Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 17 38 www.elsevier.

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Neotectonics of the Marikina Valley fault system (MVFS) and tectonic framework of structures in northern and central Luzon, Philippines
Rolly E. Rimando a,*, Peter L.K. Knuepfer b,1
a

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, PHIVOLCS Bldg., C.P. Garcia Ave., U.P. Campus, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines b Department of Geological Sciences and Environmental Studies, State University of New York, P.O. Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, Science 1, 161, United States Received 10 February 2004; accepted 23 November 2005 Available online 30 January 2006

Abstract Recognition of neotectonic features along the Marikina Valley fault system (MVFS) in central Luzon, Philippines indicates a dominantly dextral strike-slip motion during its most recent activity believed to be Late Pleistocene to Holocene in age. Variations in the ratios of vertical to horizontal displacements for the segments imply a dominantly dextral motion of the West Marikina Valley fault (WMVF) and oblique dextral motion for the East Marikina Valley fault (EMVF). The displacement data further suggest that rupturing along the EMVF involved multiple segments and occurred separately from the events along the WMVF segments. Estimated earthquake magnitudes for the WMVF and EMVF based on single-event offsets fall within the range M 7.37.7. The vertical slip component in the northern part of the Marikina Valley is associated with the development of a basin between the EMVF and WMVF while the large vertical component in the southernmost segment of the EMVF (Talim) is attributed to volcanism-related extension. Lateral advection of the block bounded by the MVFS and the Philippine fault zone (PFZ), rather than pure shear resulting from an assumed eastwest compression, best explains the observed kinematics of the MVFS. This is the result of compression during the westward drift of the Philippine Sea Plate and northern Luzon and occurs through slip along the WMVF and EMVF at rates of 57 mm/yr. D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fault segmentation; Slip rate; Neotectonics; Kinematics; Marikina

1. Introduction The 135-km long dextral Marikina Valley fault system (MVFS) or Valley fault system (PHIVOLCS, 1999) is a major fault transecting the eastern portion of Metropolitan Manila and belongs to a system of faults and subduction zones that accommodates oblique conver* Corresponding author. Fax: +63 2 9207058. E-mail addresses: r_rimando@hotmail.com (R.E. Rimando), Peter.Knuepfer@binghamton.edu (P.L.K. Knuepfer). 1 Tel.: +1 607 777 2389. 0040-1951/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2005.11.009

gence between the Philippine Sea Plate (PSP) and the Eurasian Plate (Fig. 1). The over 1600 km-long Philippine fault zone (PFZ) is an active sinistral structure that extends from Luzon to Mindanao. The 1990 Luzon earthquake was centered along one of its splays, the Digdig fault. The PFZ accommodates much of the relative movement of the two plates between the trench systems and may act to decouple the northwestward movement of the PSP from the southeastward movement of the Eurasian plate. An alternative view is that the PFZ accommodates the boundary-parallel component of the overall plate convergence as a trench-linked strike-slip

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Fig. 1. Tectonic setting of active faults in northern and central Luzon. The Marikina Valley fault system (MVFS) is bounded by major structures including the Philippine fault zone (PFZ) on the east. Directly east of the east Luzon trough is a topographic high (Benham rise) within the Philippine Sea Plate (PSP). Direction (3058 azimuth) and rate (8.0 cm/yr) of PSP motion after Seno et al. (1993). Numbers refer to the following faults: 1 Bangui; 2 Bornay R.; 3 ViganVintar; 4 Abra R.; 5 Chico R.; 6 Asin; 7 Hapap; 8 Eastern Cordillera; 9 Coastal Thrust; 10 Casiguran; 11 San Fernando; 12 Mirador; 13 Pugo; 14 San Manuel; 15 San Jose; 16 Tebbo; 17 East Zambales; 18 Western Boundary; 19 San Ildefonso; 20 Lubang; 21 Central Mindoro; 22 Aglubang R.; and, 23 Central Marinduque. Sources of information for active faults: Rimando and Daligdig (1990), Nakata et al. (1977), Hirano et al. (1986), Punongbayan et al. (1991), Malterre (1989), Geomatrix Consultants (1996), Intera (1995), Pinet and Stephan (1990), Rimando et al. (1995), and, Pinet (1990).

fault related to the Manila trench and/or the Philippine trench (Fitch, 1972; Karig, 1983; Yeats et al., 1997). The known and predicted slips of the PFZ and most of its splays are consistent with this west-northwest to northwest motion of the PSP. The Digdig fault and the PFZ are predominantly sinistral strike-slip faults (although there is a considerable reverse component across the Digdig fault). Except for its northeastern portion, the predominantly dextral MVFS strikes parallel to the NS-trending portion of the Digdig fault and to the PFZ directly east of the MVFS. Current GPS data cannot resolve MVFS kinematics given the large uncertainty involved, and Thibault (1999) suggested that resolvable movement across the MVFS is minor. Nevertheless, a dextral sense of strike-slip is indicated by the longer-term, near-field slip data presented in this paper. How slip is accommodated among the faults is important to understanding the nature of the plate boundary; this paper will in part address this issue.

The MVFS branches southward from the PFZ (Fig. 2) and bounds the Marikina Valley, the northern part of which is interpreted as a pull-apart basin. We have not investigated the nature of the junction of the MVFS and PFZ in detail due to logistical constraints. The southern part of the East Marikina Valley fault (EMVF) lies on the western side of the Southern Sierra Madre, whereas the West Marikina Valley fault (WMVF) bounds the west side of the valley (Fig. 2). The MVFS appears to terminate to the south against another tectonic feature, the Macolod Corridor (Fig. 2), which is a zone of volcanoes related to northeasttrending extensional structures that define a rift. The rifting front is located south of Tagaytay Highlands. However, the rifting front does not coincide with any known faults, so its location is only approximate. The trace of the WMVF farther south of the ridge, if it exists, has been buried by young eruptive materials from Taal Volcano.

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Fig. 2. The main physiographic and tectonic elements in central Luzon related to the MVFS. The northern half of the MVFS cuts across the Southern Sierra Madre while its southern parts bound the mountain range. The EMVF branches from the PFZ while both the EMVF and the WMVF appear to terminate near the rifting front of the Macolod Corridor. The kinematics of the MVFS is attributed to the lateral extrusion of the block between MVFS and the PFZ on the east. An complementary mechanism is clockwise rotation of the same block that is being extruded laterally. Preliminary assessment of MVFS segmentation is also shown. Numbers refer to the structural/geometric segments shown in detail in Fig. 3.

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This study will contribute to understanding the style, nature and distribution in space and time of some of the deformation resulting from plate interactions in the Philippines. Knowledge of these effects will also contribute to the understanding of plate kinematics and geometry of subducting plates and their boundaries. Mapping of active fault traces and associated morphologic features will contribute in evaluating the role the MVFS plays in the plate boundary. In addition, more reasonable assessments of the nature, timing and size of future surface ruptures along the MVFS can be made, which are of critical importance to estimating seismic hazard and risk for Metro Manila. 2. Methodology Lack of seismicity, historical events and fault plane slickensides and lineations limited previous papers from presenting convincing evidence on its kinematics,

although it has often been stated that it is a dextral strike-slip fault (Gervasio, 1968; Arcilla, 1983; Arcilla et al., 1989; Rimando et al., 1991; Punongbayan et al., 1992). We document many geomorphic features along and related to the MVFS through aerial-photo- and field-based investigations to better understand the kinematics and recent activity of the MVFS. This study also uses quantitative displacement data from offset geomorphic features as evidence for kinematics of the MVFS. Among the most distinctive characteristics of active strike-slip faults is an array of distinctive physiographic features (Sylvester, 1988). The San Andreas fault in California was studied extensively following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and so was the first place where strike-slip movement was convincingly demonstrated (Hill, 1981; Sylvester, 1988; Wallace, 1990). Most workers in paleoseismology (Matsuda, 1975; Slemmons, 1977, 1981; Wallace, 1977, 1978; McCalpin, 1996) relate the recency of faulting to the fresh-

Fig. 3. Strip maps of active traces of the MVFS. Associated morphotectonic landforms and displaced features along the fault were key to the delineation of MVFS active traces and, hence, in determining segmentation pattern of the fault system. These features are shown on the following detailed segment maps: a) RodriguezTaguig segment (I); b) SucatBin an segment (II); c) Bin anSto. Domingo segment (III); d) PittlandSungay (IV); e) San MateoRodriguez segment (VI); f) Antipolo segment (VII); g) Angono segment (VIII), and; h) Talim Island segment (X). Interpretations were from 1 : 15,000 to 20,000 scale aerial photographs. Circled letter and number codes refer to measurement sites and data for each site are shown in Table 3.

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Fig. 3 (continued ).

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Table 1 Data for active faults in northern and central Luzon Fault Philippine fault zone Digdig Length N 125 km Extent Dingalan Bay to Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya Criteria Various geomorphic features and offset streams and landforms; seismicity (16 July 1990 7.8 M s); historical accounts Various geomorphic features and offset streams and landforms Uncertain epicenter plots; offset streams and geomorphic features Shallow seismic events; offset streams and geomorphic expression Historical accounts; geomorphic features and offset landforms and streams Historical accounts; geomorphic features and offset landforms and streams Geomorphic features; diverted drainages Dominant type of faulting Left-lateral strike-slip with thrust component

Northern Digdig

~58 km

Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya to Sabita, Benguet Near Sabita, Benguet to Pasaleng Bay Near PugoRosario (La Union) area, west of Baguio, to La UnionIlocos Sur boundary Rizal, Nueva Ecija to Lingayen Gulf

Left-lateral strike-slip

Abra River

~220 km

Left-lateral strike-slip

Pugo (Kapangan)

~50 km

Left-lateral strike-slip with large thrust component

San JoseSan Manuel

~85 km

Left-lateral strike-slip

Tebbo

~45 km

San Manuel, Pangasinan to Itogon, Benguet

Left-lateral strike-slip

Hapap

~210 km

Near Sta Fe, Nueva Vizcaya to near Lallo, Cagayan; northern segment follows NE-trending reach of Chico R.

Left-lateral strike-slip with large thrust component

Other faults ViganVintar Bornay River Bangui

~132 km ~20 km ~200 km

SE of Vigan to Bacsil, Ilocos Norte SE from Dingras, Ilocos Norte for about 20 km Bangui Bay to NW of Ilagan, Isabela Eastwest from Pasil to east of Tabuk, KalingaApayao NNE direction from south of Canlubang, Calamba, Laguna towards the UmirayDingalan Bay area Generally follows the coastline of Cagayan, Isabela and Aurora Extends from Sula, Tarlac to Lingayen Gulf Dasol, Pangasinan to NE Hundred Islands Near Lingayen Gulf to near Vigan, Ilocos Sur West of Bataan to west of Ilocos Sur Salcedo, Ilocos Sur to Pidigan, Abra

Chico River

~40 km

Marikina Valley fault system

~130 km

Recent seismicity; offset recent landforms Recent seismicity; offset recent landforms Recent seismicity; offset geomorphic features and Holocene deposits Recent shallow earthquakes; geomorphic features Offset geomorphic features and streams

Thrust Normal Left-lateral strike-slip fault

Right-lateral strike-slip

Casiguran fault

~200 km

East Zambales Hundred Islands Coastal thrust

N 125 km ~45 km ~150 km

Historical accounts and recorded seismicity; geomorphic features Geomorphic features; recent seismicity Uplifted marine terraces Displacement of young sediments as seen in seismic profiles Geomorphic features; uplifted marine terraces Geomorphic features

Thrust

Thrust? Thrust Thrust

Western boundary fault zone Asin

~300 km ~50 km

Left-lateral strike-slip Thrust

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738 Table 1 (continued ) Fault Iba fault Lubang fault Length N 50 km N 130 km Extent Vicinity of Angeles City to Botolan, Zambales West of Lubang Island through Puerto Galera to east of Verde Island Criteria Geomorphic features; recent seismicity Recent seismicity and historical accounts

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Dominant type of faulting Strike-slip? Strike-slip

Sources: Rimando and Daligdig, 1990; Nakata et al., 1977; Hirano et al., 1986; Punongbayan et al., 1991; Malterre, 1989; Geomatrix Consultants, 1996; Intera, 1995; Pinet and Stephan, 1990; Pinet, 1990.

ness of appearance and type of geomorphic expression. Such landforms include the most recent scarps along the MVFS; Rimando (2002) analyzes the relation between the degree of degradation of these scarps and relative ages of events along the active fault segments. Aerial photos taken in the 1950s and 1960s solve part of the problem posed by landform erosion, and agricultural and infrastructure development and have enabled us to produce neotectonic strip maps for the MVFS (Fig. 3), which show a variety of these fault-formed structures. Vertical and horizontal displacements of offset or deflected streams and channels, ridge crests, and alluvial fan axes or fan heads were measured directly from aerial photographs. Calculation of height differences of piercing points from 1 : 20,000-scale aerial photos using parallax bar readings follows a similar method outlined by van Zuidam (1986). Errors were not quantified for offset data from field studies. Horizontal displacement is measured directly using a transparent ruler. Although lateral displacement measurement errors were not quantified, uncertainty was minimized by making horizontal and vertical measurements only where piercing points are clearly correlatable across the fault. As an error minimization measure, the mean of several differential parallax measurements was quoted for each point. 3. Previous studies Analysis of the recent movement of the MVFS during the Holocene is germane both to understanding the kinematics of the complex strike-slip fault plate boundary and to evaluating seismic hazards of the metropolitan area. The bgrabenQ nature of the Marikina Valley was originally recognized by Alvir (1929) and Irving (1947). Gervasio (1968) and Arcilla et al. (1989) suggested earlier strike-slip faulting preceding a distinct graben-forming period. None of these early studies dealt with aspects of Holocene deformation along the MVFS. The introduction to the Philippines of mapping techniques employing tectonic geomorphology and paleoseismology in the early 1990s has led to partial

mapping of features related to active faulting (Rimando et al., 1991; Punongbayan et al., 1992). The results of the GPS survey by Yu et al. (1999) between 1996 and 1998 and involving a few stations across the PFZ, the MVFS and the east Zambales fault do not adequately resolve relative motion between blocks across the structures in the area due to the large error relative to the velocity difference between the station west of the east Zambales fault and the station east of the MVFS. Other papers (Rangin et al., 1999; Beavan et al., 2001; Ohkura et al., 2001; Hamburger et al., 2003) have also discussed the rotation of Luzon and of its known blocks based on GPS data but these provide insufficient information regarding the existence and senses of rotation domains across structures in the MVFS region. Thibault (1999) reports minor movement across the MVFS, but attributes it to groundwater withdrawal in the Metro Manila area. Detailed mapping for the present study covers the WMVF and EMVF from the Rodriguez, Rizal area to south of Canlubang, Calamba, Laguna. Detailed mapping of the northernmost part of the MVFS was done more recently in the Dingalan Umiray area (Aurora and Quezon Provinces) and in the BinangonanAntipolo areas. Mainly because of the lack of neotectonic data on faults in the region, including the MVFS, earlier studies that dealt mainly with the PFZ (Irving, 1951; Allen, 1962; Barrier et al., 1991) are not adequate to define the deformation mechanisms on a block-scale to explain the recent kinematics of structures in the region. We have compiled a list of active faults in the region based mostly on an inventory done by Rimando and Daligdig (1990), and Geomatrix Consultants (1996) (Fig. 1; Table 1). Many of the faults shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1 are thrust faults or strikeslip faults with large thrust components. This compilation of the active faults in northern and central Luzon, coupled with the increased understanding of the MVFS in this study, helps in resolving the deformation mechanism and the role of the MVFS and other structures in accommodating deformation in the northern and central Luzon region.

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4. Morphotectonic features along the MVFS segments Mapping of the MVFS reveals ten morphologically distinct static segments or fault sections (Fig. 2). Although the term fault section is preferred for static segments (McCalpin, 1996), this study refers to these simply as segments, which are herein distinguished from earthquake or rupture segments. Large earthquakes sometimes rupture two or more static segments. For hazard assessment purposes, this studys main interest is whether (and to what extent) individual static segments along the MVFS link to form earthquake segments. This is addressed in detail in Section 5 and by Rimandos (2002) modeling of fault-scarps. Since there are no data available to directly define actual rupture segments along the MVFS due to the lack of seismicity, segmentation was initially assessed mainly in terms of structural, geologic, and geometric criteria previously defined by Knuepfer (1989) and dePolo et al. (1989, 1991). Differences in the geomorphic character of the mountain fronts and presence of bounding volcanic terrain were the main geologic cri-

teria applied. Branching of faults and intersections with other faults were the structural criteria that were very useful in differentiating many of the segments. Geometric characteristics such as changes in fault orientation, stepovers, and gaps were also used to define the segments. Recognition of morphotectonic and offset features both through the interpretation of aerial photos and fieldwork provided the means for delineating active traces and for obtaining evidence for their kinematics (Fig. 3). A detailed strip map (Fig. 3ah) has been completed to show this evidence. Examples of the evidence gathered from the interpretation of aerial photos are shown in Fig. 4. Fault scarps are among the most common features mapped from aerial photos. We have profiled the most recent fault scarps (Fig. 5) recognized in many locations in the field for relative age determination (Rimando, 2002). The strip maps provide the basis for identifying segments of the MVFS, as described in Table 2 and more fully in the following paragraphs. Three of the segments shown in Fig. 3 and listed in Table 2 are more than 20 km long (i.e., the ~45-km

Fig. 4. a) Examples of offset streams and triangular facets along segment I of the WMVF in the RodriguezSan Mateo area and recognized from the 1966 aerial photos. b) Examples of offset streams and spurs, and other fault zone geomorphic features along the Talim Island segment (segment X) of the EMVF. These features were also recognized from the 1966 aerial photos. Circled number and letter codes refer to offset measurement sites (Table 3).

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15 km or less in length. Along the WMVF, the RodriguezTaguig (segment I), SucatBin an (II), Bin anSto. Domingo (III) and PittlandSungay (IV) are the more significant segments. Except for segments I and II, the precise location of the WMVF segments active traces are mostly newly delineated in this study. The WMVF may or may not terminate east of Mt. Sungay in the Tagaytay Ridge. The southern terminus of the WMVF is quite indistinct, probably due to very young volcanic activity at Taal Volcano and the high rate of volcanic sedimentation. Along the EMVF, only the San Mateo Rodriguez segments (segment VI) active trace had been precisely delineated before this study. This is the first time that evidence for recent activity and precise location of active traces of the Talim Island (segment X), Binangonan (segment IX), Angono (segment VIII), Antipolo (segment VII), and Umiray (segment V) segments are mapped. This is also the first time that the Talim Island and Binangonan segments are recognized as active faults. Segments VII, VIII, IX, and X bound the eastern part of the Marikina Valley and all have similar orientation and kinematics with the other MVFS segments. The northeast-trending Umiray segment(s) extends from north of Rodriguez and dies out before the coast in Umiray (south of Dingalan Bay) near the northwest-oriented segment of the Philippine fault (Figs. 1 and 2). This segment is less well-mapped due to lack of aerial photographs and difficulties of field access. Mainly based on its current creeping behavior, the SucatBin an segment (II in Fig. 2) is herein considered a distinct segment. Details of tectonic control and the role of groundwater withdrawal as a trigger for the ongoing creep are discussed by Rimando and Knuepfer (in preparation). 5. Quantitative data on kinematics of the MVFS Inspection of the quantitative evidence consisting of measurements of horizontal and vertical displacement (Fig. 6a and b; Table 3) of offset features indicates that the MVFS is dominantly a dextral strike-slip fault. The displacement data can also offer insights into the relationship between the geometric segments mapped from fault-trace analysis and the long-term persistence of earthquake segments. Here, we examine the distinctness of clusters of displacement values for the mapped segments. If the vertical, horizontal, and net displacements of segments of the MVFS are measures of the length of their movement histories (or slip rate), then lack of significant difference in the displacements indicate that they have similar long-term histories. Significant differences in the means of their V : H displacement

Fig. 5. Examples of recent fault scarps along the MVFS. Most recent fault scarps in Calamba, Laguna (a) along the PittlandSungay segment (segment IV). The recent fault scarps in Dingalan, Aurora (b) and General Nakar, Quezon (c) are both along the Umiray segment (segment V). These are among the numerous fault scarps identified in the field that were instrumental in delineating the active traces of the MVFS. Analysis of profiles of these scarps can provide relative ages of events and aids in determining rupture segmentation (Rimando, 2002).

RodriguezTaguig segment or segment I, N 37-km San MateoRodriguez segment or segment VI, and the ~35km Umiray segment or segment V), while the others are

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Table 2 Segments of the Marikina Valley fault system Segment WMVF I Name RodriguezTaguig Criteria Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., shutter ridges, pressure and sidehill ridges, and scarps) and offset streams Structural: northern portion characterized by branching pattern Geometric: northern segment of WMVF stepover; gap occupied by creeping fault zone (segment II) Historic rupture limits Behavioural: segment characterized by creeping behavior of fault segments arranged en echelon Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as pre-existing tectonic scarps and scarps formed by creep Geometric: occupies gap area between segments I and III; creeping segments arranged en-echelon; individual creeping segments oriented differently from segments I and III Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (dominated by scarps) and offset streams Structural: southern end characterized by branching pattern Geometric: southern segment of WMVF stepover; gap occupied by creeping fault zone (segment II); separated from segment IV by stepover and gap Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (dominated by scarps) and offset/deflected streams Structural: southern end characterized by branching pattern Geometric: separated from segment III by a stepover and gap in faulting Behavioural: prehistoric rupture limits defined by multiple, well-dated paleoearthquakes Structural: segment forms the northern boundary of a pull-apart basin Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., scarp), and well defined linear depression/valley and offset streams Geometric: segment defined by change in fault orientation Structural: segment forms the southern boundary of a pull-apart basin Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology Geometric: segment defined by change in fault orientation Length ~45 km

II

SucatBin an

~14 km

III

Bin anSto. Domingo

~12 km

IV

PittlandSungay

~7.5 km

Minor

Northern boundary of pull-apart basin

~10 km

Minor

Southern boundary of pull-apart basin

~6.5 km

EMVF V

Umiray

VI

San MateoNorth of Rodriguez

VII

Antipolo

VIII

Angono

IX

Binangonan

Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., triangular facets, scarps, saddles, pressure ridges) and offset streams Structural: branches from PFZ on the north Geometric: defined by change in fault orientation; separated by gap from segment on the southeast; stepovers Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., triangular facets, saddles, shutter ridges, sidehill ridges, pressure ridges and scarps) and offset streams and alluvial fans Structural: southern end characterized by branching pattern Geometric: northern end separated from segment IX by a gap Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., triangular facets, scarps, saddles and sidehill ridges), and narrow, linear valley. Structural: branches from segment V Geometric: orientation changes from segment north of it Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., triangular facets, scarps, saddles, pressure ridges, sidehill ridges and few shutter ridges), large-scale narrow, linear valley and offset streams Geometric: segments defined by changes in fault orientation, stepovers, separations, or gaps in faulting Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., triangular facets, scarps, saddles, pressure ridges, and sidehill ridges), narrow, linear valley and offset streams Geometric: separation and step-over

~35 km

~37 km

~9 km

~10 km

~13 km

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738 Table 2 (continued ) Segment X Name Talim Island Criteria Geologic: geomorphic indicators such as range-front morphology (e.g., triangular facets, scarps, saddles, pressure ridges, sidehill ridges and shutter ridges) and offset streams Geometric: segments defined by changes in fault orientation, stepovers, separations, or gaps in faulting Length

27

~14.5 km

ratios, however, suggest different styles of faulting. If adjacent segments are similar, they probably have not behaved independently over the long term; conversely, significantly different displacements or displacement patterns imply independent segment behavior. Our analysis of the offset data in this section suggests significant differences in displacement parameters. Comparison of the segment displacements was accomplished by first drawing enveloping curves for the displacement data in order to examine maximum displacements along the fault. Even though many more data points were measured (Table 3), the lack of age control on offset geomorphic features precludes comparing all of the data; instead, we will assume that the largest measured offsets are representative of a similar period of Late Quaternary slip along the fault. Table 4 summarizes the essential displacement parameter values. The difference in peak lateral and vertical displacements is most pronounced for the segment I-segment IV pair (Table 4; Fig. 6a). The greatest lateral (155 m) and vertical displacement (~85 m) values along the EMVF are both from the Talim Island segment (segment X). The WMVF segments (Fig. 3) are characterized by lower vertical displacement components (Fig. 6a; Table 4) compared with those from the EMVF segments (Fig. 6b; Table 4). The differences in both the range and maximum cumulative vertical displacement (Tables 3 and 4; Fig. 6b) between segments X and VI (San MateoRodriguez) is most likely due to the influence of volcanism which increases the tensional component across faults (Van Wyk de Vries and Merle, 1998) near the southern end of the fault zone (segment X) and does not necessarily reflect differences in history or age of faulting. For non-vertical fault-planes, dip-slip components (Fig. 6c) are higher than the vertical components, but trends for both components should be similar. The value of fault plane dip is variable, but dip-slip component was calculated assuming a 458 fault plane dip for all measurement sites. The net displacement (Fig. 6d) smoothes out alongstrike variations in lateral and vertical displacement. Maximum cumulative net displacement differences are significant only between segments I and IV (Fig.

6di) and between segments VI and X (Fig. 6dii). However, the difference between segments VI and X could be attributed to the large vertical and horizontal components of slip along segment X. For this reason, the V : H ratio (Fig. 6e) is a preferred rupture parameter (e.g., Lensen, 1958; Ramelli and Slemmons, 1990; Berryman et al., 1992). In terms of the mean V : H ratio, only those of segments X (0.88) and VI (0.35) are significantly different from each other at the 0.05 level. However, differences between the maximum V : H ratios of segments I (0.56) and IV (1.09), and between those of segments III (0.69) and IV (1.09) are significant. The difference between the maximum V : H displacement ratios of segments VI (1.06) and X (1.46) of the EMVF is less striking. The mean V : H ratios for the whole WMVF and the whole EMVF (at least for the portions covered by the displacement data), are significantly different at both the 0.01 and 0.05 significance levels. Clearly, this is attributable to the large vertical component of slip along the EMVF. This also implies a higher uplift rate and a style of faulting that deviates slightly from the pure dextral faulting of the WMVF. This also explains why there is greater relief between the Marikina Valley and the block on its east than the relief between the valley and the block on its west. We use the minimum and maximum single-event scarp heights observed in the field for each segment to estimate the range of the number of surface-rupture events that may have generated the largest vertical offsets measured along each geometric/structural segment. A total of 52 scarp profiles from the segments of the MVFS was gathered. No recent scarps from three segments east and southeast of the Marikina Valley (segments X, VII and VIII) were found. As mentioned above, differences in long-term movement histories could reflect differences in rupture histories. The few single-event lateral offset data gathered from the field were also used along with the maximum horizontal displacements measured from the aerial photographs to obtain an independent set of similar estimates for each segment. The number of surface-rupture events derived from available scarp height, lateral and vertical offset data are compared in Table 5. For the WMVF

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segments, the estimates are based solely on the scarp height and vertical offset data. The range for segment VI of the EMVF (2261) is near the upper limit of the ranges for segments I, III and IV. Segment VI apparently has a different frequency of movement than segments I, III and IV based on the vertical offset data. The estimates on the number of events based on lateral

displacement for segments VI and X are within the lower end of the estimates for segments I, III, IV and VI based on vertical offsets. As mentioned above, however, these are based on a very limited number of field measurements of lateral offset. If the average recurrence interval obtained from the Maislap trench site (adjacent to site M1 in Fig. 3a;

Fig. 6. Plot of displacement parameters versus distance for the MVFS. Plots a) and b) are for the horizontal (i) and vertical (ii) displacements for the WMVF and the EMVF, respectively. Dip-slip component plots (c) are shown for the WMVF (i) and the EMVF (ii). Net displacements for the WMVF (i) and the EMVF (ii) are also shown in d). The error bars reflect only the uncertainty for vertical displacement measurements. Though error bars are proportionately larger for smaller displacements than for larger displacements, the ratio between vertical and lateral displacement values would hardly change. Plots in e) are for the ratio of vertical offset to horizontal offset for WMVF (i) and EMVF (ii). Curves indicate distribution of maximum offsets measured along fault. Roman numerals indicate location of geometric segments from where displacement data were collected.

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29

Fig. 6 (continued ).

recurrence interval 400600 yr; Nelson et al., 2000) is applicable to the entire WMVF, then it took 2131 kyr for the 29 m of vertical offset to accumulate in an estimated 53 events. No data are available to constrain recurrence intervals along the EMVF, nor have we been able to obtain independent estimates of the ages of the offset surfaces, so the age of recent faulting cannot be estimated based on offset alone. However, the similarity in the range of single-event scarp heights between segment VI and the segments from the WMVF indicate that the EMVF has a longer history of recent faulting because of its higher maximum vertical displacement (or that the youngest offsets arent representative of the longer-term history). 6. Hazard implications The geomorphic evidence presented in this paper and paleoseismic data (Nelson et al., 2000; Rimando, 2002; Rimando and Knuepfer, in preparation), suggest repeated rupturing along the MVFS throughout at least the Late Holocene. Although the near-field GPS data is vague about the sense and magnitude of its motion, the lack of present-day seismicity indi-

cates a stick-slip mechanism and, hence, a high potential for future seismic event. Based on empirical relationships among surface displacement, rupture length, and magnitude (Matsuda, 1975; Slemmons, 1977; Bonilla et al., 1984; Wells and Coppersmith, 1994), reasonable assumptions regarding maximum magnitudes of future earthquakes along the MVFS or its segments may be made. We first assume that the individual segments defined above rupture independently to estimate a probable minimum magnitude of future earthquakes. The rupture segmentation inferred from our analysis of the displacement parameters and most recent, single-event scarps (Rimando, 2002), however, can be used to define the more probable estimates. Using a V : H ratio (0.16) obtained from aerial photograph measurements adjacent to and directly southwest of the Maislap trench site (M-1 in Fig. 3a), and assuming a persistent ratio of lateral to vertical displacement, we came up with a probable earthquake magnitude of M 6.87.1 for the offsets observed in the trench (Nelson et al., 2000). We also use the maximum net displacements from the WMVF and EMVF and from each segment derived from the maximum

30

Table 3 Horizontal, vertical, dip-slip, and net displacement data of recent offset features along the MVFS Site Distance from south Lat. disp. St. dev. Vert. disp. Mean V Low V High V Dip slip Mean Low High Net disp. Mean Low High Reference Remarks

West Marikina Valley fault (WMVF) RodriguezBatasan (northern segment I) RT1 74.9 20 0.0 RT2 74.1 100 0.0 RT3 RT4 RT5 RT6 RT7 RT8 RT9 RT10 RT11 RT12 73.7 72.1 71.4 73.5 70.5 70.2 68.8 68.3 68.0 69.0 100 22.5 67.5 20 37.5 30 40 80 40 29 0.7100 1.1600 1.2200 0.7900 0.8500 1.0900 5.6 12.6 3.8 4.7 3.8 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.9 11.4 2.6 3.9 2.9 1.4 6.3 13.7 5.0 5.5 4.6 3.6 7.9 17.8 5.4 6.7 5.3 3.6 6.9 16.1 3.7 5.6 4.1 2.0 8.9 19.4 7.1 7.8 6.5 5.1

20.0 100.0 100.3 28.7 67.7 21.1 37.9 30.2 40.0 80.0 40.0 29.1

20.0 100.0 100.2 27.7 67.6 20.8 37.7 30.1

20.0 100.0 100.4 29.7 67.9 21.5 38.1 30.4

Offset stream Offset channel edge/stream Offset channel Offset stream Offset stream and alluvial fan (?) or mudslide (?) Offset stream Offset spur and channel edge (for lat. disp. only) Offset channel Offset terrace Offset channel edge Offset terrace

V IND but close to zero V IND prob. due to adjustment of stream to new base level V estimated from topo map is 45 m R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738

V IND but close to zero V IND V IND but close to zero

2.8

Maislap (part of segment I) M1 78.1 70

0.9500

11.3

10.3

12.2

15.9

14.6

17.3

71.8

71.5

72.1

H = offset stream/channel V = Offset spur Offset spur Offset spur Offset spur

V is max. because spur is sloping and the fact that pts. of measurement are not adjacent

M2 M3 M4

79.0 79.2 77.7

250 140 0

2.4700 1.6900 1.3700

29.0 21.8 9.5

26.5 20.1 8.2

31.4 23.4 10.9

41.0 30.8 13.5

37.5 28.4 11.5

44.5 33.2 15.4

253.3 143.3 13.5

252.8 142.8 11.5

253.9 143.9 15.4

Fort Bonifacio (southern segment I) FB1 49.1 105 0.8400 FB2 48.4 44 FB3 47.4 15.8 0.7200 FB4 39.3 15 FB5 39.1 30 0.9800 FB6 38.8 22.5 0.6500 FB7 38.8 80 0.8200 FB8 36.8 75 1.9900

3.6 0.0 3.4 0.0 2.7 1.6 2.4 3.7

2.8 2.7 1.7 1.0 1.6 1.7

4.5 4.2 3.7 2.3 3.3 5.7

5.1 4.9 3.8 2.3 3.5 5.2

3.9 3.8 2.4 1.4 2.3 2.4

6.3 5.9 5.2 3.2 4.6 8.0

105.1 44.0 16.5 15.0 30.2 22.6 80.1 75.2

105.1 44.0 16.3 15.0 30.1 22.5 80.0 75.0

105.2 44.0 16.9 15.0 30.4 22.7 80.1 75.4

Offset Offset Offset Offset

spur stream spur channel ridge

V IND but almost zero V IND but close to zero

Offset channel/stream Offset spur Offset spur

CarmonaCanlubang (segments III and IV) L1 20.81 80 1.3500 5.6 L2 20.0 60 0.7600 5.6

4.3 4.9

7.0 6.4

8.0 7.9

6.1 6.9

9.9 9.0

80.4 60.5

80.2 60.4

80.6 60.7

Offset stream and channel edge Alluvial fan (not cuttrace is right at foot of mountain front) displaced from source stream

L3 L4 L5 L6 L7

19.8 17.9 17.5 17.0 16.7

170 55 25 18 25

0.8600 0.8900 1.3000 1.3300 0.8500

9.4 7.1 4.6 3.8 1.7

8.6 6.2 3.3 2.5 0.8

10.3 8.0 5.9 5.1 2.5

13.3 10.0 6.5 5.4 2.3

12.1 8.8 4.7 3.5 1.1

14.5 11.3 8.3 7.3 3.6

170.5 55.9 25.8 18.8 25.1

170.4 55.7 25.4 18.3 25.0

170.6 56.1 26.4 19.4 25.3

L8

16.6

20

L9 L10 L11 L12 L13 L14 L15 L16 L17 L18 L19

14.4 14.3 14.1 13.8 12.7 11.6 6.4 6.3 6.0 2.4 2.2

140 80 110 45 160 19 35 24 100 70 90

1.2400 1.2900 1.6300 1.4300 1.6100 2.2100 0.8700 1.8900 1.8700 1.4600 0.8600

6.8 4.4 21.1 4.5 16.4 13.1 3.1 26.1 10.7 7.4 7.2

5.6 3.1 19.5 3.0 14.8 10.9 2.2 24.2 8.9 6.0 6.4

8.1 5.7 22.7 5.9 18.1 15.4 3.9 28.0 12.6 8.9 8.1

9.6 6.2 29.8 6.3 23.3 18.6 4.3 36.9 15.2 10.5 10.2

7.9 4.4 27.5 4.3 21.0 15.5 3.1 34.3 12.5 8.4 9.0

11.4 8.1 32.1 8.3 25.5 21.7 5.5 39.6 17.8 12.6 11.4

140.3 80.2 114.0 45.4 161.7 26.6 35.3 44.1 101.1 70.8 90.6

140.2 80.1 113.4 45.2 161.4 24.5 35.1 41.8 100.8 70.5 90.4

140.5 80.4 114.6 45.8 162.0 28.9 35.4 46.3 101.6 71.1 90.7

Offset stream Offset stream Offset stream Offset stream/alluvial fan Alluvial fan (not cuttrace is right at foot of mountain front) displaced from source stream Alluvial fan (not cuttrace is right at foot of mountain front) displaced from source stream Offset spur Offset stream Offset spur Offset spur Offset spur Offset spur Offset stream Offset/deflected stream Offset/deflected stream Offset/deflected stream Offset/deflected stream

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738

East Marikina Valley fault (EMVF) North MontalbanSan Mateo (segment R1 75.1 42.5 1.2200 R2 74.9 55 4.6800 R3 74.8 35 1.2500 R4 74.7 25 3.3900 R5 72.7 32 0.8300 R6 72.6 25 0.9700 R7 72.5 25 1.4200 R8 71.8 40 3.1500 R9 68.1 120 0.8500 R10 68.0 37.5 1.3100 R11 67.3 35 1.0600 R12 70.0 4.8 R13 75.5 8.3 R14 69.5 4.5 Talim Island (segment X) T1 31.0 67.5 T2 24.7 155 T3 25.1 150

VI) 14.0 9.4 5.2 6.0 17.6 15.2 6.5 42.4 11.6 4.8 3.6 4.0 1.1 1.0

12.7 4.7 3.9 2.6 16.8 14.2 5.1 39.2 10.8 3.4 2.6

15.2 14.1 6.4 9.4 18.4 16.2 7.9 45.5 12.5 6.1 4.7

19.7 13.3 7.3 8.4 24.9 21.5 9.2 59.9 16.4 6.7 5.1 5.6 1.5 1.4

18.0 6.7 5.6 3.6 23.7 20.1 7.2 55.5 15.2 4.9 3.6

21.5 19.9 9.1 13.2 26.1 22.9 11.2 64.4 17.6 8.6 6.6

46.9 56.6 35.8 26.4 40.5 33.0 26.6 72.1 121.1 38.1 35.4 7.4 8.4 4.7

46.2 55.4 35.4 25.3 39.8 32.1 26.0 68.4 121.0 37.8 35.2

47.6 58.5 36.2 28.3 41.3 33.9 27.4 75.8 121.3 38.5 35.6

Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset Offset

stream stream stream stream spur spur channel spur stream stream ridge (not spur)

2.8100 1.8400 1.8300

83.8 55.3 65.6

80.9 53.5 63.8

86.6 57.1 67.5

118.5 78.2 92.8

114.5 75.6 90.2

122.4 80.8 95.4

136.3 173.6 176.4

132.9 172.5 175.0

139.8 174.8 177.8

Offset spur Offset spur Offset stream/valley axis

(Derived height minimum due to sedimentation on downthrown side and erosion on upthrown valley) 31

T4

23.5

37.5

1.9500

54.9

52.9

56.8

77.6

74.9

80.4

86.2

83.7

88.7

Offset spur

32

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738

Table 4 Summary of displacement parameter values Segment Length (km) Maxiumum H (m) Maximum V (m) Max. dip-slip (m) Max. net displ. (m) V : H ratio Average Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment WMVF EMVF I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 45 14 12 7.5 35 37 9 10 13 14.5 87.5 115 250 170 100 85 120 155 250 155 29 21 26 42.5 84 29 84 41 30 37 60 119 41 119 255 171 102 122 180 255 180 0.26 0.26 0.12 0.40 0.40 0.24 0.46 Maximum 0.56 0.69 1.09 1.06 1.46 1.09 1.46

single-event scarp heights and V : H ratios (and by assuming a 458 fault plane) for estimating magnitude. Wells and Coppersmiths (1994) regression between moment magnitude and maximum displacement for strike slip faults was used. The magnitudes obtained from maximum displacement range from 7.4 to 7.7 and are consistently higher than magnitude estimates using segment length (Table 6). Estimates based on this method should be treated with caution. For example, our active fault trace mapping suggests a branching pattern in the Maislap area indicating that rupturing may not be confined along a single trace. Thus, Nelson et al. (2000) may have underestimated the probable magnitude at the Maislap trench
Table 5 Estimates of the number of earthquake events from offset data Segment Maximum V (m) Maximum H (m)

exposure, as displacement could have been distributed across multiple fault strands. Although the use of maximum net displacement minimizes uncertainty due to along-fault variation in horizontal and vertical displacement, our estimates assume that the V : H displacement ratio is uniform along a fault segment. The displacement data near Maislap and along other segments suggest otherwise (Table 3; Fig. 6ae), but we do not have sufficient data to be able to improve on this assumption. In addition, assuming a 458 dip of the fault plane tends to narrow the range of the magnitude estimates. The estimates shown in Table 6 also suffer from uncertainties inherent to the Wells and Coppersmiths (1994) regressions.

Range of single-event scarp height (m)

Range of single-event hor. displ. (m)

Est. no. of events based on V 53 9 32 15 52 14 H

WMVF Segment I Segment III Segment IV

29 21 26

250 170 100

0.55 3.4 0.65 1.4 0.5 1.8

EMVF Segment V Segment VI Segment VII Segment VIII Segment IX Segment X

42.5 84

85 120 155

0.3 3.4 0.7 1.9 0.2 1.2

5.5 6.3 4.5 7.1 2.2 3.3

61 22

15 13 27 17

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738 Table 6 Magnitude estimates based on length of segments and maximum displacement Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment Segment WMVF EMVF I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Length 45 14 12 7.5 35 37 9 10 13 14.5 87.5 115 Max. scarp height (single-event) 3.42 2.25 1.77 3.38 1.9 1.22 3.42 3.38 Dip-slip 4.84 3.18 2.50 4.78 2.69 1.73 4.84 4.78 V : H ratio (average) 0.26 0.26 0.12 0.40 0.40 0.24 0.46 Max. net displ. 14.0 9.3 15.0 5.5 15.3 8.8 Est. mag. based on length 7.0 6.4 6.4 6.1 6.9 6.9 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7.3 7.5

33

Est. mag. based on offset 7.7 7.6 7.7 7.4 7.7 7.5

The magnitudes for the WMVF, the EMVF and the shorter geometric/structural segments were also estimated based on Wells and Coppersmiths (1994) regression between moment magnitude and surface rupture length (Table 6). Except for segment I, the estimated magnitudes for the shorter geometeric/structural segments are less than M 7, as their lengths are less than 45 km. As mentioned earlier, however, a structural/geometric segment is not necessarily equivalent to an earthquake rupture segment. This study does not exclude the possibility of larger magnitude earthquakes rupturing the whole length of the WMVF or the EMVF. This possibility is reinforced by the similarity between the length-based magnitude estimates for both the WMVF and the EMVF on the one hand, and the offset-based magnitude estimates for the WMVF and the EMVF on the other. If a maximum offset along a particular geometric segment was produced by a rupture that involved that segment independently, we would expect similar magnitude estimates for length and offset. Instead, the magnitude estimates for individual segments using length and offset are substantially different (Table 6). In particular, the lower lengthbased estimates imply that the offsets are too large for single-segment ruptures. In contrast, the estimates from offset and length (7.3 from length and 7.7 from offset for the WMVF, 7.5 from each calculation for the EMVF) are consistent when the faults are considered as a whole. This suggests multi-segment rupturing along the EMVF and the WMVF. Considering the uncertainties involved in the estimation of magnitude based on offset and surface rupture length, this studys estimates indicate that the MVFS has had a history of generating earthquakes greater than M 7 along the WMVF and the EMVF.

Finally, we use the empirical relationship between magnitude, recurrence and slip rate formulated by Slemmons and dePolo (1986) as modified from Matsuda (1975) and Slemmons (1977) to estimate slip rate based on magnitude and recurrence inferred from the Maislap trench site (400600 yr; Nelson et al., 2000). For segment I, the offset-based M 7.7 is equivalent to a slip rate of 710 mm/yr while the rupture length-based M 7 corresponds to 1.53.5 mm/yr. Assuming that the estimate for segment I is applicable to the entire WMVF then the offset-based slip rate is 710 mm/yr while the slip rate based on its rupture length (87.5 km) is 68 mm/yr. For the EMVF, the rupture length- and offset-based magnitudes are the same and correspond to a slip rate of ~68 mm/yr. These estimates are consistent with the cumulative displacement-based slip rate of 812 mm/yr (based on the 1 : 8.5 V : H Maislap site ratio) for segment I or 57 mm/yr (based on 1 : 4 V : H ratio) for the entire WMVF. 7. Tectonic framework of structures in Northern Philippines and kinematic role of the MVFS Understanding the more significant aspects of the regions tectonics is also critical in resolving the role of the MVFS in plate boundary deformation. The east Luzon trough has been interpreted as a subduction zone either in its incipient stage (Fitch, 1972), or as a reactivated convergent margin (Hamburger et al., 1983; Lewis and Hayes, 1983). However, seismic evidence (Hamburger et al., 1983; Bautista, 1996) indicates the lack of a well-defined WadatiBenioff zone across the east Luzon trough and active underthrusting or interplate displacement along the Manila trench. Kreemer et al. (2000) indicate only a small amount of convergence across the east Luzon trough.

34

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738

This reinforces the possibility that east Luzon trough only partially accommodates motion of the Philippine Sea Plate and that the northern Luzon landmass along with the rest of the Philippine Sea Plate is being pushed westward essentially as a whole over the Eurasian plate. Additional evidence includes the arcuate shapes of the archipelago and the PFZ in the northern Philippines, the configuration of the Manila trench suggesting migration in the direction of motion of the faster overriding plate (Wu, 1978), and apparent westward drift of the east Luzon trough from the Philippine trench. The Benham rise (Fig. 1) east of the trough is probably a factor in resisting or retarding subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate along the east Luzon trough (Ben-Avraham and Nur, 1987; Bautista, 1996). A slowdown in subduction could be accommodated by deformation west of the east Luzon trough and/or along the Manila trench. The resulting plate shortening may be manifested by mountain building and thrusting along active faults. Thrust faults that dominate the eastern portion of northern Luzon and a system of active strike-slip faults (including the PFZ and its splays), some of which have large thrust components (Table 1; Nakata et al., 1977; Pinet and Stephan, 1988; Malterre, 1989), accommodate part of the deformation in northern Luzon (Fig. 1; Table 1). What then is the role of the MVFS in this tectonic environment? The dextral strike-slip MVFS is oriented and behaves like a conjugate with the sinistral strike-slip PFZ in the area of their intersection at the north end of the MVFS. However, the NS-oriented southern portion of the MVFS is almost parallel to both the northern portion of the Digdig fault and the PFZ to the east of the MVFS. Dextral strike-slip faulting along the MVFS is not kinematically congruent with the assumed EW-oriented compression in the region (Punongbayan et al., 1982; Arcilla, 1983). It appears that the block bounded by the PFZ and MVFS is being extruded laterally. This mechanism closely resembles advection of crustal blocks through indent-linked strike-slip faults (Woodcock, 1986; Yeats et al., 1997). Examples of indent-linked strikeslip faults include those that have resulted from the collision between India and Tibetsouthern China (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975, 1978; Avouac and Tapponnier, 1993) and those in central Japan resulting from the convergence between the Pacific and Eurasian plates (Sugimura and Matsuda, 1965). England and Molnar (1990) departed from models that emphasize thrusting and extrusion of crustal blocks between strike-slip faults and upheld the more significant role of lithospheric thickening in the deformation of Asia.

The discrimination between the competing dkinematic modelsT, which emphasize localized deformation through major strike-slip faults bounding quasi-rigid blocks (e.g., Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975, 1978; Tapponnier et al., 1982; Avouac and Tapponnier, 1993; Peltzer and Saucier, 1996; Tapponnier et al., 2001), and ddynamic modelsT, which favor distributed accommodation of deformation (e.g., Vilotte et al., 1982; England and Molnar, 1990, 1997; Houseman and England, 1993; Molnar and Gipson, 1996; Holt et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2004), rests on an increasing amount of new geophysical and geological data and geodetic measurements of slip and uplift rates (Tapponnier, 1999). The potential that block rotation is a significant mechanism in the MVFSPFZ region and controls the kinematics and recent activity of the MVFS also must be considered. Rotation of blocks and/or their bounding strike-slip faults has been demonstrated during deformation and shown to be widespread in many parts of the world (Ron et al., 1984; Garfunkel and Ron, 1985; Nur and Ron, 1987). Such rotations occur in many different tectonic settings involving significant strike slip faulting. Since the late 1990s, several papers (e.g., Rangin et al., 1999; Yu et al., 1999; Beavan et al., 2001; Ohkura et al., 2001; Hamburger et al., 2003) have discussed the active kinematics of Luzon based on GPS data. The GPS data indicate an anticlockwise rotation of Luzon with respect to the Philippine Sea plate. The relative motion of blocks across some major structures in Luzon is also evident from the data but the GPS sites are not sufficiently widely distributed nor in a dense enough network to recognize more local displacements and rotations in the MVFS region. The data of Yu et al. (1999) from key sites are not significantly different enough from each other to determine relative motion of blocks across the MVFS. Ohkura et al. (2001) focused on the kinematics of the region south of the MVFS, where they demonstrated rotation on a more local scale and suggested sinistral motion with large amount of counterclockwise motion across the Macolod Corridor with respect to the station northwest of the Marikina Valley. Hamburger et al. (2003) also recognized sinistral shear along the Macolod Corridor. McCabe et al. (1987) present paleomagnetic data from either side of the MVFS in the Manila area. While they do not consider motion across the MVFS nor internal block rotation, their Plio-Pleistoene data show a minor counterclockwise rotation of the east side of the MVFS with respect to the west side. Block rotation seems a plausible mechanism in the region, but data pertaining to the occurrence, timing,

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738

35

extent of domains (and nature of reference boundaries), senses, and magnitudes of rotation must be obtained through further GPS, paleomagnetic, neotectonic, and structural studies. Nevertheless, the results of our neotectonic mapping can provide constraints to the senses of rotation in the MVFS region and of the block bounded by the MVFS and the PFZ. Extension and sinistral slip across the Macolod Corridor would counteract, in part, the tectonic escape that would seem to be indicated by dextral slip on the MVFS and sinistral slip on the PFZ, producing a clockwise rotation in response. The known rates of slip of the PFZ (e.g., 15 mm/yr; Geomatrix Consultants, 1996) are higher than the slip rates of the MVFS that have been computed in this study. Clockwise rotation of the region between the PFZ and the NS-oriented portion of the MVFS is one way of accommodating the differential slip. Block rotation in conjunction with lateral extrusion of the block between the PFZ and MVFS could explain why the Macolod Corridor, a northeast-oriented zone of northwest extension, is situated in a region that, due to southward motion of the block bounded by the PFZ and MVFS, is expected to be compressional. Extensional zones such as those found on the trailing edge of the Caribbean plate in northern Central America are believed to be tectonic responses to rotation (Burkhert and Self, 1985). Alternatively, extensional zones are known to be associated near the ends of and oblique to strikeslip faults in regions of convergence (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975). 8. Summary and conclusions Displacement data and morphotectonic features consistently indicate a dominantly dextral strike-slip motion along the MVFS during the recent geologic past. Larger-scale evidence for the present-day sense of movement of the MVFS is that it forms a pull-apart basin bounded on the east by the EMVF, and on the west by the WMVF. The vertical component of displacement is particularly large along the eastern fault boundary of the pull-apart basin. A greater vertical component also occurs on Talim Island (segment X) where regional volcanism may be a factor in modifying the stress regime. Recognition of neotectonic features resulted in the precise mapping of active traces and static segments of the MVFS that were previously unrecognized. Understanding of the geometry and recent kinematics of the MVFS allows better appreciation of the longer-term history of its movement. Large vertical displacements are not necessarily the result of a distinct

phase of the MVFS development, despite the suggestions of some previous workers (Alvir, 1929; Irving, 1947; Gervasio, 1968; Arcilla et al., 1989). Instead, the vertical component of slip during the contemporary phase of deformation that has generated strike-slip faulting may account for all of the vertical deformation. Significant differences in V : H ratios of the WMVF and EMVF indicate slightly dissimilar styles of faulting, with the WMVF having a dominantly dextral movement and the EMVF oblique dextral. The larger cumulative slip of the EMVF and the similarity in the range of single-event scarp heights from the WMVF and EMVF segments could indicate differences in the age of faulting, slip rate, and/or recurrence interval. Our analysis of the displacement data further suggests that rupturing along the EMVF has involved multiple segments and has most likely occurred separately from the events along the WMVF segments. The occurrence of earthquakes along segments I and IV at different times is also suggested. However, our results do not preclude contemporaneous rupturing of the WMVF and the EMVF. As suggested above, variation in the style of faulting along the MVFS may be the localized result of transtension or volcanism. The offset-based magnitude estimates for the WMVF and EMVF fall within the range M 7.37.7. Similarity in magnitude estimates from offsets and from total fault length for the WMVF and EMVF supports multi-segment ruptures. Considering only the offset data and results of the static segment mapping, the MVFS has the potential of generating M N 7 earthquakes. The kinematic role of the MVFS is strongly controlled by the recent tectonic evolution of Luzon. Subduction along the east Luzon trough is retarded due to the presence of the Benham rise east of the trough. Compression during the en masse drift of northern and central Luzon towards the west along with the rest of the Philippine Sea Plate resulted in the development of structures such as thrust faults and strike-slip faults with large thrust components in the northern Philippines. Deformation is also accommodated through subduction along the Manila trench and through mountain building in northern Philippines. To accommodate compression the block bounded by the sinistral PFZ and the dextral MVFS is extruded laterally through advection. The motion of this block may also involve rotation. In other strike-slip fault areas, rotation accounts for the development of extensional regions similar to the Macolod corridor at the south end of the MVFS. Future work should verify the possible contributions of the kinematics and dynamics of tectonic features in the region to block rotation. Further structural and neotec-

36

R.E. Rimando, P.L.K. Knuepfer / Tectonophysics 415 (2006) 1738 termination. In: Flower, M.F.J., Hawkins, J.W. (Eds.), Ophiolites and Crustal Genesis in the Philippines, Tectonophysics, vol. 168, pp. 127 135. Avouac, J.P., Tapponnier, P., 1993. Kinematic model of active deformation in central Asia. Geophysical Research Letters 20, 895 898. Barrier, E., Huchon, P., Aurelio, M., 1991. Philippine Fault: a key for Philippine kinematics. Geology 19, 32 35. Bautista, B.C., 1996. Seismotectonic implications of recent Philippine earthquakes from 19801994. Masters Thesis, State University of New York at Binghamton, unpublished. Beavan, J., Silcock, D., Hamburger, M., Ramos, E., Thibault, C., Feir, R., 2001. Geodetic constraints on postseismic deformation following the 1990 M s 7.8 Luzon earthquake and implications for Luzon tectonics and Philippine Sea plate motion. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 2 (Paper number 2000GC000100). Ben-Avraham, Z., Nur, A., 1987. Effects of collisions at trenches on oceanic ridges and passive margins. In: Monger, J.W.H., Francheteau, J. (Eds.), Circum-Pacific Orogenic Belts and Evolution of the Pacific Ocean Basin, American Geophysical Union Geodynamic Series, vol. 18, pp. 9 18. Berryman, K.R., Beanland, S., Cooper, A.F., Cutten, H.N., Norris, R.J., Wood, P.R., 1992. The Alpine fault, New Zealand: variation in quaternary structural style and geomorphic expression. Annales Tectonicae, Special Issue 6, 126 163 (supplement). Bonilla, M.G., Mark, R.K., Lienkamper, J.J., 1984. Statistical relations among earthquake magnitude, surface rupture length, and surface fault displacement. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 74, 2379 2411. Burkhert, B., Self, S., 1985. Extension and rotation of crustal blocks in northern Central America and effect on the volcanic arc. Geology 13, 22 26. dePolo, C.M., Clark, D.G., Slemmons, D.B., Aymand, W.H., 1989. Historical Basin and Range Province surface faulting and fault segmentation. In: Schwartz, D.P., Sibson, R.H. (Eds.), Fault Segmentation and Controls of Rupture Initiation and Termination, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report, vol. 89315. dePolo, C.M., Clark, D.G., Slemmons, D.B., Ramelli, A.R., 1991. Historical surface faulting in the Basin and Range Province, western North Americaimplications for fault segmentation. Journal of Structural Geology 13, 123 136. England, P., Molnar, P., 1990. Right-lateral shear and rotation as the explanation for strike-slip faulting in eastern Tibet. Nature 344, 140 142. England, P., Molnar, P., 1997. The field of crustal velocity in Asia calculated from Quaternary rates of slip on faults. Geophysical Journal International 130, 551 582. Fitch, T.J., 1972. Plate convergence, transcurrent faults and internal deformation adjacent to Southeast Asia and the western Pacific. Journal of Geophysical Research 77, 4432 4460. Garfunkel, Z., Ron, H., 1985. Block rotation and deformation by strike-slip faults: 2. The properties of a type of macroscopic discontinuous deformation. Journal of Geophysical Research 90, 8589 8602. Geomatrix Consultants, 1996. BaguioBontocBanaue Road (Halsema Road) pre-design investigations: Part III. Seismic studies. Final Technical Report Submitted to the Department of Public Works and Highways, Republic of the Philippines. Gervasio, F.C., 1968. The geology, structures and landscape development of Manila and suburbs. Philippine Geologist 22, 178 192. Hamburger, M.W., Cardwell, R.K., Isacks, B., 1983. Seismotectonics of the northern Philippine arc. In: Hayes, D.E. (Ed.), The Tectonic

tonic mapping and a more comprehensive GPS survey involving more stations in strategic sites should help resolve the pattern and rate of tectonic motions in the region. The WMVF and the EMVF move at similar rates during the extrusion process. Based on recurrence of 400600 yr inferred from a previous paleoseismic investigation (Nelson et al., 2000), the amount of cumulative displacement and the length of segments, the average slip rate for the WMVF is about 57 mm/yr. Maximum slip rates of 710 mm/yr and 68 mm/yr were estimated for the WMVF and the EMVF, respectively, based on the empirical relationship between magnitude, recurrence and slip rate formulated by Slemmons and dePolo (1986) as modified from Matsuda (1975) and Slemmons (1977). Magnitudes used in the estimation, however, are considered maximum. The Digdig fault of the Philippine fault zone, on the other hand, accommodates deformation in the region at a faster rate of ~15 mm/yr (Geomatrix Consultants, 1996). The complexities imposed by plate dynamics, and plate and fault boundaries explain why, in many instances, the orientations and kinematics of structures may no longer be interpreted by simply applying the classic Andersonian principle of brittle failure. Acknowledgments For the constructive comments, we thank Professors Francis T. Wu and William D. MacDonald of the Department of Geological Sciences and Environmental Studies, SUNY at Binghamton, and Prof. J. Ramo n Arrowsmith of Arizona State University for comments on an earlier draft of this paper. We gratefully acknowledge PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) for logistical support for the study. We also thank Alan Nelson (U.S.G.S.) and Takashi Nakata (Hiroshima University) for useful discussions. Comments by Manuel Pubellier and Mike Sandiford improved the manuscript considerably. References
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