgtdk, ClarketheK, Doesper, DuoDeathscyther 02, Falcorian, Frankie1969, Headbomb, HiddenValley123, Joseph Solis in Australia, Lbeaumont, Mandarax, Nacen, Nobi, Nsuntzeff, Pol098, Previously ScienceApologist, Puzhok, Quantling, RJHall, Stridgway, Twp, 28 anonymous edits Texas Supernova Search Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=521383490 Contributors: Colonies Chris, Firebat08, John Belushi, LiamE, Nacen, 2 anonymous edits Nearby Supernova Factory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523876410 Contributors: Danbirchall, Emerson7, Markarian421, Nacen, 2 anonymous edits Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=333519115 Contributors: Bhadani, Nacen, Pascal.Tesson, Peccafly, Urhixidur, Uvon 06, 1 anonymous edits Sloan Digital Sky Survey Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=539808517 Contributors: Andycjp, Anna Frodesiak, B00P, Betacommand, Bowlhover, Buster7, Cacao43, Chem-awb, CommonsDelinker, Davepape, Dawnseeker2000, Dorftrottel, Dr. Submillimeter, EdPost, EddEdmondson, Egates, Falcorian, Fotaun, Friendlystar, G716, Gene Nygaard, George100, Hypnosadist, Imasleepviking, JBocha, JHG, JMK, Jmencisom, Joe Jarvis, Jradavenport, KGyST, Ka ga, Kheider, Lawynholds, LeeHunter, Lmaotheone, Lochnessy6, Lumos3, MER-C, Mariguld, Martijn Hoekstra, Mightyname, Mnmngb, NathanHagen, Newone, Northgrove, Orionus, P.r.newman, Parejkoj, Physicsdavid, Pol098, Pph, Previously ScienceApologist, Quantling, Raddick, Richard Nowell, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rod57, Sandius, Scwlong, Sheliak, Sherool, Silas S. Brown, StarryGrandma, The machine512, Tuankiet65, Viriditas, Wageslave, Wakebrdkid, Wanted, WilliamKF, Wschaap, Wsiegmund, Zueignung, Zzzzzzzzzzz, , 40 anonymous edits Supernova/Acceleration Probe Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541181662 Contributors: A2Kafir, CommonsDelinker, Emerson7, Falcorian, Grutness, Jamesx12345, Ktotam, LouScheffer, Loupeter, Michael C Price, Nacen, RiseUpAgain, Rnt20, Sdsds, ThreeBlindMice, WDGraham, 3 anonymous edits Supernova Cosmology Project Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540801298 Contributors: Alain r, FConway-Derley, Falcorian, Frankie1969, Giambrox, Giftlite, Kurtan, Malcolma, Nacen, Plucas58, Quantling, RG2, RJHall, Rosarinagazo, Solarflare100, 2 anonymous edits Supernova Legacy Survey Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=524069157 Contributors: Bhuna71, Coren, Lithopsian, Nacen, Ruslik0, Safalra, 1 anonymous edits Supernovae in fiction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541048951 Contributors: Aeusoes1, Amitakartok, Bree's Block, Brooklyn-alvin, Catber, Chris19910, Emurphy42, Frizbguy, Gluonman, Icairns, Ixfd64, Jayjg, Jynto, LilHelpa, MarcoSchuffelen, Nergaal, Omeganian, Petercard, Piotrus, Powerzilla, RJHall, RandomCritic, SGGH, Sarahgeorge, Sgoldman10, Smartyllama, SuperMarioMan, Tabletop, The Yeti, TommyBoy, U-95, Whitepaw, 43 anonymous edits

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File:Supernova.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supernova.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Image:MCG +05-43-16 with SN 2007ck and SN 2007co Swift.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MCG_+05-43-16_with_SN_2007ck_and_SN_2007co_Swift.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Credit: Stefan Immler NASA/GSFC, Swift Science Team. Image:Keplers supernova.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keplers_supernova.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/ESA/JHU/R.Sankrit & W.Blair Image:Crab Nebula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crab_Nebula.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University) Image:SN1994D.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN1994D.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Ashill, Athaenara, Hotshot977, Jappalang, KGyST, Metrnomo, Rivi, Rl, Ruslik0, Zukaz, 2 anonymous edits Image:SNIIcurva.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SNIIcurva.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Paulsmith99 File:Progenitor IA supernova.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: NASA, ESA and A. Feild (STScI); vectorisation by chris Image:Evolved star fusion shells.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Rursus Image:Core collapse scenario.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Core_collapse_scenario.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Illustration by R.J. Hall. Redrawn in Inkscape by Magasjukur2 Image:SN 1997D.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN_1997D.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: D. de Mello, G. Massone, S. Benetti Image:Supernova 2008D.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supernova_2008D.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA / Swift Science Team / Stefan Immler Image:Comparative supernova type light curves.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Lithopsian Image:Chandra-crab.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandra-crab.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Optical: NASA/HST/ASU/J. Hester et al. X-Ray: NASA/CXC/ASU/J. Hester et al. Image:SNIacurva.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SNIacurva.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: KGyST, Xenoforme Image:STScl-2005-15.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:STScl-2005-15.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) Image:Wolf rayet2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wolf_rayet2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Yves Grosdidier (University of Montreal and Observatoire de Strasbourg), Anthony Moffat (Universitie de Montreal), Gilles Joncas (Universite Laval), Agnes Acker (Observatoire de Strasbourg), and NASA Image:Main tycho remnant full.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Main_tycho_remnant_full.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/MPIA/Calar Alto Observatory, Oliver Krause et al. Image:Sig06-030.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sig06-030.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Caltech/S.Kulkarni et al.; Optical: NASA/STScI/UIUC/Y.H.Chu & R.Williams et al.; IR: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R.Gehrz et al. Image:SN1006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN1006.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Meowist at en.wikipedia File:Crab Nebula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crab_Nebula.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University) File:Main tycho remnant full.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Main_tycho_remnant_full.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/MPIA/Calar Alto Observatory, Oliver Krause et al. File:Keplers supernova.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keplers_supernova.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/ESA/JHU/R.Sankrit & W.Blair File:Sn discoveries.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sn_discoveries.gif License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: RCThomas File:Supernova-1987a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supernova-1987a.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: First image: Dr. Christopher Burrows, ESA/STScI and NASA; Second image: Hubble Heritage team. File:IC 755 HST.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IC_755_HST.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Fotaun, Jmencisom, Rbrausse File:SN1998aq max spectra.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN1998aq_max_spectra.svg License: unknown Contributors: Falcorian Image:Progenitor IA supernova.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: NASA, ESA and A. Feild (STScI); vectorisation by chris Image:Accretion Disk Binary System.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user, Ilmari Karonen, 3 anonymous edits Image:Type Ia supernova simulation - Argonne National Laboratory.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Type_Ia_supernova_simulation_-_Argonne_National_Laboratory.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: FlickreviewR, Louiselives, Trelio File:SNIacurva.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SNIacurva.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: KGyST, Xenoforme File:Evolved star fusion shells.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Rursus File:HST SN 1987A 20th anniversary.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HST_SN_1987A_20th_anniversary.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, P. Challis, and R. Kirshner (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics) File:Core collapse scenario.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Core_collapse_scenario.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: R.J. Hall File:SNIIcurva.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SNIIcurva.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Joelholdsworth, KGyST, Liftarn, Paulsmith99, Xenoforme Image:Sn2006gy_collapse_ill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sn2006gy_collapse_ill.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/CXC/M. Weiss Image:Gamma ray burst.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gamma_ray_burst.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Nicolle Rager Fuller of the NSF Image:BATSE 2704.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BATSE_2704.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Badzil, Dbachmann, Ohms law, Pieter Kuiper, Tevatron Image:BeppoSAX.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BeppoSAX.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avron, Joolz, Ploum's, TommyBee Image:Swift spacecraft.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Swift_spacecraft.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:GRB BATSE 12lightcurves.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GRB_BATSE_12lightcurves.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Daniel Perley Image:GRB080319B illustration NASA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GRB080319B_illustration_NASA.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Swift/Mary Pat Hrybyk-Keith and John Jones Image:Rcw86 420.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rcw86_420.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chandra: NASA/CXC/Univ. of Utrecht/J.Vink et al. XMM-Newton: ESA/Univ. of Utrecht/J.Vink et al. Image:RCW 86.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RCW_86.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA File:CrabNebulaHubble.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CrabNebulaHubble.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hubble telescope File:800crab.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:800crab.png License: Public Domain Contributors: CM Hubert Chen, Fiona A. Harrison, Principal Investigator, Caltech Charles J. Hailey, Columbia Principal, Columbia, Finn E. Christensen, DSRI Principal, DSRI, William W. Craig, Optics Scientist, LLNL, Stephen M. Schindler, Project Manager, Caltech

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File:Heinrich III. sieht den neuen Stern ber der Stadt Tivoli (Tyburtina).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heinrich_III._sieht_den_neuen_Stern_ber_der_Stadt_Tivoli_(Tyburtina).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Cherubino, DenghiComm, Gryffindor, Historiograf, Lalupa, Michail File:Possible SN1054 sighting on 19 apr 1054 (vivid).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Possible_SN1054_sighting_on_19_apr_1054_(vivid).png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Possible_SN1054_sighting_on_19_apr_1054.png: Alain r derivative work: Dereckson (talk) File:Chaco canyon pueblo bonito petroglyphs.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chaco_canyon_pueblo_bonito_petroglyphs.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: jamesdale10 File:SN 1054 5jul zoom (vivid).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN_1054_5jul_zoom_(vivid).png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: SN_1054_5jul_zoom.png: Alain r derivative work: Dereckson (talk) File:Zeta tauri Beta Tauri and M1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zeta_tauri_Beta_Tauri_and_M1.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Taurus_constellation_map-fr.png: Original uploader was Orthogaffe at fr.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Looxix at fr.wikipedia. derivative work: Alain r (talk) Image:Tycho Cas SN1572.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tycho_Cas_SN1572.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tycho Brahe File:Tour of Tycho's Supernova Remnant.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tour_of_Tycho's_Supernova_Remnant.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: Originalwana Image:SN 1572 Tycho's Supernova.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN_1572_Tycho's_Supernova.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/WISE Team Image:Supernova-1987a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supernova-1987a.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: First image: Dr. Christopher Burrows, ESA/STScI and NASA; Second image: Hubble Heritage team. File:SN1987a debris evolution animation.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN1987a_debris_evolution_animation.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Housewarmer Image:ESO-SN 1987A and the Honeycomb Nebula-Phot-50b-06.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESO-SN_1987A_and_the_Honeycomb_Nebula-Phot-50b-06.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: ESO Image:Sn87a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sn87a.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denniss, Krisjohn, Ruslik0 File:SN 1987A HST.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN_1987A_HST.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jmencisom Image:Supernova Remnant SN 1006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supernova_Remnant_SN_1006.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/G.Cassam-Chena, J.Hughes et al.; Radio: NRAO/AUI/NSF/GBT/VLA/Dyer, Maddalena & Cornwell; Optical: Middlebury College/F.Winkler, NOAO/AURA/NSF/CTIO Schmidt & DSS Image:SN 1006 Remnant Expansion Comparison.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SN_1006_Remnant_Expansion_Comparison.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploader was Friendlystar at en.wikipedia File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:The Crab Nebula NASA.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Crab_Nebula_NASA.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:Crab 3.6 5.8 8.0 microns spitzer.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crab_3.6_5.8_8.0_microns_spitzer.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Clh288, DrKiernan, Juiced lemon, Med, Tano4595, 2 anonymous edits File:Filaments in the Crab Nebula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Filaments_in_the_Crab_Nebula.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denniss, Jozef-k, Juiced lemon, Lars Lindberg Christensen Image:The Crab Nebula - A Flickering X-ray Candle.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Crab_Nebula_-_A_Flickering_X-ray_Candle.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:NASA's Fermi Spots 'Superflares' in the Crab Nebula.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA's_Fermi_Spots_'Superflares'_in_the_Crab_Nebula.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:Changes in the Crab Nebula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Changes_in_the_Crab_Nebula.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dcljr, Denniss, DrKiernan, Jozef-k, Juiced lemon, Lars Lindberg Christensen, 1 anonymous edits Image:Vela Supernova Remnant.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vela_Supernova_Remnant.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NOAO/CTIO Image:267641main allsky labeled HI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:267641main_allsky_labeled_HI.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/DOE/International LAT Team Image:Pages from Prop1994.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pages_from_Prop1994.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:HiddenValley123 File:SDSS spectrograph cartridge.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SDSS_spectrograph_cartridge.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:EdPost File:SDSS spectrograph plate.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SDSS_spectrograph_plate.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:EdPost File:Quasars Acting as Gravitational Lenses.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quasars_Acting_as_Gravitational_Lenses.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jmencisom File:LRG-4-606.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LRG-4-606.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jmencisom

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