Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Proceedings of the First Middle East Turbomachinery Symposium

February 13-16, 2011, Doha, Qatar
CO
2
Compression for Capture and Injection in Todays Environmental World
Thomas Soulas
Business Development Manager, Environmental Solutions
Dresser-Rand
Houston, Texas, USA
Gary Colby
Supervisor, Test Engineering
Dresser-Rand
Olean, New York, USA
Dr. Anant R. Desai, P.E.
Principal Technical Consultant, WorleyParsons and
Director, Technical Marketing Research Institute
Houston, Texas, USA
Tim Griffin
Rotor Dynamics Engineer
Dresser-Rand
Olean, New York, USA
ABSTRACT
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) has numerous industrial and
commercial uses, such as for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in
mature producing oil fields. One of the more recent
applications for compression of CO
2
that is generating growing
interest is that of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) for
the purpose of preventing accelerated climate change. From a
compression equipment perspective, CCS and CO
2
EOR are
very similar, as they aim at both improving production and
reducing emissions.
CO
2
compression (especially with significant presence of
other components like methane) presents a number of technical
challenges, by nature of the gas and the levels of pressure
involved in order to inject the carbon dioxide at sufficient
depths in the ground. This paper focuses on the essential
aspects of the design of a centrifugal compressor for a CO
2
(with 15 percent CH
4
) injection application requiring a
discharge pressure of 4500 psia (310 bara). Of particular
interest are the characteristics related to aerodynamic and
rotordynamic performance. As such, this paper also presents
the details and results of the testing performed at the
compressor manufacturers factory that confirmed the
soundness and acceptability of the design.
INTRODUCTION
All CO
2
capture methods (pre-combustion, post-
combustion, or oxy-fuel) require compression systems at the
sequestration stage where CO
2
must be injected into a storage
reservoir at high pressure. Several existing compression
technologies can be utilized for that purpose, such as
reciprocating compressors, and integrally-geared or in-line
centrifugal compressors. This paper presents the application of
a single centrifugal compressor to compress CO
2
from 565 psia
(39 bara) to 4500 psia (310 bara). The advantages of the
centrifugal compressor technology are pressure ratio capability
and efficiency.
INTERESTS AND DRIVES FOR CARBON DIOXIDE
CAPTURE AND INJECTION
Compression of CO
2
has been of interest even before
global warming concerns brought it to the forefront. Natuna
reservoir offshore Natuna Island in Indonesia had gas reserves
with 72 percent CO
2
which required reinjection at 4300 psi (300
bar). Since the gas had 0.5 percent H
2
S, it presented unique
challenges if the compression system tripped. The project costs
proved to be prohibitive. Recent efforts to reinject separated
acid gas (H
2
S + CO
2
) in the United Arab Emirates have also
proved to be too expensive and too risky due to extreme
toxicity of acid gas.
Carbon capture and sequestration has challenges with the
liability of accidental release of injected gas. However, recent
proposals to indemnify pipelines that transport the CO
2
are a
positive development for CCS. In fact, CCS is looked upon
favorably by oil producers as they need to inject gas into oil
fields to maintain oil pressure. Indeed, if the CO
2
is used for
enhanced oil recovery (EOR), it comes back with the oil
production in increasing concentrations requiring repeated
recovery and reinjection to sustain oil production. CO
2
injection
for EOR has a four-fold benefit: it lowers the viscosity of the
oil in place, provides a measure of the pressure drive, can
penetrate more types of rocks better than other enhancing
agents, and it leaves a cleaner well. CO
2
injection has proven to
be one of the most efficient EOR methods since its introduction
in the early 1970s. For example, a state oil giant in the Middle
East plans to inject carbon dioxide (at a rate of 40 million
standard cubic feet per day, or 1.1 million cubic meter per day)
into the worlds biggest oilfield by 2012 as part of a pilot
project to both improve production and reduce emissions.
In other cases, the storage of carbon dioxide is
accomplished by drilling an injection well into a porous rock
strata or aquifer that is covered by a gas-tight caprock layer
(Kidd and Miller, 2009). The depth of such geologic formations
varies with the geographic location, but usually a pressure of
between 2000 psi (136 bar) and 3000 psi (204 bar) is required
to inject CO
2
into the formation. The Sleipner platform
(featuring compressors manufactured by the lead authors
company) was the first CO
2
reinjection project for the purpose
of mitigating greenhouse emissions, with about one million
tons of CO
2
per year injected back into the ground since 1996.
As such, the CCS application is very similar to the CO
2
enhanced oil recovery application from a compression
equipment perspective.
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
CHALLENGES OF CO
2
COMPRESSION
CO
2
compression presents a number of challenges that
make this application unique in its own right. First, before
compression, removal of CO
2
can be accomplished in different
ways:
- Cryogenic separation for bulk removal
- Solvent extraction
- Membrane separation.
Then, the gas that is extracted contains varying amounts of
methane and other components. While properties of pure CO
2
are well known, properties of such mixtures, especially in the
super-critical region, are not as well understood. The pressure
at which such a gas mixture becomes a liquid or becomes a
super-critical fluid is dependent on the gas composition. The
liquid-vapor equilibrium line also shows sensitivity to the
presence of water vapor even in fractions below one percent.
The volumes of compression are rather small at the
required quantities and pressures. Centrifugal compressors for
such small volumes were mainly used for methane reinjection.
Such low volume, high head compressors have very narrow
impeller and diffuser widths resulting in lower efficiencies
caused by higher boundary layer losses. Balance piston or
division wall flows also become a significant fraction of total
flows resulting in additional internal recycle, which adds to the
power requirements and also the interstage cooling duties. Low
volumes also result in smaller diameters and higher speeds.
Rotors become longer with more impellers. Alignment of
impellers with diffusers on such long rotors becomes
increasingly difficult with potential consequences to the
performance of the compressor if not designed properly.
The higher molecular weight of CO
2
presents additional
challenges due to higher Mach numbers. Vaned diffusers, even
at low solidity, can be subject to shock losses if not designed
carefully.
Also, CO
2
compression applications commonly use
stainless steel materials to mitigate the effects of potential
corrosion due to water entrained in the process gas, since CO
2
in contact with water creates carbonic acid which is corrosive
to carbon steels. Additionally, special O-ring materials are
required to resist explosive decompression due to entrapped
CO
2
. Sizing of drivers and inter-stage coolers, philosophy on
available spare components, and turnaround planning are
important considerations as well.
Finally, testing of such compressors presents unique
challenges of test configuration to achieve reliable
measurement of performance.
AERODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE, MECHANICAL,
AND ROTORDYNAMIC DEMONSTRATION OF A 310-
BAR CO
2
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Rotordynamic modeling of high density compressors with
elements subject to gas induced excitation and damping due to
the high gas density has been a challenge for a long time.
Recent improvements in modeling such elements have
improved the accuracy and reliability of predicted dynamic
rotor stability.
Testing of such compressors present unique challenges of
test configuration to achieve reliable measurement of
performance and dynamic stability to confirm design
predictions. Confirming the predicted values of damped first
and second critical speeds, as well as rotordynamic stability, is
perhaps the most reliable indicator of the validity of the
complete rotordynamic model.
The subject centrifugal compressor was designed and
supplied to the end user for a Floating Production Storage and
Offloading (FPSO) unit application off the coast of Brazil. It is
the high-pressure unit of a 7000 hp (5.2 MW) train driven by a
constant speed induction motor, also featuring a low-pressure
unit compressor. This high-pressure centrifugal compressor
was configured as a back-to-back, eight-stage barrel-type
compressor (three stages in the first section and five stages in
the second section), with impeller tip width as narrow as two
millimeters (see Figure 1), and inter-cooling between sections.
The mass of the rotor is 536 lbm (243 kg). The compressor
bearing span-to-impeller-bore ratio is 11.6, and the flexibility
ratio between the maximum continuous speed and the first
critical speed with rigid journal bearings is 2.3. The compressor
is equipped with five-shoe 3.5-inch (89-mm) diameter offset-
pivot tilt-pad journal bearings oriented load-on-pad, in series
with squeeze film dampers. A hole pattern seal was used at the
division wall in between the two sections, along with swirl
brakes and shunt holes. In addition, swirl brakes were
employed at the impeller eye tooth labyrinth seals (stationary
teeth). The dry gas seals are balanced to the first section suction
of the compressor using a seal balance line piped from the
second section suction to the first section suction.
Figure 1. The Modular Bundle Assembly of the CO
2
Compressor (Top Removed)
The overall compression process for a CO
2
application can
be illustrated on a Mollier Chart as shown in Figure 2. In the
first section of the compressor, the gas is compressed to a
pressure of 1280 psia (89 bara) from 565 psia (39 bara). The
gas is cooled between the first section and second section of the
compressor and is compressed to the final discharge pressure of
4500 psia (310 bara) in the second section of the compressor.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the second section inlet conditions
are located just above the critical point of the gas. This region
is known as the super-critical region where the carbon
dioxide has the properties of a gas and a liquid at the same
time. This does not hinder the compression process and many
gases and gas mixtures have been compressed in the super-
critical region. As can be seen in Figure 2, the entire second
section of the compressor resides in the super-critical region.
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
Figure 2. Mollier Chart for CO
2
Showing the Compression Path
for the Subject Centrifugal Compressor
Management of secondary flows in the compressor are also
an important part of the design considerations for high pressure
compressors that have relatively low primary flow rates. The
division wall leakage passes through the last stage diffuser of
the first section before leaving through the first section
discharge nozzle and was considered in the diffuser design. The
leakages were also considered in the impeller capacity selection
as well as the inter-section process piping design.
The compressor test piping design consisted of two
individual loops around each section. The end seal balance line
was piped between the two compressor sections with a flow
meter installed to measure the leakage. A loop balance line was
also installed from the discharge first section loop to the suction
of the second section loop with a flow meter. A schematic of
the compressor test loop configuration is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. CO
2
Compressor Test Loop Configuration
During operation, the end seal leakage mass leaves the
second section suction loop and enters the first section loop.
The seal balance line flow meter measures the leakage rate.
Based upon the ASME PTC 10-1997 Type 2 hydraulic
performance observations, a discharge coefficient for the end
seal was calculated using the mass flow measurement, the
upstream condition (inlet density of section two) and the
differential pressure across the seal (section two suction
pressure minus the flow meter upstream pressure). Using the
calculated discharge coefficient for the end seal, the leakage at
the specified condition was calculated.
The division wall leakage leaves the second section loop
from the discharge to the first section loop discharge. The end
seal and the division wall leakage masses return to the second
section loop through the loop balance line. The division wall
leakage is the difference between the loop balance flow meter
measurement and the seal balance flow meter measurement.
The upstream condition of the division wall is the second
section discharge density and pressure with the differential
pressure being the difference between the sections two and one
discharge pressures. The discharge coefficient for the division
wall seal was calculated based on the Type 2 test observations
and used to calculate the leakage at specified conditions.
To accurately determine the efficiency of the section-one
impellers, the actual enthalpy rise of the section had to be
determined. Measurement of the leakage rates allowed the
calculation of the mixture enthalpy at the inlet and discharge
condition of section one during testing.
The leakage rate of the end seal and division wall seal
during the Type 2 test were found to be within 2 percent of the
predicted values. The Type 2 test results demonstrated the
compressor to meet performance guarantees on head, capacity,
and power.
In the second part of the shop test campaign, a full-load
full-pressure (FLFP) test was conducted. The project-specified
gas is 83.3 percent CO
2
with 16.7 percent hydrocarbons having
a mixture mole weight of 39.41. The inert gas blend determined
to meet the objectives for the FLFP test was 87.1 percent CO
2
blended with nitrogen to a mixture mole weight of 41.95. The
higher mole weight was required to offset the difference in the
compressibility factor between the specified gas and the test
blend for section two. Using this test medium, the first section
inlet temperature for the test was increased to 124.5 F (51.4
C) to offset the higher mole weight. Using these test
conditions, the FLFP performance matched very well with the
specified condition aerodynamic performance (Table 1).
Table 1. Compressor Aerodynamic Conditions
Specified FLFP Test
Section 1 2 1 2
Inlet Pressure, bara 38.8 88.0 38.8 88.0
Discharge Pressure, bara 88.7 310 88.7 310
Inlet density, kg/m3 69.3 227.2 69.1 222.8
Discharge density, kg/m3 119.8 375.5 119.4 378
Performance maps for each section are presented with
specified and FLFP curves over-plotted in Figures 4 and 5,
showing good correlation between test and predictions.
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
Figure 4. Aerodynamic Performance Maps (Section 1)
Figure 5. Aerodynamic Performance Maps (Section 2)
The FLFP test was actually conducted in two portions.
First, a demonstration of the hydraulic performance, thrust load,
and leakage rates under full load conditions was carried out.
Two capacity points were observed, one at the specified
capacity and a second near surge to demonstrate the operating
range. The test validated the ASME PTC 10-1997 Type 2 test
result. The end seal and division wall leakage rate were within
1.5 percent of the values determined by the low pressure test.
Operation near the surge capacity demonstrated no rotating
stalls to be present.
Of particular interest, the second portion of the test
campaign also involved using a Magnetic Bearing Exciter
(MBE) to inject asynchronous forcing functions into the rotor at
various aerodynamic conditions. This was conducted to
determine the logarithmic decrement (log dec) of the rotor-
bearings system. The MBE does not support rotor radial loads.
It was used to inject forces into the rotor to measure the log dec
of the rotor during operation, using the same concept as
previously done at the lead authors company (Moore, et al.
2002, Moore and Soulas 2003). The MBE is mounted on one
end of the compressor shaft (see Figures 6 and 7). The exciter is
driven by an open-loop control system to introduce forces of
varying frequencies (asynchronous excitation). The outcome is
an assessment of the rotordynamic stability at increasing gas
pressures and densities. This is accomplished via the log dec
measurement of the first forward whirling mode, and
correlation with analytical predictions. This exciter is capable
of producing a force of 340 lbf (1500 N).
Figure 6. Solid Model of the Magnetic Bearing Exciter
Figure 7. Magnetic Bearing Used for the Excitation
Inlet capacity
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c
H
e
a
d
CO2 Injection Compressor
Section One of Two
Predcited Curve - Specified
Predicted Curve - FLFP
DESIGN POINT
FLFP TEST POINTS
Inlet capacity
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Inlet capacity
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
R
a
t
i
o
Inlet capacity
P
o
w
e
r
Inlet capacity
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c
H
e
a
d
CO2 Injection Compressor
Section TWO of TWO
Predcited Curve - Specified
Predicted Curve - FLFP
DESIGN POINT
FLFP TEST POINTS
Inlet capacity
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Inlet capacity
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
R
a
t
i
o
Inlet capacity
P
o
w
e
r
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
Load was adjusted during the test by varying the suction
pressure while operating at the specified capacity point of each
section. Data was observed using pure CO
2
as the test medium
increasing the density and aerodynamic load on the rotor. The
suction pressure of the unit was first set so as to achieve a
discharge pressure of 101 psia (7 bara). At this minimum
pressure level, the first data set was recorded by performing a
MBE frequency sweep. The second pressure level was then
reached with a discharge pressure of 682 psia (47 bara), and the
second data set recorded with the MBE. Subsequent pressure
points were attained up to the full-load full-pressure design
point of 4500 psia (310 bara) at the discharge of the unit. It
should be noted that the rotor speed remains constant at about
12310 rpm (full speed) while the injection force sweeps
through the frequency range resulting in a peak response at the
first rotor natural frequency.
Figures 8, 9, and 10 show the vibration response
amplitudes and phase angles at one of the tilt-pad journal
bearing proximity probes during the MBE frequency sweeps
(constant excitation force), while running at 12310 rpm, for
three different discharge pressures Pd, i.e. 101, 682, and 4500
psia (7, 47, and 310 bara) respectively.
Figure 8. MBE Asynchronous Sweep at Pd = 7 bara: Vibration
Amplitude & Phase Angle vs. Excitation Frequency (kcpm)
Figure 9. MBE Asynchronous Sweep at Pd = 47 bara: Vibration
Amplitude & Phase Angle vs. Excitation Frequency (kcpm)
Figure 10. MBE Asynchronous Sweep at Pd = 310 bara:
Vibration Amplitude & Phase Angle vs. Excitation Frequency
(kcpm)
As represented in Figure 11, the maximum amplitude when
sweeping through the first forward whirling mode is decreasing
as discharge pressure increases, which is a beneficial result of
the positive damping and stabilizing effect of the hole pattern
damper seal, swirl brakes, and shunt hole system.
Figure 11. MBE Asynchronous Sweep: Response Vibration
Amplitude vs. Discharge Pressure
The MBE frequency sweep data are used to experimentally
evaluate the first forward whirling mode logarithmic decrement
(log dec) of the system, as previously done at the lead authors
company (Moore, et al. 2002, Moore and Soulas 2003). Figure
12 demonstrates that, as discharge pressure increases, log dec
values and rotordynamic stability also increase (see next
section), as consistently observed in previous similar test results
on different centrifugal compressors (Moore, et al. 2002, Moore
and Soulas 2003, Gupta, et al. 2007, Soulas and Kuzdzal 2009,
Bidaut, et al. 2009).
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
Figure 12. Compressor Log Dec vs. Discharge Pressure
The capacity of the MBE was also used to excite the
second critical speed of the rotor-bearing system while running
at 12310 rpm, in order to confirm the separation margin with
the maximum continuous speed and the amplification factor, as
shown in Figure 13. The measured second critical speed is
approximately 18900 rpm with an amplification factor of 8.5.
An acceptable separation margin to the second critical speed
exists (53 percent).
Figure 13. MBE Asynchronous Sweep: Identification of
Second Critical Speed (Vibration Amplitude & Phase Angle vs.
Excitation Frequency in kcpm)
Finally, as displayed in Figure 14, frequency spectrum data
during steady-state operation at full-load full-pressure with no
magnetic bearing excitation is presented for one of the four
journal bearing proximity probes (the three other probes show
similar results). The vibration amplitude remained within
acceptable levels as per American Petroleum Institute API 617
7
th
Edition requirements. It should be noted that all the other
mechanical characteristics of the compressor (such as journal
and thrust bearings temperatures) also met the API 617 7
th
Edition criteria.
Figure 14. Compressor Vibration Spectrum at Full-Load Full-
Pressure (Pd = 310 bara)
COMPARISON BETWEEN MECHANICAL TEST AND
ANALYTICAL RESULTS
Accurate rotordynamic modeling of high-pressure
centrifugal compressors is crucial to the success of this class of
machinery. With such high gas densities, approaching half that
of water, the prediction and management of gas forces in seals
and secondary passages are essential.
A rotor can be modeled using techniques resulting in the
general linear system of differential equations (Equation (1)),
| | | | | | ) (t F X K X C X M = + +

(1)
For the homogeneous solution (free vibration), a harmonic
solution is assumed as Equation (2),
t
e X t X

= ) ( (2)
The eigenvalue may be solved for and takes the form of
Equation (3),
i
d n
e e , + = (3)
The real part of the eigenvalue determines the level of
damping or stability, where is the damping ratio. The
logarithmic decrement () is another common way to state the
level of damping in a system and is related to the damping ratio
by Equation (4),
2
1
2
,
, t
o

= (4)
Notice the log dec is not defined for damping ratios ()
equal to and greater than one.
Bearing and seal reaction forces may be modeled by linear
stiffness and damping matrices (Equation (5)):
| |
(

=
yy yx
xy xx
K K
K K
K , | |
(

=
yy yx
xy xx
C C
C C
C (5)
1X
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
The tilting-pad journal bearing coefficients are obtained
using a bearing code (Nicholas, et al. 1979) that solves the
Reynolds equation. Tilting-pad journal bearings have negligible
cross-coupled stiffness and damping.
For centered annular seals, skew symmetry of these
matrices exists, and due to axial symmetry of the rotor system,
we have Equation (6),
K
xy
= -K
yx
, C
xy
= -C
yx,
K
xx
= K
yy
, C
xx
= C
yy
(6)
To improve the stability in annular seals, the cross-coupled
stiffness (K
xy
) is minimized while direct damping (C
xx
) is
maximized. Cross-coupled damping is negligible.
The code of Kleynhans and Childs (1996) is used to
calculate the hole pattern damper seal rotordynamic coefficients
and has been extensively validated with low- and medium-
pressure test rig data (Holt and Childs 2002). The code solves
the turbulent bulk flow equations using the Blasius friction
factor model but adds an extra degree of freedom to represent
the cells (Soulas and San Andrs 2002).
Solution of the turbulent bulk flow equations results in
frequency-dependent stiffness and damping coefficients. To
minimize cross-coupled stiffness in the seal, anti-swirl
measures (swirl brakes and shunt holes) are employed at the
damper seal entrance.
Finally, the toothed labyrinth seals in the compressor are
also modeled with a bulk-flow approach. The impeller eye and
interstage seals are modeled using the two control-volume
bulk-flow code of Kirk (1990) with good correlation with
Computational Fluid Dynamics results (Moore 2001). The seals
are straight through, teeth-on-stator designs (with swirl brakes
at the impeller eyes).
The excitation arising from the centrifugal impellers is
estimated using a modified form of the Wachel number
(Wachel and von Nimitz 1981). After benchmarking the
formulation on numerous test cases operating with different
mole weight gases, the lead authors company has adopted the
form referred to as the Modal Predicted Aero Cross-Coupling
(MPACC) (Memmott, 2000a and 2000b). By taking a modal
sum based on the first forward whirling mode shape, an
effective aero cross-coupling is calculated at the mid-span of
the rotor.
These component models are incorporated into an
automated rotordynamic software suite developed at the lead
authors company, based on the rotor response and rotor
stability transfer matrix programs of Lund (1965 and 1974).
The software is fully integrated into the companys
aerodynamic and solid modeling software. Component
selection, model creation, analysis execution, and report
generation are fully automated as described by Ramesh (2002).
The guidelines and criteria of the API 617 7
th
Edition
specification have been incorporated. The software greatly
simplifies the modeling of the compressor.
As shown in Table 2, good correlation was observed
between test data and analytical predictions, thereby concluding
the demonstration of the sound rotordynamic characteristics of
the 310-bar CO
2
centrifugal compressor. Such validation
reduces the risk of predicted performance for future machines
even under different conditions because it is the modeling
technique and not just the model which has been validated
Table 2. Rotordynamics: Predictions vs. Test
PATHS FORWARD IN CO
2
COMPRESSION
Testing of this CO
2
compressor presented unique
challenges of test configuration to achieve reliable
measurement of performance and dynamic stability. The risk of
future CO
2
compressor projects has been greatly reduced due to
the validation of design and rotordynamic modeling techniques.
The test configuration developed also represents a significant
advance in testing such difficult compressors with large internal
recycle flows.
Firstly, those results demonstrate that the technology
employed is validated and opens up the prospects in CO
2
compression at even higher pressures and densities. Secondly,
those results confirm the accuracy of the modeling in predicting
the performance of such technology. In fact, the lead authors
company is currently carrying out the design and
manufacturing of CO
2
centrifugal compressors at pressures up
to 8000 psia (550 bara) for similar applications off the coast of
Brazil.
More advanced compression technologies, such as
supersonic compression (Kidd and Miller, 2009), are being
developed to target CCS applications. Supersonic compression
is based upon advanced shock wave compression technology.
Its benefits when applied to high mole weight gas such as CO
2
are reductions in footprint, weight, and capital cost.
Additionally, an advantage of the supersonic compression
technology is that the high heat of compression provides a
useful energy source for conversion to electricity or use in the
surrounding processes, helping further in reducing the impact
on the environment.
CONCLUSION
Environmental regulations over CO
2
emissions (existing or
future) are challenging the industry to offer efficient and cost-
effective ways of disposing of carbon dioxide through CCS.
Turbomachines such as compressors are at the core of this
exciting challenge. This paper presents the aerodynamic,
mechanical, and rotordynamic performance of a high-pressure
CO
2
centrifugal compressor (310 bara), confirming analytically
and through test the performance of technologies that will
further drive the advances in CO
2
compression. The case
presented in this paper is meant to display an excellent example
of the technology needed to implement CO
2
mixture
compression for capture and injection as a means to reduce
emissions in the atmosphere for a better environment.
Copyright 2011 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University
NOMENCLATURE
[C] = Damping matrix
C
ij
= Element of damping matrix
i = \(-1)
F(t) = Force vector
[K] = Stiffness matrix
K
ij
= Element of stiffness matrix
[M] = Mass matrix
Mij = Element of stiffness matrix
Pd = Discharge pressure
t = Time
X = Displacement vector
X

= Velocity vector
X

= Acceleration vector
o = Logarithmic decrement
= Complex eigenvalue
e
d
= Damped natural frequency (imaginary part of
complex eigenvalue)
e
n
= Undamped natural frequency
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2
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o
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the dedicated
members of the entire Dresser-Rand Test Department in Olean,
New York, for their extensive contributions during the test
program, in particular Rick Antle. We would also like to thank
members of the Dresser-Rand technical staff for their efforts
and suggestions. Finally, the authors want to thank Dresser-
Rand and WorleyParsons for permission to publish this work.