LM Advanced Pumping AFAC Licenced Web

Advanced Pumping
Learner Resource
Reprinted under licence June 2009
SAFETY FIRST
Advanced Pumping
LEARNER RESOURCE
Reprinted, with minor amendments, by CFA under licence June 2009
Copyright 2005 Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC) All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, should any infringement have occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite copyright holders to contact them. The information contained in this learning manual has been carefully compiled from sources believed to be reliable, but no warranty, guarantee or representation is made by AFAC Limited as to the accuracy of the information or its sufficiency or suitability for the application to which any individual user may wish to put it, and no responsibility is accepted for events or damages resulting from its use.
AFAC Limited (ABN 52 060 049 327) Level 5, 340 Albert Street East Melbourne Victoria 3002 Telephone: 03 9419 2388 Facsimile: 03 9419 2389 Email: afac@afac.com.au Internet: http://www.afac.com.au
Table of contents
Acknowledgements Overview Learning objectives Firefighting hydraulics Characteristics of nozzle discharge Function of the branch and nozzle Discharge through nozzles Advantages of optimum nozzle pressures Fog and foam nozzles Jet reaction Height of effective jets Principles of pressure Pressure, head, and height loss/gain Loss of pressure due to friction Estimating friction loss Typical friction loss at low flow rates Typical friction loss at higher flow rates Friction loss in delivery hose Friction loss in supply hose Pressurised water supply Changing from tank to pressurised supply Static/open water supply Negative pressure and suction lift Calculation of static/open water capacity Section 1 summary Self assessment questions Centrifugal firefighting pumps Principles of operation Impeller Casing Volute Guide vanes Multi-stage pumps Series pump Series/parallel pumps Peripheral pumps Section 2 summary Self assessment questions Priming the centrifugal pump Force and lift pumps Diaphragm primer Rotary vane primer Water ring primer Ejector pump Section 3 summary Self assessment questions Pump gauges, valves and controls Gauges Compound gauge Pressure gauge Flow meter Tachometer Tank gauge Oil pressure gauge Temperature gauge Valves and control mechanisms Clack valve Ball valve Mushroom valve Butterfly valve i iii iii 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 6 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 17 17 21 23 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 9 1 1 3 4 5 5 7 9 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 Gate valve Drain valve Pressure-relief mechanism Engine controls Throttle Emergency stop Section 4 summary Self assessment questions Portable pumps Precautions Operation Maintenance High pressure, low volume pumps Section 5 summary Self assessment questions Appliance-mounted pumps Pump installation Midship-mounted Rear-mounted Power train Transmission Powering the pump Transfer case Power take-off Cooling systems Operation Pump with a transfer case Pump with a PTO Maintenance Section 6 summary Self assessment questions Practical pump operation Positioning the appliance Pumping from the appliance tank Pumping from reticulated water Pumping from static/open water Draughting Emergency priming Cavitation Delivering water Water on Charging a hose line Delivering optimum nozzle pressure Operating multiple lines Valve, throttle and pressure relief operation Shutting down and adding hose lines Hose reel operation Gauge interpretation and fault-finding Appliance tank Reticulated water Static/open water Relay pumping Open circuit Closed circuit Relaying over undulating ground Calculating the distance between pumps Setting up the relay Shutting down the relay Breakdown Communications 7 8 8 8 8 9 11 13 1 1 2 3 3 5 7 1 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 9 11 1 1 2 3 4 4 6 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18
Section 7 summary 19 Self assessment questions 21 Foam systems 1 Types of foam 1 Class A and Class B foams 2 Low, medium and high expansion foams 2 Protein, synthetic, fluoro-chemical, fluoro-protein and alcohol type foams 2 Low and high energy foams 3 Foam-making equipment 3 Foam-making branchpipes 4 Foam inductor and generator 6 Round-the-pump proportioner 7 Automatic foam-proportioning systems 8
Compressed air foam systems (CAFS) Section 8 summary Self assessment questions Self assessment answers Section 1 Firefighting hydraulics Section 2 Centrifugal firefighting pumps Section 3 Priming the centrifugal pump Section 4 Pump gauges, valves and controls Section 5 Portable pumps Section 6 Appliance mounted pumps Section 7 Practical pump operation Section 8 Foam systems Glossary/Acronyms Bibliography
9 11 13 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 7 9 13
ADVANCED PUMPING
Acknowledgements
The Australasian Fire Authorities Council is deeply indebted to the officers and firefighters of member agencies who developed this publication. Sources for the development of this material are listed in the bibliography .
Council members
Airservices Australia Australian Capital Territory Emergency Services Authority Bushfire Council of Northern Territory Country Fire Authority, Victoria Country Fire Service, South Australia Department of Conservation and Land Management, Western Australia Department of Emergency Services, Queensland Department of Primary Industry, Queensland Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria Department of Environment and Heritage, South Australia Emergency Management Australia Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia Forestry Tasmania Metropolitan Fire and Emergency Services Board, Melbourne New South Wales Fire Brigades National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment and Conservation (New South Wales) New South Wales Rural Fire Service New Zealand Fire Service Northern Territory Fire and Rescue Service Parks and Wildlife Tasmania Queensland Fire and Rescue Service Queensland Parks and Wildlife Services South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service State Forests of New South Wales Tasmania Fire Service
Associate members
Army Emergency Response Brisbane City Council Bureau of Meteorology Department of Conservation, New Zealand East Timor Fire and Rescue and Emergency Services Forestry and Forest Products CSIRO Government Fire Service, Republic of Mauritius Hong Kong Fire Services Office of the Emergency Services Commissioner, Victoria Papua New Guinea Fire Service United Kingdom Home Office
ADVANCED PUMPING
Overview
One of your roles as a firefighter may involve the directing of a stream of water from a branch or nozzle onto a fire. The purpose of this learning resource is to provide the participant with the knowledge and skills to operate portable and appliance-mounted pumps at an incident and includes: firefighting hydraulics centrifugal firefighting pumps priming the centrifugal pump pump gauges, valves and controls portable pumps appliance-mounted pumps practical pump operation foam systems.
Learning objectives
On completion of this unit, you will be able to: identify and apply the principles of hydraulics to practical pump operation describe the principle of operation, characteristics, limitations and representative types of centrifugal firefighting pumps locate, set up, prime and operate safely a firefighting pump to provide an effective and reliable water supply to firefighters describe the operation and use of pump gauges, valves and controls describe the characteristics, operation and maintenance of typical portable and appliancemounted firefighting pumps apply practical pump operation techniques, including operating from an appliance tank, open water and reticulated water supply; fault finding and relay pumping deal safely and effectively with a typical range of problems, within the scope of operator control, that might interrupt or diminish the safety and effectiveness of pump operation describe the characteristics, use and limitations of typical firefighting foams and foam making equipment demonstrate the safe and effective operation of pumps, primers, valves, controls and foam systems in a typical variety of firefighting scenarios.
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Section
Firefighting Hydraulics
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Firefighting hydraulics
Hydraulics deals with the physical characteristics exhibited by fluids at rest and in motion. 'Hydraulics' (Greek) = Hydro (water) aulos (a pipe) In firefighting, hydraulics is generally used to describe the study and behaviour of water. Every time you work with water you are employing hydraulics. Understanding the application of hydraulics to your role as a pump operator is essential. As a firefighter, you will already be aware that water is the most commonly used fire extinguishing agent. For water to be used effectively it needs to be applied in a suitable form and at a rate high enough to overcome the heat of a fire. To achieve this, a knowledge of hydraulics and pump operation is important. This section deals with the theory associated with hydraulics and includes: characteristics of nozzle discharge principles of pressure pressure, head and height loss or gain loss of pressure due to friction pressurised water supply static/open water supply.
Note: In this learner resource the term friction loss is used, instead of the more formal term loss of pressure due to friction.
Characteristics of nozzle discharge

Water is usually applied in the form of either a jet or a fog/spray. Sometimes, it may be mixed with a foam concentrate and air, and applied in the form of foam. The energy in the water includes both the energy created by its flow and the energy created by its pressure. Both are needed for effective firefighting. For example, an open-ended fire hose may be able to supply a sufficient rate of flow of water, but unless a nozzle is added and water is supplied at an appropriate pressure, it may not be in a suitable form (jet or spray) to apply to a fire.
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Function of the branch and nozzle

The branch at the end of a hose line converts the water's pressure energy into velocity or kinetic energy. The reducing cross-section through which the water must pass in the branch converts pressure into velocity/kinetic energy so that it can form an effective firefighting jet or spray pattern. The nozzle controls the size and pattern of the water being discharged. The velocity of the water coming from the nozzle varies inversely with the size of the nozzle. For the same rate of flow, if the size of nozzle is reduced, the velocity is increased, and vice versa.
Discharge through nozzles

Each nozzle should ideally be operated at the pressure generally accepted as giving the best jet for the size of the nozzle. This is called best or optimum pressure. Note that the optimum pressure cannot always be adopted during actual firefighting operations. The actual pressure used may depend on the condition of the hose, the length of hose lines, height of the branch above the pump, the capacity of the pump and many other factors. It is important to know what the rate of discharge is, and hence the amount of water required from the pump, for each nozzle. The formula for the rate of discharge through a nozzle is: L/min = 2/3 d2 (P/100) (where L/min = Litres per minute, d = diameter in millimetres, and P = pressure at the nozzle in kPa.) Table 1 indicates the generally accepted optimum nozzle pressures, discharge rates and jet reaction forces (i.e. the force that must be held by the branch operator) for various sized nozzles.
Size of nozzle (mm) 12 15 20 25 30 32
Nozzle pressure (kPa) 250 350 500 700 800 800
Discharge (L/min) 150 280 600 1100 1700 1900
Jet reaction (kg force) 6 12 31 68 113 128
Figure 1: Discharge through nozzles
Advantages of optimum nozzle pressures

As previously mentioned, the optimum nozzle pressure is the pressure at which the nozzle produces the best jet. The advantages of using optimum nozzle pressures are: greater striking power longer reach larger volume of water avoidance of excessive turbulence in the water jet avoidance of excessive jet reaction.
Exceeding the optimum nozzle pressure does not usually give any advantages. Excessive turbulence in a water jet at a higher pressure may lead to premature break up of a water jet, and actually reduce its effective range. Excessive pressure also creates an unnecessarily high jet reaction, making the nozzle more difficult for firefighters to use and control.
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Fog and foam nozzles

Most fog nozzles operate best at a nozzle pressure of 700 kPa. Most foam nozzles operate best at a nozzle pressure of around 550 kPa. These pressures are generally higher than the optimum pressure for a straight stream nozzle operating at the same rate of water flow. The additional pressure is needed to provide the energy to break the water stream up into a fog or spray, or to induce and mix foam concentrate and air with water to generate foam. Some branches/nozzles are designed to operate at higher or lower pressures. Check your organisation or manufacturer's instructions regarding the nozzles in use in your organisation.
Jet reaction
When water is projected from a nozzle, a reaction equal and opposite to the force of the jet takes place at the nozzle and it tends to recoil in the opposite direction to the flow. The whole of the reaction takes place as the water leaves the nozzle and whether or not the jet strikes a nearby object has no effect on the reaction. Branch operators must exert sufficient force (effort) towards the nozzle to overcome this reaction. While it is often possible for one person to hold a small jet, several people are required to hold a large jet. Though the velocity of the water in both jets may be the same, the mass of water passing through a larger nozzle per minute is much greater. The pump operator needs to be aware of the tiring effect that controlling jet reaction has on a branch operator, particularly if the line has been in use for some time.
Height of effective jets

In theory, a jet of water discharging vertically from a nozzle should rise to a height equivalent to its head pressure. In practice this is not the case. The atmosphere causes friction and the jet tends to break up to some degree. The effective height of a firefighting jet is therefore considerably less than its theoretical height. The British Manual of Firemanship, Book 7, Hydraulics and Water Supplies quotes a formula that gives the height of the highest drops of water in a jet, and notes that the height of a good firefighting jet will extend to only about two thirds the height of the highest drops. In a worked example quoted in that Manual, using a 20 mm nozzle operating at a pressure of 500 kPa (i.e. 50 metres head), the effective height of the jet is only 24 metres. In strong wind conditions even this height might not be achieved.
Principles of pressure
Pressure is the force acting on a given surface area. It is usually measured in kilopascals (kPa). Energy is needed to provide enough flow of water to the nozzle and to provide sufficient pressure to form an effective jet, fog/spray or foam stream. Usually this energy is imparted to the water by a pump. As a pump operator, you are the person in control of the flow and pressure of water being supplied to firefighters at the nozzle. Sometimes, water may be used directly from a hydrant without going through a firefighting pump. In that case, the energy needed in the water is being supplied by the pumps or elevated tanks of the water supply system. Provided there are no leaks in the hose, the quantity of water leaving the pump per minute (the rate of flow) and the rate of flow of water at the nozzle/s must be the same.
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However, as the water travels through the hose on its way to the nozzle, there is a loss of energy due to: the height of the branch/nozzle above the pump friction in the hose.
Each of these is discussed later in this section. Ideally, as a pump operator, you need to provide the correct pressure at the pump to overcome both these losses so that the pressure delivered at the nozzle/s is sufficient to form an effective jet, fog, spray or foam stream. To do this, you need to have a good understanding of the principles of pressure. There are six basic rules governing the principal characteristics of pressure in liquids. Pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts (that is, it acts at right angles).
Figure 2: Pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts
At any point, the pressure of a fluid at rest is of the same intensity in all directions.
Figure 3: The pressure in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions
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Pressure applied from outside to a fluid contained in a vessel is transmitted equally in all directions.
Figure 4: Pressure applied from outside is transmitted equally in all directions
The downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to its depth.
3m
P=30kPa
2m
P=20kPa
1m
P=10kPa 1m2 1m2
1m2
Figure 5: Downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to its depth
The downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to the density of the fluid.
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Figure 6: The pressure from a denser liquid (such as mercury) is greater than the pressure from a less dense liquid (such as water)
The downward pressure of a fluid on the bottom of a vessel is independent of the shape of that vessel.
Figure 7: Containers with the same depth of water exert the same downward pressure at their bases, irrespective of the shape of the vessel
Pressure, head, and height loss/gain

As already stated, pressure is defined as the force acting over an area. The depth of the water is called the 'head'. As this section explains, the concepts of pressure and head are related to each other. Some other terms are introduced in this section and you need to understand them. They are: Acceleration Force of gravity The rate of change of velocity of an object. The force exerted by the earths gravity calculated by multiplying an objects mass by the rate of acceleration experienced by an object when it falls in the earths gravity. The term used to describe a unit of force. The pressure exerted by a force of one Newton spread over an area of one square metre (1 N/m2 ). 1000 Pascals.
Newton (N) Pascal (Pa)
Kilopascal (kPa)
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Consider one cubic metre of water. One cubic metre of water contains 1000 litres of water. Each litre of water has a mass of one kilogram (kg), so one cubic metre of water has a mass of 1000 kg. The force (F) exerted by 1000 kg is obtained by multiplying the mass of the water by the acceleration due to the earth's gravity. The acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 metres per second per second (9.81 m/sec2). That is, if you drop an object from a height, its velocity will increase by 9.81 metres per second for every second it falls. The 9.81 m/sec2 figure is usually rounded off as 10 m/sec2. Therefore, Force (F) = mass x acceleration (due to gravity). If you now apply this formula to our cubic metre of water, you get: F = 1000 kg x 10 m/sec2 F = 10,000 Newtons (A Newton is the unit of force).
As previously stated, pressure is defined as the force acting over an area. In this case, the force is acting on the base of one square metre, so we can say that the downward pressure due to gravity is 10 000 Newtons per square metre (N/m2). A Newton per square metre is also called a Pascal. 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal. The downward pressure on the cubic metre of water could also be stated as 10,000 Pascals. Both of these units are very small units of pressure, so we usually measure pressure in kilopascals (kPa). Kilo means thousand, so 1000 Pascals equals one kPa. Therefore 10,000 pascals equals 10 kPa. The pressure can now be expressed in terms of kPa, which is the unit of pressure that most fire organisation personnel are familiar with. Remember that the term head (H) refers to the depth of water. So for a container with a head of one metre, the pressure exerted at its base is equal to 10 kPa.
Figure 8: One cubic metre of water
From this understanding, a basic formula reads: P = 10 x H (Where P = pressure in kPa and H = head in metres) If the formula is transposed: H = P 10 Calculations become very simple with this formula.
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For example, suppose a firefighter requires 700 kPa at the nozzle and the nozzle is at a height of 16 metres above the pump. Neglecting losses other than those due to head, at what pressure would the pump need to be operating? Pressure required at pump Pressure loss = 700 kPa + Pressure loss due to head = 10 x H = 10 x 16 metres = 160 kPa. Pressure required = 700 + 160 = 860 kPa In some organisations, the additional pressure to overcome head is referred to as height loss. Note that if the nozzle is below the pump, head is working in your favour and you actually need to reduce the pump output pressure by an amount equivalent to the head to get the desired pressure at the nozzle. For example, if a firefighter requires 700 kPa at the nozzle and the nozzle is at a height of 16 metres below the pump, then, neglecting losses other than those due to head: Pressure required at pump Pressure gain = 700 kPa Pressure gain due to head = 10 x H = 10 x 16 metres = 160 kPa. Pressure required = 700 160 = 540 kPa The simple rule for allowing for height loss or gain is to: add 10 kPa for every metre the nozzle is higher than the pump, or subtract 10 kPa for every metre the nozzle is lower than the pump.
Now, consider another vessel, this time with 2 cubic metres of water. The water depth is still 1 metre (see Figure 8). The total force due to mass has now doubled, but the base area has also doubled to two square metres. Doubling both the force and area will cancel each other out so the pressure remains the same as in Figure 7 1000 kg of force (10 kPa).
Figure 9: Two cubic metres of water spread over two square metres
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However, stacking the second cube of water on top of the first would double the force, but not the base area. Because you now have twice the force over the same area, the pressure at the base is doubled. (See Figure 9)
Figure 10: Pressure depends on the head (depth)
Remember that pressure due to head is determined by the depth of the water, not by the amount of water.
Loss of pressure due to friction

To propel water through a hose or pipe, energy (pressure) has to be used to overcome the friction caused by the water molecules rubbing against each other and against the walls of the hose or pipe. The energy to carry out this work is obtained from the difference in pressure or head existing between the two ends of the hose or pipe.
Figure 11: Loss of pressure due to friction
As previously stated, technical publications (including this one) usually shorten the term loss of pressure due to friction to friction loss. There are five principal laws governing loss of pressure due to friction (friction loss). Friction loss varies directly with the length of the hose or pipe.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
The longer the hose, the more pressure is required to pump the water through it because of the loss due to friction. If the length of hose is doubled, the loss of pressure due to friction is doubled. For the same velocity, friction loss decreases directly with the increase in diameter. If the diameter of a pipe is doubled, its internal surface area is doubled, but its crosssectional area is quadrupled (the cross-sectional area being proportional to the square of the diameter). Therefore, for any given velocity, if the diameter of the hose is doubled, the quantity of water flow for the same velocity is increased by four times, and the friction loss is consequently halved. As a result, it is important to always use the largest diameter hose practicable. Friction loss increases directly as the square of the velocity. If the velocity of the water is doubled, the friction loss is quadrupled. In other words, increasing the velocity by a factor of 2, increases the friction loss by a factor of 2 x 2 = 4. Conversely, if the velocity of the water is halved, the loss of pressure due to friction is reduced to ()2 or one-quarter. For example, if water is being delivered through one hose line at a particular rate of flow, and a second parallel hose line (same diameter) is brought into operation, then each of the parallel hoses will only need to flow half as fast to deliver the same total flow rate. However, the friction loss will be reduced to a quarter of its original value in the single hose line. Friction loss increases with the roughness of the interior of the hose. The friction increases according to the roughness of the interior of the hose or pipe. All other things being equal, a hose which has a rough interior, for example an unlined hose, will have greater friction loss than will a hose with a smooth interior, such as a rubber lined hose. Friction loss, for all practical purposes, is independent of pressure. Experiments show that the loss of pressure due to friction is independent of the pressure or head at which the system is operating.
Estimating friction loss

On many appliances today, there are charts or tables adjacent to the pump panel indicating to the pump operator the required flow rates or pump pressure for various branches and nozzles through different lengths and diameters of hose. Alternatively, your organisation may have some rules of thumb for estimating friction loss in various circumstances. Table 2 gives examples of friction loss at low, medium and high flow rates for a range of hose diameters that are commonly used in firefighting operations. The friction loss is expressed in kPa per 30 metre hose length (rounded off to the nearest 5 kPa).
Typical low flow rates (L/min) 100 150 200
25 mm lined (kPa) 100 250 450
38 mm unlined (kPa) 45 100 175
38 mm lined (kPa) 15 35 60
50 mm lined (kPa) Negligible Negligible 15
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Typical medium flow rates (L/min) 200 350 500
38 mm unlined (kPa) 175 500 1000
38 mm lined (kPa) 60 180 400
50 mm lined (kPa) 15 45 90
65 mm lined (kPa) 5 15 30
70 mm lined (kPa) Negl. 10 20
Typical high flow rates (L/min) 500 1000 2000
65 mm unlined (kPa) 85 350 1400
65 mm lined (kPa) 30 120 500
70 mm lined (kPa) 20 75 300
90 mm lined (kPa) 5 25 90
Table 2: Effects of friction loss in a 30 metre length of hose
The rate of flow of water is determined by the diameter of the nozzle (remember Table 1) and the nozzle pressure, not by the diameter of the hose. However, as you can see from Table 2 above, because of friction loss, there is a limit to the practical water-carrying capacity of the hose.
Typical friction loss at low flow rates

A pump operator needs to supply water to a nozzle discharging 150 L/min at a nozzle pressure of 250 kPa through one 30 metre length of 25 mm hose. As shown in Table 2, the friction loss is 250 kPa. Disregarding any allowance for height loss/gain, the operator makes the following calculations: Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 250 + 250 kPa = 500 kPa However, if the pump operator was supplying the same nozzle through four 30 metre lengths of 25 mm hose: Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 250 + (250 x 4) kPa = 1250 kPa Many firefighting pumps (apart from high pressure pumps) may not be capable of supplying a substantial flow of water at pressures well above 1000 kPa. In addition, when using conventional lay-flat fire hoses, there may be an increased risk of a hose bursting when pressures above 1000 kPa are used. Remember that fire hose is normally rated at a particular short-length burst pressure. This is when tested under ideal conditions. For operational use, it is normally recommended that pressures not exceed 25% of the designated short-length burst pressure. Typical lay-flat fire hose used by fire organisations has a short-length burst pressure of around 4000 kPa.
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If the pump operator was to use four 30 metre lengths of 38 mm lined hose to supply the same nozzle described above (150 L/min): Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 250 + (35 x 4) kPa = 390 kPa Clearly this is a considerably lower pump pressure. The general rule is: If you have to pump water over a significant distance, using a larger diameter hose gives you an advantage.
Typical friction loss at higher flow rates

Let's now compare the friction loss involved in supplying a larger nozzle, delivering 500 L/min at a nozzle pressure of 700 kPa through three 30 metre lengths of hose of various diameters. Using three lengths of 38 mm lined hose: Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 700 + (400 x 3) kPa = 1900 kPa Using three lengths of 65 mm lined hose: Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 700 + (30 x 3) kPa = 790 kPa Obviously, the use of 65 mm hose would be preferred in order to reduce friction loss and consequently maintain a lower pressure at the pump. However, a 38 mm hose line may be much easier for firefighters to manoeuvre. A possible solution would be to use two lengths of 65 mm hose and one length of 38 mm hose at the nozzle. Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 700 + (30 x 2 + 400 x 1) kPa = 700 + (60 + 400) kPa = 1160 kPa Some fire organisations use 50 mm lined hose to give a good combination of manoeuvrability and moderate friction loss. Using three lengths of 50 mm lined hose: Pressure required at pump = nozzle pressure + friction loss = 700 + (90 x 3) kPa = 700 + 270 kPa = 970 kPa
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Friction loss in delivery hose

Many firefighting organisations use fog nozzles of various sizes, all operating at 700 kPa. At a typical fire a delivery hose line often consists of three 30 metre lengths of hose. If the nozzle needs 700 kPa, then for the required pump pressure to be kept below 1000 kPa, the total friction loss needs to be less than 300 kPa. If there are three 30 metre lengths of hose, each would need to have a friction loss of no more than 100 kPa. In effect, this imposes a practical limit on the flow rate of the nozzle normally used in association with a particular hose diameter on delivery lines. By referring to the friction loss tables in Table 2, you can see that the flow rates for various diameter lined hoses which give 100 kPa or less friction loss are as follows: 25 mm about 100 L/min 38 mm about 250 L/min 50 mm about 500 L/min 65 mm about 1000 L/min 70 mm about 1200 L/min 90 mm about 2000 L/min.
These flow rates are used by some organisations to decide which size nozzle is provided for use with various diameter hoses. However, some appliances may have high pressure pumps supplying water to high pressure hosereels. In this case, higher flow rates will be possible in the hose-reels in spite of their relatively small diameter, as the pump and/or hose is not as limited in the pressure at which it can operate.
Friction loss in supply hose

If you are using hose for supply hose lines, another option to reduce friction loss is to twin the lines. Let's say you need to supply 1000 L/min to a fire appliance through a single line of three 30 metre lengths of 65 mm diameter, unlined hose. Total friction loss = 3 x 350 kPa = 1050 kPa. If you were to twin the lines (that is provide a second parallel 65 mm line), each hose line would now only need to deliver 500 L/min to achieve the same total flow rate. Thus the water in each hose will now be travelling at only half the velocity it was in the single line, and, as already mentioned, if the velocity is reduced by a factor of two (that is, halved), then the friction loss in each hose is reduced by a factor of four (that is, it is a quarter of the original). In this case: Total friction loss = 3 x 85 kPa = 255 kPa. Note that in this calculation, 85 kPa is slightly less than one quarter of 350 kPa as the figures in Table 2 have been rounded off to the nearest 5 kPa. An alternative would have been to use a larger diameter hose line. For example, for a single 90 mm unlined hose, the total friction loss over three 30 metre lengths would be only 195 kPa.
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In some overseas fire organisations, hose lines of 100 mm, 125 mm, 150 mm and even 200 mm diameter may be used for supplying large volumes of water over a distance. If you are already using your largest diameter hose, the general rule is: To reduce friction loss in supply hose lines, twin the lines.
Pressurised water supply

The water supply for firefighting may come from either a static/open source such as a dam or creek, or from a pressurised source such as a hydrant, the pump of another firefighting appliance or an elevated tank. With your knowledge of the principles of pressure (see Section 3), you know that if your pump is connected to a pressurised supply of water but there is no water flowing, all of the energy in the water will be due to its pressure. The pressure at your pump will be the same as the pressure in the water supply system. This is sometimes called the static pressure. As already discussed, when you start using water from the pressurised supply, some of the energy in the water is now being used to make it flow. This means that, unless extra energy is added to the system (for example, by increasing the output of the pumps that supply the hydrant water system or of the pump in the appliance supplying you), the energy being used up to deliver the water reduces the water's pressure. The greater the flow of water, the further the pressure of the supply will drop. The pressure remaining in the water supply when water is flowing at any particular rate is sometimes called the residual pressure. When you are taking as much water from the supply as it can provide, the residual pressure will have dropped down to zero. Attempting to take any more water will result in over-running the supply. If the supply is coming in through lay-flat hose, the hose will collapse when the residual pressure reaches zero, as it is only the residual pressure that keeps the hose inflated with water. Remember that if you are connected to a pressurised water supply by an inadequately sized supply hose, it could be the friction loss within that hose, not the capacity of the water supply that may cause the residual pressure at your pump to be zero. Using a larger diameter supply line or twinning the supply lines will improve the residual pressure. If the supply is coming in through a hard suction hose, the hose will not collapse. However, overrunning the supply from a hydrant system when using hard suction hose may damage the hydrant water supply pipes. Some hydrant systems (for example, those on industrial sites) may be supplied by large firefighting pumps that start automatically when water is drawn from the system, and may operate at relatively high pressures. In some cases, hydrant systems may also use recycled water. Check your organisations procedures for any specific instructions or precautions to use in such situations.
Changing from tank to pressurised supply

Many organisations use a standard procedure in which a fire is initially attacked using water from the appliance's tank, with a changeover made as soon as possible to the water supply from a hydrant through the appliances pump. When the changeover is made from tank to pressurised supply, the extra pressure of the latter will be added to the pressure already being delivered to the nozzle by the appliance pump.
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Unless there is a pressure limiting mechanism or specific procedures are followed, the branch operators may be given a sudden and potentially dangerous increase in pressure and jet reaction. The pressure increase might also be enough to cause a hose to burst. When changing over from tank to a pressurised supply, follow your organisations procedures to minimise a sudden pressure increase. These may cover the use of pressure limiting devices, specific valve opening sequences and/or gradual opening and closing of relevant valves. On some appliances, pressurised water supply may be fed into the tank, rather than directly into the pump. In effect, the supply is keeping the water tank topped up. This avoids the risk of a sudden pressure increase, but has the disadvantage of not being able to use the extra energy in the external water supply. Unless the appliance tank inlets are fitted with automatic valves, you will need to control the incoming supply to prevent overfilling of the tank.
Static/open water supply

As already mentioned, the water supply for firefighting may come from a pressurised source, such as a hydrant, the pump of another firefighting appliance or an elevated tank; or from a static source such as a dam, swimming pool or creek. Some organisations refer to the latter supply as open water. The pressure of the air from the atmosphere is used to force the water from a static source into the pump of your appliance. The air pressure at sea level in a standard atmosphere is 101.3 kPa (or 1013 hectopascals, using the unit used in weather forecasts). This is often rounded off to 100 kPa or 1 bar. A bar is a larger unit of pressure. (1 bar = 100 kPa) From the previous discussion of pressure and head, you may recall that a head of one metre is equivalent to a pressure of 10 kPa. Therefore, if atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, it should be able to provide the pressure needed to create a head of water of about 10 metres. In other words, if you were to lower a pipe vertically from a height down into the water source and remove all air from inside the pipe, the pressure of the air in the atmosphere should force water up the pipe to a height of 10 metres. No amount of further effort, whether by increasing the vacuum (which is impossible) or by lengthening or widening the pipe, will induce the water to rise higher than 10 metres. Seawater is slightly denser than fresh water, so that a shorter column of seawater would balance the atmospheric pressure.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Figure 12: The principle of lifting water by using atmospheric pressure
In practice, it is not possible to remove all the air from the pipe. So, if the air is not completely exhausted from the pipe, the water only rises to a height sufficient to balance the pressure difference existing between the inside and the outside of the pipe. For example, if air pressure remains in the pipe equivalent to a column of water 7 metres high (about 70 kPa), then the water will only rise 3 metres (see Figure 11). Water is not drawn up by the formation of the vacuum, but is forced up by the external pressure of the air on the exposed surface of the water. This is precisely what happens when a pump is primed. A suction hose connected to the inlet of the pump takes the place of the vertical pipe. The primer is the device for exhausting or removing the air from the suction hose and pump. As the pressure inside the hose and pump is reduced, so the atmospheric pressure of the air on the exposed surface of the water forces the water up the suction hose until it reaches the inlet of the pump. Even under perfect working conditions, a pump will not lift water to a height greater than 10 metres above the waters surface. This height is measured from the surface of the water to the centre of the pump inlet. Although the maximum theoretical vertical lift is 10 metres and the maximum practical vertical lift is 8 metres under perfect conditions, the maximum lift usually attempted is 7.5 metres. This is due largely to the energy lost when the water enters the pump (known as entry loss), and in moving the water through the suction strainers and suction hose. The rated capacity of a pump is its output in litres per minute when working from a 3 metre lift. As can be seen from the following figures, the greater the vertical lift to be overcome, the less water that can be delivered to the incident: 3.0 metre lift 4.5 metre lift 6.0 metre lift 7.0 metre lift 7.5 metre lift rated capacity of the pump 1/7 loss of capacity 1/3 loss of capacity 1/2 loss of capacity 2/3 loss of capacity.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Negative pressure and suction lift

Firefighters usually refer to pressure above atmospheric pressure as positive pressure, and pressure below atmospheric pressure as negative pressure. (Strictly speaking the latter is not negative, it's just lower than the normal atmospheric pressure.) When the pump is using water from a static supply, there will be a negative pressure on the inlet side of the pump. The amount of negative pressure will normally correspond to the lift of water being achieved. For example, a pressure of minus 30 kPa would correspond to a lift of 3 metres, due to 1 metre of head or lift being equal to 10 kPa of pressure. If the suction hose or pump inlet were to become blocked, the negative pressure would increase as the pump strains to lift against the blockage. If an air leak were to occur in the suction hose, the negative pressure would be lost as the pressure in the suction hose equals atmospheric pressure.
Figure 13: Negative pressure and suction lift
Calculation of static/open water capacity

Static water supply sources may have a limited capacity. If one source has insufficient capacity, you may have to locate another at some time during firefighting. The capacity of a static water source can be calculated (in litres) by multiplying its volume (in cubic metres) by 1000.
Rectangular container
If the source is a rectangular container, such as a rectangular swimming pool or tank, the formula for its capacity is: Capacity (in litres) = length x breadth x depth x 1000 If it has an uneven depth, use the average depth in the calculation.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
For example, a rectangular swimming pool is 4 metres wide, 8 metres long and is 1 metre deep at one end and 2 metres deep at the other. Capacity (in litres) = length x breadth x depth x 1000 = 8 x 4 x (1+2) x 1000 2 = 8 x 4 x 1.5 x 1000 = 48 x 1000 = 48 000 litres If you required, say, a total water supply of 2000 L/min to fight a particular fire, this pool would supply that rate of flow for up to 24 minutes(48 000 2000 = 24).
Figure 14: Pumping from a swimming pool
Cylindrical container
If the source is a cylindrical container, such as rural domestic water tank, the formula for its capacity is: Capacity (in litres) = 0.8 x length (or depth) x (diameter)2 x 1000
For example, a cylindrical water tank (standing on end) is 3 metres deep and 4 metres in diameter. Capacity (in litres) = 0.8 x 3 x (4 x 4) x 1000 = 0.8 x 3 x 16 x 1000 = 0.8 x 48 x 1000 = 38.4 x 1000 = 38 400 litres
Figure 15: Pumping from a cylindrical water tank
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Flowing source
The capacity of a flowing water source can be calculated (in litres per minute) by multiplying the volume (in cubic metres) flowing past any point per minute by 1000. Capacity (in L/min) = volume (depth x width x rate of flow in metres per minute) x 1000 Firefighters often underestimate the water supply available from quite small streams. For example, consider a creek that has a depth of 0.5 metres, a width of 4 metres and flowing past at a speed of 5 metres per minute.
= depth x width x speed of flow x 1000 = 0.5 x 4 x 5 x 1000 = 0.5 x 20 x 1000 = 10 x 1000 = 10 000 L/min. It can be seen that the quiet creek shown in Figure 15 is in fact flowing at 2 to 3 times the pump capacity of a typical pumper!
Rate of flow (litres per minute)
Figure 16: Pumping from a stream flowing at five metres per minute
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Section 1 summary
Hydraulics deals with the physical characteristics exhibited by fluids at rest and in motion. The branch at the end of a hose line converts the waters pressure energy into velocity or kinetic energy so that it can form an effective jet or spray. Each type/size of nozzle has an optimum operating pressure. Water discharging from a nozzle results in a jet reaction. Pressure is the force acting over a given surface area. It is usually measured in kilopascals (kPa). The principles of pressure are: Pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts. At any point, the pressure of a fluid at rest is of the same intensity in all directions. Pressure applied from outside a fluid contained in a vessel is transmitted equally in all directions. The downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to its depth. The downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to the density of the fluid. The downward pressure of a fluid on the bottom of a vessel is independent of the shape of that vessel.
The rule for allowing for height loss or gain when pumping is to add 10 kPa for every metre the nozzle is higher than the pump, or subtract 10 kPa for every metre the nozzle is lower than the pump. The five principal laws governing loss of pressure due to friction are: Friction loss varies directly with the length of the hose or pipe. For the same velocity, friction loss decreases directly with the increase in diameter. Friction loss increases directly as a square of the velocity. Friction loss increases with the roughness of the interior of the hose. Friction loss, for all practical purposes, is independent of pressure.
Friction loss varies depending on the type of hose, diameter of hose, length of hose line and rate of flow involved. For the same flow rate, larger diameter hoses have significantly lower friction loss than smaller diameter hoses. The friction loss in any particular diameter hose line will effectively limit the size of nozzle used in association with that diameter of hose. Twinning the lines is a method of reducing friction loss in supply lines. Pressurised water supply may be obtained from a hydrant system, another appliance's pump or an elevated tank. When the residual pressure in a pressurised supply is approaching zero, it means you are almost overrunning the supply. Water may be obtained from a static or open source such as a dam, pool or stream.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
The capacity of a static water source can be calculated (in litres) by multiplying its volume (in cubic metres) by 1000. The capacity of a flowing water source can be calculated (in litres per minute) by multiplying the volume (in cubic metres) flowing past any point per minute by 1000.
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Self assessment questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What are the functions of the branch and nozzle on a line of hose? If a 25 mm nozzle is operating at a nozzle pressure of 700 kPa what quantity of water is it discharging per minute? Would the friction loss increase or decrease if a line of hose was lengthened? For the same flow rate, would the friction loss increase or decrease if the diameter of the hose is increased? Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a tank that is filled with water to the height of 8 metres. A nozzle, supplied from a pump at street level 40 metres below, is being operated on the eleventh floor of a building. How much pressure would need to be added to compensate for the head or height loss? How long would a full rectangular water tank measuring 3 x 2 x 1 metres last if it was used to supply a 20 mm nozzle operating at optimum pressure?
7.
Activities
1. 2. Find out the optimum nozzle pressures and associated flow rates for the range of nozzles typically used in your organisation. Find out the rules of thumb used in your organisation for calculating friction loss, or determine the friction loss for the hose and nozzle combinations commonly used for delivery lines in your organisation. Find out the typical static pressures and flow rates that can be expected in any hydrant systems in your area. Find out the maximum flow rate of the pump/s (when operating at pressures of 700kPa and/or 1000kPa that are used by your organization.
3. 4.
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Section
Centrifugal Firefighting Pumps
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Centrifugal firefighting pumps

A pump is a machine, powered by an external source, which imparts energy to a fluid or gas. A pump may be driven by hand, by an electric motor, by an internal combustion engine, or by hydraulic or pneumatic means. In a centrifugal pump, energy is imparted by centrifugal force that is, the force generated by the rotation of an object. This force drives outwards from the centre of rotation. This section explores the centrifugal pump in detail, including: principles of operation multi-stage pumps peripheral pumps.
Principles of operation
A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller, or impellers, rotating inside a pump casing. Water enters at the centre, or eye, of the impeller and is flung out to the periphery (the outer edge of the casing) by centrifugal force as the impeller rotates. The water is collected inside the pump casing and discharged from the pump outlet.
Figure 17: Centrifugal pump
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A centrifugal pump is ideally suited for firefighting work because it: gives a steady flow operates at variable pressure depending on need is simple in construction and operation is easily maintained and less likely to be damaged by bad pump operation is able to pump dirty or gritty water with minimal damage to the pump* is small and compact allows flow to be interrupted without stopping the engine can be connected to an internal combustion engine by direct drive.
*Note. Continuous pumping of contaminated water will result in damage to valves, seals, and impeller and water passage surfaces. A disadvantage, however, is that a centrifugal pump requires priming when using water from a static or open source. Priming consists of filling the pump and associated suction hose with water. Priming pumps are explained in Section 3. It is sometimes said that centrifugal pumps can't pump air. This is not strictly correct. They can pump air (a turbocharger on a high performance engine is an example), but they require different design features, rotation speeds and engine power combinations that are compatible with pumping water efficiently. Lets now look in more detail at the main components of a centrifugal pump.
Impeller
A centrifugal pump has no valves, pistons or plungers. It makes use of an impeller that consists of a number of curved radial vanes fitted between circular side plates to generate centrifugal force when the impeller is rotated. The impeller is the spinning part of a centrifugal pump that imparts energy to the water. It is attached to a central rotating shaft. Water received at its eye (inlet) is thrown outwards at high velocity by the radial vanes as the impeller rotates, and is discharged at its periphery (outer edge). The flow through the impeller passages causes a partial vacuum to be created at its inlet. This causes more water to be forced into the impeller from the supply source.
Figure 18: Typical impeller
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Casing
The pump casing converts the kinetic (or velocity) energy of the water, when it leaves the impeller, to pressure energy. The casing is designed to reduce the velocity of the water and to produce a smooth and steady flow from the pump outlet. The action of the impeller in thrusting water outwards creates considerable turbulence and friction. As these factors represent wasted energy, two design features are used to minimise these effects. These features are the volute and guide vanes. The volute and the guide vanes can also be combined.
Volute
The volute is the cavity inside the casing of a centrifugal pump (see Figure 18). It is shaped like a snail shell. The cross-sectional area increases in a circular direction toward the outlet. The effect of this shape is to gradually reduce the velocity (kinetic energy) of the water and convert this velocity into pressure. The increasing space provided by the snail shell shape is also necessary because water is thrown from the impeller around its entire periphery, and the total quantity of water passing through the casing increases nearer the discharge outlet. The volute is designed to handle this increasing quantity of water.
Guide vanes
Fixed guide vanes in the casing may be used to guide the water along its correct path and to reduce turbulence. Together, the vanes are sometimes known as a guide ring or diffuser. In many pumps both guide vanes and a volute may be used.
Figure 19: Guide vanes and volute
Multi-stage pumps
The output pressure of a centrifugal pump can be raised by increasing the speed of rotation or the diameter of the impeller. The first method is limited by the power of the engine and the second is relatively inefficient. Better results are obtained by using a multi-stage pump which imparts energy to the water through two or more impellers. Multi-stage pumps allow flexibility where a variation in capacity and pressure is required and provide an appropriate option where delivery pressures exceeding those available from the single stage centrifugal pump are necessary. Multi-stage pumps also have the advantage of achieving higher delivery pressures while maintaining moderate engine speeds. Examples of where higher delivery pressure could be
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ADVANCED PUMPING
required are in high-rise building incidents, or where it is desirable to deliver water through high pressure hose reels.
Series pump
When two or more single-stage centrifugal pumps are arranged so that the discharge from the first pump is connected directly to the inlet of the second pump, the pumping arrangement is said to be in series. A series pump is like having two or more separate single stage pumps back to back, each one supplying the next with pressurised water. Many multi-stage pumps used for firefighting are series pumps. The impellers of a multi-stage pump are mounted on a common shaft, but in a divided casing, with each impeller representing an additional stage of pumping. The effect is similar to having one pump supplying water under pressure through to the inlet of another pump. When the second pump is operating, the water pressure is further increased. The amount of water passing through the second pump is the same as that passing through the first pump. Neglecting friction loss and assuming the pump impellers are equal, each pump will add an equal amount of pressure. Figure 20 shows the flow of water through a typical two-stage series pump.
Outlet First impeller Water inlet Second impeller
Outlet Low pressure High pressure

Figure 20: Flow in a two-stage series pump
There may be a number of different stages and some variations in design for special uses. In some types of pump, the first two stages provide water for the normal delivery outlets. Some of the flow, however, is passed to further stages where the pressure is again increased. The output from the final stage is at high pressure but the volume of flow is smaller.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Series/parallel pumps
This type of multi-stage pump incorporates transfer or changeover valves between the various stages. Depending on the position of the valves, the pump may either be operated in series mode (the first impeller passing water to the second to build up pressure, see Figure 21), or parallel mode (each impeller feeding directly to the pump outlet to produce high volume, see Figure 22). In series mode, the transfer valve is closed and the discharge from the first impeller is directed to the inlet of the second impeller, then to the pump discharge.
Discharge
2000L/min 2100kPa
First stage impeller

2000L/min 1050kPa
Second stage impeller

2000L/min 1050kPa
Transfer valve
Clapper valve
Intake
Figure 21: Series/parallel pump operating in series (or pressure) mode
In the parallel mode, water from the source enters the eyes of both impellers together at the same pressure, and is discharged from both impellers together, into a common delivery.
Discharge
4000L/min 1050kPa
First stage impeller

2000L/min 1050kPa
Second stage impeller

2000L/min 1050kPa
Transfer valve
Clapper valve
Intake
Figure 22: Series/parallel pump operating in parallel (or volume) mode
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ADVANCED PUMPING
The series mode is selected when higher pressure is required, such as for a high pressure hose reel, and the parallel mode is selected when a high volume is required, such as for a water relay (see Section 6) or general pumping duties.
Peripheral pumps
A disadvantage of many high-pressure pumps is that they must operate at high speed to deliver the required higher pressures. One alternative is the peripheral pump, which is a variation of the normal centrifugal pump and operates at the same speed. The peripheral pump is usually fitted in conjunction with a centrifugal pump to provide a high pressure capability. In the peripheral pump, the impeller has a ring of guide vanes around its outer edge. The pump casing fits closely around the central part of the impeller but there is a channel surrounding the guide vanes (see Figure 23). When water enters the channel, it drops to the base of the guide vanes and is then flung outwards between the vanes by centrifugal force. The water then moves to the base of the vanes again and the process is repeated many times. The spiralling water is dragged around in a circle by the impeller, and is finally expelled through the outlet at a pressure which is the equivalent of a multi-stage pump operating in series mode. At about the same rpm, the peripheral pump will deliver less water, but at considerably higher pressures than will a conventional centrifugal pump.
Figure 23: Peripheral pump
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Section 2 summary
A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller, or impellers rotating inside a pump casing. A centrifugal pump is ideally suited for fire fighting work. A disadvantage of a centrifugal pump is that it needs to be primed. The impeller consists of a number of curved radial vanes fitted between circular side plates. When the impeller rotates, the vanes fling the water from the centre out to the periphery by centrifugal force. The pump casing converts the kinetic (or velocity) energy of the water, when it leaves the impeller, to pressure energy. A volute and/or guide vanes may be included in the pump casing to guide the water along its correct path and reduce turbulence. Multi-stage series pumps use a series of impellers to increase the pressure of the water in the pump. Series/parallel pumps have a transfer valve which allows water to pass through multiple impellers one after the other (giving high pressure); or to be drawn from a common inlet into each impeller at the same time and to discharge through a common outlet (giving high volume). A peripheral pump impeller has a ring of guide vanes around its outer edge which raises the water pressure to a much higher level than a normal centrifugal pump.
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ADVANCED PUMPING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. How does a centrifugal pump operate, (including the function of the impeller and pump casing)? List the advantages and disadvantages of a centrifugal pump for firefighting. Describe a centrifugal pump impeller. Describe the appearance and function of the volute and guide vanes. What is the advantage gained by using multi-stage series pumps? Describe the difference between a multi-stage series/parallel pump running in series mode and running in parallel mode. How does a peripheral pump produce higher pressures than is usual?
Activities
1. 2. 3. Find out which appliances in your organisation use centrifugal pumps. Find out what type of centrifugal pump they are, (for example single stage, multi-stage series, series/parallel or peripheral). Compare the performance information for each type of pump (for example, rate of flow at various pressures).
2-9
Section
Priming the Centrifugal Pump
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Priming the centrifugal pump

As mentioned in Section 2, a centrifugal pump designed for firefighting cannot usually pump air. Priming pumps, or primers, can pump air. Therefore, when using a centrifugal pump to draught water from a static/open water source, air in the pump and suction hose must be removed so that atmospheric pressure can force water from its source up into the pump. This is achieved by using a primer. Firefighting organisations use a wide range of primers, but priming pumps generally fit into one of the categories discussed in this section. In any case, you should refer to relevant appliance or pump manuals for details. This section looks at the types of pumps commonly used as priming pumps, including: force and lift pumps diaphragm primer rotary vane primer water ring primer ejector pump.
The practical use of primers is covered in more detail in Section 7, Practical Pump Operation.
Force and lift pumps

The force (or reciprocating) pump is the simplest type of priming pump, consisting of a solid plunger which moves up and down in a cylinder fitted with inlet and outlet valves. A single-action force pump (see Figure 23) draws in water or air on the upstroke and discharges it on the downstroke. A disadvantage of this pump is the pulsating effect caused by the interval between each discharge stroke. An outlet valve enables the fluid to escape, while the inlet valve is held closed by the pressure of the fluid during the downstroke. During the upstroke, the outlet valve closes and the inlet valve opens, allowing more fluid to be drawn into the pump casing.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Figure 24: Single-action force pump
There is also a double-action force pump, which discharges water (or air) both on the upstroke and on the downstroke, thus lessening the pulsation (see Figure 25).
Inlet valve
Outlet valve
Inlet valve
Outlet valve
Figure 25: Double-action force pump
Lift pumps are similar to force pumps, but have a hollow plunger with a valve through which, in the single-action type, water can pass freely in one direction, but cannot return. The pumps which raise water from wells are usually lift pumps. Some lift pumps also have a double-action. Water can be pumped on both the upstroke and downstroke. The small hand pump on a knapsack spray used for wildfire fighting is a typical example.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Upstroke
Downstroke
Outlet valve
Inlet valve
Figure 26: Single-action lift pump
Another type of force pump is the semi-rotary pump, typically used for pumping out 200 litre drums. This has two sets of valves operating within a circular casing. Pumping the lever backwards and forwards allows fluid to be pumped on both strokes. All force and lift pumps produce a pulsating flow of water. If a constant, steady flow of water is needed, an air vessel can be fitted near the pump outlet (see Figure 26). As the water is pumped out, some enters the air vessel and compresses the air within it. Between strokes, the compressed air within the air vessel drives this water back out again, resulting in a fairly steady stream.
Air pressure
From pump
Water pressure
From pump
Figure 27: Air vessel
Diaphragm primer
A diaphragm primer consists of a metal housing (the chamber); an inlet and discharge port, each containing a one-way valve; a flexible diaphragm (a thin partition); diaphragm actuating rod and handle. It uses the same concept as a force pump, but a flexible diaphragm is used instead of a moving plunger (see Figure 28). When the handle is pulled up, the rod pulls the centre of the diaphragm upwards. This creates a negative pressure in the chamber causing air from the pump and suction hose to be drawn into the chamber. A one-way valve prevents air entering the pump from the discharge port. When the handle is pushed down, the centre of the diaphragm is pushed downwards. This causes a positive pressure within the chamber, below the diaphragm, forcing the inlet valve closed. The air inside the pump overcomes the tension of the spring-loaded discharge valve, and is expelled via
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ADVANCED PUMPING
the discharge port. Continuous operation of the handle will eventually remove all the air from the pump system. On an appliance, the diaphragm actuating rod (sometimes called a plunger rod) may be attached to a motor which mechanically moves the diaphragm in and out. On portable pumps, however, it is usually hand-operated.
Upstroke
Downstroke
Flexible diaphragm Air Air Inlet valve Discharge valve Inlet valve Discharge valve
Figure 28: Diaphragm primer
Rotary vane primer

The rotary vane primer (also known as a sliding vane pump or primer) is driven by an electric motor and controlled by a priming valve. The shaft on which the rotor is mounted is off-centre, or eccentric, within the casing. Within the rotor are several slots in which the vanes are inserted. As the rotor turns, the vanes slide in and out, due to centrifugal force, maintaining contact with the casing. When the pump is operating, oil from a reservoir automatically provides lubrication and an air seal between the vanes and pump casing. The turning rotor causes the space between the vanes to increase, creating a partial vacuum, and drawing in air from the main centrifugal pump and suction hose before the next vane meets with the casing. Air is then carried between the vanes to the discharge, where the space between the vanes decreases, thus forcing the air out through the discharge. This action is repeated as each vane moves around.
Oil reservoir Shaft Casing
Air from suction hose
Discharge
Rotor
Sliding vanes
Figure 29: Rotary vane primer
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Water ring primer

A water ring primer consists of an elliptical housing that contains a stationary hollow boss or axle, (incorporating an inlet from the pump and two discharge ports). The water in the housing is forced to move outwards by centrifugal force created by the rotating impeller (see Figure 30). At the widest parts of the housing, two areas of low pressure are created inside the ring of water. These areas are filled with air forced in from the pump and suction hose by atmospheric pressure. As the water moves inwards at the narrower section of the housing, the air is forced into the discharge ports in the stationary boss. Since the impeller is located centrally in the elliptical housing, there are two pumping actions for each revolution.
Rotating impeller
Inlet from pump
Air forced in from pump Oval housing
Discharge ports
Areas of low pressure
Ring of water Air forced into discharge nozzles
Figure 30: Water ring primer
Ejector pump
An ejector pump consists of a passage or pipe which is constricted at one point so that fluid or gas passing through it increases in velocity at the point of constriction. Speeding up increases the energy in the liquid or gas accounted for by its velocity. The energy for this extra velocity is taken from the static pressure of the liquid or gas. At the constriction, pressure drops below atmospheric pressure. This is called the venturi effect and the device is called a venturi. You can simulate this effect by blowing across the end of a straw inserted into a liquid. The velocity energy across the end of the straw reduces the static pressure within the straw and the liquid is forced up the straw by atmospheric pressure. When used for priming, the lower pressure generated within the venturi throat is used to remove air from the pump and suction hoses until priming is achieved. A common type uses the exhaust from the pump engine as the gas flowing through the venturi. For that reason it is called an exhaust ejector primer. Note: Ejector pumps are sometimes used to pump water out of basements or ships' holds. In this case the venturi has water flowing through it, supplied through a hose from a firefighting pump. The venturi effect is also used in firefighting to induce foam concentrate into a foam inductor.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Main stream
Air
Pressure drops below atmospheric pressure Point of constriction Increases in velocity
Passage or pipe
Figure 31: Ejector pump
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Section 3 summary
A priming pump is a pump capable of pumping air. It is used to prime (fill with water) a centrifugal pump and associated suction hose when working from static/open water. Priming pumps include: force and lift pumps diaphragm primers rotary vane primers water ring primers ejector pumps.
Force and lift pumps produce a pulsating flow of water. To provide a constant, steady flow, an air vessel can be fitted near the pump outlet. The diaphragm primer uses the same concept of operation as a force pump, but a flexible diaphragm is used instead of a moving plunger. A rotary vane primer consists of an off-centre or electric turning shaft on which a rotor is mounted. Within the rotor are several slots in which vanes are inserted. A water ring primer consists of an elliptical housing which contains a stationary hollow boss or axle, (incorporating an inlet from the pump and two discharge ports). The water in the housing is forced to move outwards by centrifugal force. An ejector pump or primer consists of a passage or pipe which is constricted at one point so that fluid or gas passing through it increases in velocity at the point of constriction and generates a lowered static pressure. This is called the venturi effect.
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ADVANCED PUMPING

1. 2. 3. 4. Why is a priming pump required? Describe how the pulsating effect of water in a force pump can be moderated. How does a water ring primer operate? How does an ejector pump work?
Activity
1. Find out what types of priming pumps are used in your organisation.
3-9
Section
Priming the Centrifugal Pump
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Pump gauges, valves and controls

Gauges display information you need to operate the pump effectively. Valves and controls enable you to safely and effectively manipulate the water you are supplying. To help you better understand this topic, it is divided into the following sections: gauges valves engine controls.
Gauges
For pump operators, the most monitored gauges when pumping are the compound (inlet) and pressure (delivery) gauges. On some pumps there may be more than one of each of these gauges. Gauges are sensitive pieces of equipment. As with all firefighting equipment, care is required for satisfactory operational service to be delivered. Sudden opening or closing of valves may cause shock sufficient to damage some gauges, and such actions should be avoided.
Compound gauge
A compound gauge is used on the inlet or feed side of the pump and can measure pressure below atmospheric (required when draughting from static/open water) and positive pressure (required when water is being supplied from a hydrant or other pressurised source). Compound gauges are usually diaphragm-type gauges. A diaphragm gauge has a flexible diaphragm connected by a rocker bar and associated mechanisms (which magnify the movement) to a pointer. As you look at the face of the diaphragm gauge, you will notice it has a long vacuum scale and a short pressure scale. The scale on the vacuum side typically measures zero to negative 100 kPa (1.00 x 100 kPa). This allows for more accuracy over a small range of vacuum readings (see Figure 32). When a positive pressure is applied, (from water supplied from a hydrant or another appliance) a small area of the diaphragm moves towards the small cavity in the front housing, thus giving a reading on the smaller area of the gauge. On the other hand, if a negative (below atmospheric) pressure is applied, a large area of the diaphragm shifts in the opposite direction within the larger cavity of the rear housing, which magnifies the negative pressure reading.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Figure 32: Face and operating principle of a diaphragm-type compound gauge
Pressure gauge
The pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of water being delivered by the pump. Pressure gauges are usually of the Bourdon tube type. A Bourdon tube is a pressure responsive tube, that is, it reacts to pressures above and below atmospheric pressure. This almost fully circular tube is oval in cross-section. At one end, it is connected to the delivery side of the pump and, at its other end, to the gauge pointer by a link and pivoting and toothed quadrant (see Figure 33). A hairspring keeps the teeth of the pinion in close contact with those of the quadrant. This linkage magnifies the movement of the pointer on the gauge dial. Changes in pressure cause the Bourdon tube to either straighten out (caused by greater pressure), or return to a more curved shape (lower pressure). More recent gauges are filled with glycerin, which acts as a damper and reduces the fluctuation in the pointer's movement to give a more accurate reading.
Bourdon tube under pressure
9 10 11
6 5 4 3 2
12
Toothed pinion
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Free end
Pressure
X100 kPa
20
Pinionactivated pointer
Link Pivoting and toothed quadrant Pressure
Figure 33: Face and operating principle of a Bourdon tube type pressure gauge
Bourdon tube gauges are sometimes used for compound gauges, but the negative side (reading down to 100 kPa) will be to the same scale, and therefore much smaller in overall size, than the positive side of the gauge, which may read up to as much as several thousand kPa positive pressure.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Flow meter
Some types of fog nozzles are automatic in operation and will decrease or increase their flow (within a set range) to maintain 700 kPa (or sometimes another set pressure) at the nozzle. While adjusting the pump pressure (and taking into account friction and other losses) is an effective means of controlling the flow to conventional nozzles, this is not the case with nozzles which will automatically adjust to the changing pressure. On some pumps, flow gauges or meters may be fitted. These indicate the rate of flow of water being supplied. When used with automatic nozzles, a particular flow rate is supplied by the pump operator, rather than a particular pressure. Usually, there will be a separate flow meter for each outlet (see Figure 34). Using a flow gauge or meter makes it possible for you to deliver the correct rate of flow to any type of nozzle, without having to calculate pressure loss due to friction or height.
Litres per minute
Litres per minute
Figure 34: Flow meters showing different flow rates
Tachometer
The tachometer indicates the engine revolutions. The revolutions per minute (rpm) shown on the gauge help the pump operator when performing various pump operations. The correct rpm settings and/or limitations for your appliance will be indicated in the manufacturer's specifications. When not actively pumping, you should set engine rpm so that the tachometer reads between 1200 and 1500 rpm. This is necessary when the pump is running and the deliveries are closed to: keep the automatic priming pump (such as a water ring primer, if fitted) disengaged to avoid unnecessary wear on the primer drive wheel maintain a high output from the alternator (particularly necessary when the appliance radio, flashing beacons or spotlights are in use) run the engine-cooling system efficiently, whether or not the appliance is fitted with a cooling circuit.
Note that if a pump is churning water against closed outlets, the water in the pump is not being replaced and may heat up to a point where damage may be caused to the pump seals or casing. To avoid this, you should allow some water to escape from the pump or to re-circulate back to the tank, if possible.
Tank gauge
Two types of gauges are typically used to indicate water level in an appliance's water tank: a sight gauge, or an indicator light panel. (See Figure 35.) The sight gauge, usually a clear plastic tube, is connected to the bottom and top of the water tank, set vertically and positioned where it is visible from the pump panel. Whatever the level of the water in the tank, it will be indicated in the tube (sight gauge).
4-3
ADVANCED PUMPING
The indicator light panel uses a series of coloured lights to show when the water or foam concentrate tank is full, and when the level is at three-quarters, half, one-quarter or empty. These lights work as soon as the ignition is switched on. When the ignition is not on, a test can be made to check the water contents by pressing the 'test' button. In addition, some appliances are fitted with a low water level alarm which provides an audible alert that the water level has dropped to a particular level.
Full

Empty Test
Water level
Valve
Indicator light panel

Figure 35: Tank gauges
Tank gauge
Oil pressure gauge

An oil pressure gauge is on the panel of all modern appliances. It uses an electrically transmitted signal to indicate the oil pressure of the engine driving the pump. It is extremely important to check this gauge frequently during operations. If oil fails to circulate, the engine can seize, resulting in engine failure and extensive damage. Any pronounced reduction in an oil pressure reading demands that the engine be closed down as soon as possible after the branch operators safety has been assured. The Officer-in-Charge should be advised of the close-down as well as what alternative arrangements can be made to ensure that water continues to be delivered to the fireground.
Temperature gauge
The temperature gauge monitors the engine temperature. You should be aware of the normal operating temperature, and if there is an increased reading on the temperature gauge, investigate for the possible cause and inform the Officer-in-Charge.
Valves and control mechanisms

Valves are used to control and direct water flow and pressure. The arrangement of valves may vary, but they normally include a: main water valve between the water tank and the pump valve controlling each pump delivery outlet non-return valve controlling each external supply inlet valve or valves controlling other features such as foam systems, secondary cooling systems or series/parallel mode selection.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Valves and valve mechanisms typically found on fire organisation pumps include: clack valve ball valve mushroom valve butterfly valve gate valve drain valve pressure relief mechanism.
Clack valve
The clack-type, non-return valve is a one-way valve often found in a collecting head or in a delivery outlet. This valve is attached to the surrounding casing by a hinge. When the flow of water ceases or tries to reverse, the clack valve returns to the closed position. A synthetic or rubber washer, set into the edge of the clack valve, creates a seal as the back pressure of the water pushes against the valve. In a delivery outlet, a screw-down shaft controls the clack valves movement. To open the delivery, the handle is turned anti-clockwise and water pressure raises the clack valve off its seat. The valve returns to its seat when the handle is turned in the clockwise direction.
Clack valve (closed position) Hinge
Water pressure
Screw-down shaft
Circular washer
Figure 36: Clack valve in delivery outlet
Ball valve
On many pumps, clack valves have been replaced by another valve known as a ball valve. This is round, usually made of brass, with a hole through its centre. The diameter of the hole is usually the same size as its associated pipes. The ball valve is encased between two seals and inserted within the valve casing. (See Figure 37.) When the ball is at 90 to the water flow, the waterway is completely closed by the ball and the flow is cut off. Using a control lever, the ball valve can be turned through 90 so that the hole through its centre is completely opened.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
In some cases, the control lever may incorporate a twist-lock mechanism. Before the lever can be operated, the handle needs to be twisted to unlock it. Once set to a new position, it can be twistlocked in that position.
Control lever
Casing
Ball (open position)
Figure 37: Ball valve in open position
Mushroom valve
A mushroom valve can be used in tank fill pipes and also in collecting heads. It is constructed of a mushroom-shaped metal head fixed to a stem. A spiral spring is fitted over the stem and fixed into the pipes. When no water is flowing, the valve is held in place by the tension of the spring and is sealed by a synthetic rubber washer around its edge. As water is delivered to one of these inlets, pressure against the mushroom valve unseats it and allows the water to flow into the pump or tank.
Mushroomshaped head Fixed, perforated metal plate
Washer
Spiral spring, attached to metal plate
Water pressure compresses spring and opens valve
Figure 38: Mushroom valve
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Butterfly valve
A butterfly valve, also known as a keystone valve, operates by a lever control. An example of this type of valve is found in the pipe between the tank supply and the pump on some appliances. When the butterfly valve is open, the control lever is aligned with the pipe.
Water Casing Valve, fully open Valve, half open Washer Valve, fully closed
Control lever
Figure 39: Butterfly valve
Gate valve
A gate valve consists of a flat metal plate operated by a screw-down shaft. Depending on the direction the shaft is rotated, the gate can be raised or lowered across the pipe. The gate valve can be set to allow full or partial flow. You may have seen gate valves on irrigation lines or large oil pipes. They are usually easily recognised by their screw-down operating mechanism. Some smaller gate valves can have a lever action to shut or open the gate.
Shaft Plate Water flow
Figure 40: Gate valve
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Drain valve
Drain valves are situated at the base of the pump and in some pipe work. They may take the form of a stop-cock (a small tap), a remotely controlled valve or a screw in the pumps base plate. Drain valves may be used to: drain the water out of the pump in cold weather to prevent freezing and resultant damage to pipes clear the pump of any foreign matter that may be left in the pump casing after pumping from salt water or taking water from a static/open supply.
Remember to close the drain valve immediately after any water has been released to prevent water being discharged from the drain valve when the pump is next operated.
Pressure-relief mechanism
The pressure-relief mechanism fitted to some pumps is a safety device for branch operators. When operated correctly, the pressure-relief mechanism prevents sudden increases in pressure being transmitted to the branch operator. Pressure-relief mechanisms vary in design, but usually consist of a valve that automatically dumps some pressurised water back to the inlet side of the pump to prevent excessive pressure reaching the branch operators. The pressure at which the relief mechanism operates can be set by the pump operator once hose lines are in operation. Typically, a control wheel is turned until the relief mechanism begins to operate (usually indicated by a light), and then the wheel is turned back until the light goes out. Some pressure-relief mechanisms require specific maintenance. Refer to the operating instructions of your particular pump/s for details. As an alternative to a pressure-relief mechanism, some larger pumps may be fitted with a pre-set pressure-relief mechanism which dumps water underneath the pumper. If water is dumped underneath your appliance, you may need to confirm whether it is from this type of relief valve (if fitted) or is simply from the appliance water tank over filling.
Engine controls
The engine controls located at the pump panel are the throttle and, usually, an emergency stop switch.
Throttle
The throttle controls the speed of the engine (indicated on the tachometer) driving the pump. It is usually operated by hand and, once set, remains in position until the operator adjusts it. There are two types of pump throttle control commonly used, the lever slide control and the Vernier micro throttle. These are usually connected to the engine by a cable. The lever slide throttle operates simply by moving the throttle lever in the appropriate direction to increase or decrease engine rpm. The slide mechanism should be adjusted so that it can move freely but can be set in any position. The Vernier micro throttle eliminates the difficulties of erratic throttle operation and allows greater control. As you rotate the micro throttle in an anti-clockwise direction, it pulls the cable forward and increases the revolutions. This avoids any sudden increases in pressure occurring.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
In the centre of the face of the micro throttle control is a button. This button is included as a safety device to shut down the engine revolutions immediately if there is an emergency. Pressing the button and pushing the knob into the pump panel returns the engine to idle speed.
Emergency stop
The second engine control feature is the engine stop. This is sometimes called an emergency stop. Not all appliances have this particular feature, but you still need to know how it operates and when to operate it. The emergency stop can be operated by either a push-button or toggle-switch control. In most designs, when either of these controls is operated, an electric current is passed on to a solenoid, which activates a plunger to close off the fuel supply. To restart the appliance, returning the shut-off control switch or button to its original position will deactivate the plunger and allow the fuel to flow again for the engine to start. These shut-off switches are situated on the pump panel to allow the operator to shut down the engine in the case of an emergency. As the name suggests, an emergency engine stop should only be used in an emergency and not each time the engine is to be turned off. Warning: Remember to ensure the safety of the branch operator/s before shutting offhe engine, and to alert the Officer-in-Charge immediately the engine is shut down.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Section 4 summary
The compound gauge indicates pressure at the inlet of the pump and is usually of the diaphragm type. The pressure gauge indicates pressure at the outlet of the pump and is usually of the Bourdon tube type. Other gauges include flow meters, the tachometer, tank gauge, oil pressure gauge and temperature gauge. A loss of oil pressure can result in engine failure and significant damage. The engine needs to be shut down immediately. Valves and control mechanisms include: clack ball butterfly mushroom gate drain pressure relief.
Engine controls include the throttle and emergency stop.
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ADVANCED PUMPING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What is the difference between a compound gauge and a pressure gauge? How does a pressure (Bourdon tube) gauge operate? What is the purpose of a flow meter or gauge? Describe the two types of tank gauges. How does a pressure-relief mechanism protect a branch operator? Describe the lever slide throttle control and the Vernier micro throttle.
Activities
1. Identify and name all the gauges and controls on the pump operators panel of one of your organisations vehicles. Discuss with a trainer or experienced pump operator what each is used for. Find out the types and function of valves used on your organisations pump/s. Find out if your organisations pumps have pressure-relief mechanisms.
2. 3.
4-13
Section
Portable Pumps
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Portable pumps
Portable pumps are independent pumping units that can be carried by one or several firefighters. They are usually centrifugal pumps powered by a small diesel, or two- or four-stroke, petrol engine. Portable pumps may be carried as stand-alone units for use away from an appliance, or may be fixed to the deck of an appliance or trailer, or as part of a slip-on firefighting unit designed to be carried on the rear of a utility or truck. Portable pumps generally have lower outputs than appliance-mounted and driven pumps. They are often smaller and may not always need to incorporate the usual pump gauges. Some portable pumps may also be designed as floating units, with an integral suction inlet. In recent years, some portable high pressure, low volume pumps have also been brought into use for firefighting.
Figure 41: Portable pumps deck-mounted, stand-alone, floating
Precautions
When handling portable pumps, its important to employ correct lifting techniques. You need to: size up the load first, and get help if needed get a firm hold, keep arms close to your body keep your back straight avoid twisting when lifting lift with your leg muscles, not the back muscles.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
For loads which need a multiple-person carry: ensure that there are enough people for the task appoint a team leader to give all commands ensure everyone lifts on the leaders command keep the load level and balanced move in unison on the leaders command lower together on the leaders command.
Other precautions include: exhaust fumes only operate pumps in well-ventilated areas hot exhausts ensure any needed guards are adequate fuel spillages make any spillages safe, and follow procedures regarding refuelling of a hot engine engine seizure ensure that when operating on an incline the pump is horizontal to maintain oil feed to the engine.
Operation
Portable pumps vary in design and operating procedures, but operation typically involves: positioning the pump in a suitable place setting the engine throttle (and choke, if fitted) to the starting position turning the main switch (if fitted) to the on position cord starting the engine, or using the self-starter, (if fitted) moving the throttle to the normal idle position, once the engine is started connecting any associated suction hose and delivery hose priming the pump setting the throttle for the required discharge.
Positioning the pump may involve physically moving it near a suitable water supply, such as a swimming pool or dam. The location should be on a flat, firm surface and in an accessible position. A floating pump will be located on the surface of the water supply and should be tethered to ensure it does not drift away if hoses become detached. Suction hose for portable pumps may often be of a relatively small diameter (38 mm or 65 mm). Unlike the large diameter suction hose used on appliance-mounted and driven pumps, it can often be easily coiled and be made up of a single long length. A strainer should be attached to the end of the suction hose to prevent foreign material being ingested by the pump. The suction strainer may be attached to a float, which is designed to keep the suction strainer and inlet below the water surface but clear of any mud or debris on the bottom of the water source. Some small portable centrifugal pumps are sometimes described as self-priming. This is not strictly true. They do not need a separate primer, but the pump casing needs to be filled with water before you commence pumping. This is normally done by unscrewing a cap on the top of the pump casing and pouring in water.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Many portable pumps will not have compound or delivery gauges. The progress of priming can be gauged from the change in sound made by the pump engine. Portable pumps usually have a limited output and may be matched with a particular delivery hose and/or nozzle combination. A mat or rag may need to be used to protect the hose from chaffing caused by pump vibration where it contacts the ground or the edge of equipment.
Maintenance
Check your own organisations instructions regarding maintenance for specific portable pumps. A typical maintenance regime consists of four levels: Before drills, after-use and once a week, check: fuel level crank case oil level all switches off valves operate freely and set for priming correctly stowed with suction hose and strainer.
At monthly intervals, inspect: drive-belt tension and condition intakes and strainers clear engine starts and runs smoothly priming operation glands for leaks associated suction hose and strainer that weekly checks have been conducted.
Each three months, test the pump by: operating pump from static/open water with specified nozzle for 15 minutes confirming pump performance is maintained as specified. carrying out an inspection.
Servicing: annually or if a fault is detected, servicing is to be carried out by an approved service technician to the manufacturers specifications.
High pressure, low volume pumps

Water extinguishes fire largely through the absorption of heat from the burning material by the conversion of liquid water into water vapour. The higher the proportion of the water applied to a fire that can undergo this conversion, the more efficient is the extinguishing action. High pressure, low volume pumps produce water streams that consist of small droplets of water. Water in the form of small droplets has a much larger surface area for each litre applied to a fire. This provides greater opportunity for the liquid to vapour conversion of water to take place, and therefore can provide more efficient extinguishment.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
High pressure, low volume pumps operate of pressures of 7000 kPa to 15000 kPa, depending on the make and model. Flow rates are quite low, typically in the 2 to 20 litre per minute range, depending on the nozzle setting in use. Water is supplied from the pump through a small diameter (e.g. 10 mm internal diameter) high pressure, hydraulic-type hose to a high pressure nozzle. The nozzle typically incorporates a pistolgrip with a self-closing, trigger-type valve. The nozzle is usually adjustable, so as to provide a range of flow rates and discharge patterns. Some models of high pressure, low volume pumps have additional features, such as provision for foam injection used in association with a foam applicator. Some may also be capable of being connected into an ejector pump: The high pressure water supply passing through the venturi of the ejector pump can draught water from an open source and return it to the appliance, or a separate tank or container, via a 38 mm delivery hose. High pressure, low volume pumps are typically used on small rural firefighting appliances. They enable the limited amount of water carried on such appliances (e.g. 300 to 500 litres) to be used more efficiently, especially on fires burning in light materials, such as grass. Overseas they have also been used on small initial attack appliances for structural firefighting in cities and towns with very narrow streets and alleyways. While the high pressure may be able to produce smaller water droplets and a more efficient extinguishing action, the low rate of flow limits the size of fire on which they can ultimately be effective. They are not suitable for situations that require high flow rates to provide sufficient cooling action on a large and/or intense fire. High pressure, low volume portable pumps should not be relied upon as the sole source of firefighting agent at incidents which involve large, intense fires, or which could involve a large, intense fire (such as when standing by to protect rescue work at a motor vehicle accident involving spilt fuel). The low volumes used also mean that filters, pipe-work and nozzles are finer than usual and may be more susceptible to blockage by grit or other foreign material. High pressure water jets are dangerous and should never be applied towards a person.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Section 5 summary
Portable pumps are independent pumping units that can be carried by one or several firefighters. Portable pumps generally have lower outputs than appliance-mounted and driven pumps. Correct lifting and carrying precautions should be observed when handling portable pumps. Portable pumps should only be operated in well-ventilated areas, and appropriate precautions taken to guard against hot exhausts, hazards during refuelling and to prevent engine seizure. Suction hose for portable pumps may be of a relatively small diameter. It is usually in a single length and fitted with a strainer and float. A portable pump should be positioned on a flat, firm surface in an accessible place. A floating pump may need to be tethered. Hoses may need to be protected from chaffing caused by pump vibration. Self-priming pumps do not need a separate primer, but the pump casing needs to be filled with water through a (normally capped) inlet on the top of the pump casing before pumping. Small portable pumps may not have gauges. Maintenance consists of checks, inspections, tests and servicing. High pressure low volume pumps may be used on small fire appliances in rural grassland areas. They produce finer water droplets and a more efficient extinguishment action.
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ADVANCED PUMPING

1. 2. 3. 4. What are the correct lifting techniques to use when handling a portable pump? What are the steps to be followed when commencing operation of a portable pump? What is meant by a self-priming portable pump, and how is it prepared for pumping? What does a typical monthly inspection of a portable pump involve?
Activities
1. Locate and inspect the portable pump/s and associated equipment carried on an appliance used by your organisation. Under supervision, start the pump/s and obtain water from a static/open source. Participate in a portable pump exercise obtaining water for your appliance's tank from a swimming pool or dam. The exercise should include all post-drill checks. Participate in a portable pump test or a drill simulating the use of the pump and associated hose and nozzle to provide stand-alone protection for a house threatened by a wildfire.
2. 3.
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Section
Appliance-mounted Pumps
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Appliance-mounted pumps
Appliance-mounted pumps are those which are fixed to the chassis of a firefighting vehicle and are usually powered by the vehicle's road engine. These pumps are generally used on urban fire appliances and other appliances where high pumping rates are needed, such as those at airports and oil refineries. This section covers: pump installation power train powering the pump cooling systems operation maintenance.
Pump installation
Pumps may be midship-mounted or at the front or rear of an appliance. Front-mounted pumps, which are relatively uncommon in Australia and New Zealand, consist of a pump mounted on the front bumper area and driven directly by the vehicle's road engine. The following information is taken from the learner resource PUAFIR302A Suppress urban fire which states that the most common locations for pumps are: midship-mounted rear-mounted.
Midship-mounted
A midship-mounted centrifugal pump is located behind the crew cabin and fixed to the vehicles chassis. It is driven by the vehicles engine through a power take-off which draws engine power through a supplementary transmission and shaft to the pump. The design of the power take-off will depend on the chassis, transmission and pump used. The pump will usually incorporate at least two impellers, sometimes with a third stage impeller to provide a high pressure capability. In most designs, the pump can be operated from either side of the vehicle.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Plumbing may include: delivery outlets, usually a combination of 65 mm and 38 mm an outlet for a high pressure hose reel a fixed-monitor outlet 65 mm inlets for boosting from a hydrant, second pumper or tanker (90 mm100 mm on some ultra-large pumpers) a foam inductor or proportioner a suction inlet (usually between 100 mm and 150 mm diameter) for draughting connections to a water tank and foam tank.
The main control panel is usually mounted on the near side or passenger side of the vehicle. Its location provides the pump operator with adequate protection from oncoming traffic, but it can sometimes be difficult for the operator to see around the vehicle. Being close to the noise of the engine can also be a problem for the operator.
Figure 42: Midship-mounted pump installation
Rear-mounted
As its name implies, a rear-mounted pump is located at the back of the vehicle, usually between the chassis rails. Plumbing is similar to that of a midship pump, except that only one suction inlet is required. Some designs locate the delivery outlets at the sides of the vehicle to reduce congestion at the pump panel. Advantages of the rear-mounted pump are that visibility for the pump operator is usually improved and the noise from the vehicle engine is less of a problem. Its disadvantages are that the operator can be more exposed to oncoming traffic, and the pump drive-line is longer and more complicated.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Figure 43: Rear-mounted pump installation
Some rear- and midship-mounted pumps feature top-mounted controls. The pump operator's station is positioned on a platform at about chassis level either just behind the crew compartment or at the rear of the appliance. This arrangement allows the pump operator a 360 view around the appliance during pumping. Some appliances, notably airport firefighting vehicles, have pump controls inside the cabin, so that the driver/operator does not need to leave their driving position to commence firefighting operations.
Power train
The power train is the path along which power is transmitted from the engine to the wheels of the vehicle and, in the case of a pumper, to the pump. A power train (or drive-line) is the propulsion arrangement that enables the driver to vary the speed, direction (forwards or backwards) and power of a vehicle. It includes the engine, transmission (manual gearbox and clutch or automatic), transfer case or power take-off, drive shaft and differential.
Engine
Transmission
Differential
Clutch
Drive shaft
Figure 44: Power train
For the purposes of pump operation, this section is concerned only with the vehicles transmission.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Transmission
Transmissions can be broadly divided into two types: manual and automatic transmissions. A manual transmission (gearbox) is a mechanical device which houses gears (the toothed-wheels that engage with each other or with a rack to change a vehicles speed or direction). The clutch allows gears to be selected to suit the driving conditions. When pumping, the transmission is normally placed in top gear. Automatic transmissions can be a problem during pumping operations, as operating the pump places a load or strain on the engine. Normally, if a load is placed on the engine, the automatic transmission selects a lower gear. During pumping operations, the changing of gears and the consequent changes in pump speed, can result in surges of water pressure for branch operators. To alleviate this problem, manufacturers may fit a top gear hold (also called a top gear lock-up) to automatic transmissions. This locks the transmission into top gear while the pump is in operation. If fitted, top gear hold devices can be operated by switches or automatically as the pump is engaged.
Powering the pump

At this point, you know about the power train and how the power from the engine is used to turn the rear wheels and drive the vehicle. To understand how the engine power is used to operate the pump, you need to know about two types of power redirection devices, namely the: transfer case, which redirects all the power to the pump so the drive wheels cannot be driven, and the power take-off (PTO), which redirects some of the power to the pump so the drive wheels can also still be driven.
Transfer case
The transfer case is built into the power train between the transmission and the differential (see Figures 45 and 46), directing power to the appropriate device either the pump (called pump drive) or the wheels (called road drive). The pump and the rear wheels cannot be operated at the same time. Special transmission arrangements may be incorporated into airport firefighting and similar vehicles to allow part of the power to be directed to driving the pump while retaining some of the power to drive and manoeuvre the vehicle (pump and roll mode). The transfer case incorporates a set of gears which can change the: direction of the power train speed of rotation of the drive shaft.
The transfer case is like a small transmission. It has an input shaft, which receives power from the engine, and two output shafts one to the pump and one to the rear wheels. The power passes via the input shaft through a set of gears which can: select the appropriate output shaft increase the speed of the pump output shaft (called a step-up ratio), or decrease the speed of the pump output shaft (called a step-down ratio).
It is often necessary to incorporate a step-up ratio in the transfer case so as to achieve maximum performance. Many modern fire pumps need to operate at higher revolutions than the engine.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Transfer case
Pump
Figure 45: Transfer case directing power to the rear wheels
Transfer case
Pump
Figure 46: Transfer case directing power to the pump
Power take-off
A power take-off (PTO) is attached directly to the transmission, usually to the side or top of the gearbox. When activated, it directs power simultaneously to a fire pump or other device such as a compressor or hydraulic pump. The main benefit of a PTO is that it can be engaged and the vehicle can still be driven. A PTO can be a useful device for rural firefighters as the hose lines can be operated while the vehicle is moving. On the other hand, the power output of a PTO is limited when compared to that of a transfer case, so a PTO can drive only small pumps.
Cooling systems
During pumping, the vehicle engine may be operating at high power, but without the cooling airflow that normally occurs through its radiator during driving. As a result, a secondary cooling system is often installed in pumping appliances. Secondary cooling systems come in various designs, but a typical system consists of a heat exchanger supplementing the engine radiator and is fed with cool water from the appliance's firefighting pump. A small hose feeds water from the outlet side of the pump to the heat exchanger, with a return line feeding back to the inlet side of the pump. Liquid from the engine radiator is fed via a series of small pipes where it is cooled by water from the appliance's pump. The pump water does not mix with the radiator coolant it simply picks up and carries away excess heat from the coolant.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Water tank Water from pump
Coolant from radiator
Figure 47: Secondary cooling system
When a pump is run for any length of time with the delivery valves closed, the churning water in the pump will heat up. If this hot water is circulated to the heat exchanger, it will be ineffective for cooling and the engine may overheat. To prevent such overheating, it is necessary either to recycle water through the appliance's tank, or allow a small quantity of water to discharge through a suitable outlet.
Operation
Now that you have an understanding of the basic mechanics of fire pumps, it is time to look at how to get the pump into operation. Each vehicle you use will have its own set of pump operation procedures. You should follow your organisations guidelines and procedures. The following are some general guidelines for the operation of typical pumps powered by the vehicle engine.
Pump with a transfer case

Engaging pump drive 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Site the appliance appropriately and safely. Engage the parking brake and place wheel chocks if required. Select neutral. (Serious damage can occur if the pump is engaged before the transmission is in neutral.) Ensure engine is at idle speed. Engage the pump by operating the appropriate lever or switch. (On a manual transmission vehicle, this is usually done with the clutch depressed.) Select the top gear and, on a manual transmission, release the clutch. Operate top gear hold on an automatic transmission.
At this point, the engine power has been directed to the pump. In most cases, you will hear the pump operating. Disengaging pump drive 1. Ensure engine is at idle speed and handbrake is still on.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
2. 3. 4. 5.
Select neutral. Disengage the pump by operating the appropriate lever or switch. (On a manual transmission, this is usually done with the clutch depressed.) Disengage the top gear hold on an automatic transmission. Remove wheel chocks.
The vehicle should now be in road drive.
Note: As a safety precaution, release the clutch slowly on a vehicle fitted with a manual transmission, in case the transmission is not in neutral.
Pump with a PTO

Engaging pump drive 1. 2. 3. Select neutral. Engine should be at idle speed. Operate the appropriate lever or switch.
There is now power directed to the pump. (Some vehicles will have an automatic idle increase as soon as the PTO is engaged.) If driving is required, operate vehicle as usual. Disengaging pump drive 1. 2. 3. Engine should be at idle speed. Select neutral. Operate the appropriate lever or switch.
There is now no power being directed to the pump.
Maintenance
Check your organisation's instructions regarding maintenance for specific pumps. A typical maintenance regime consists of four levels: Before drills, after use and before each shift, check: pump is disengaged gauges are reading correctly, no leaks valves are set for operation from tank suction hose, strainer and basket are correctly stowed.
On a weekly basis, inspect: intakes and strainers are clear glands for leaks pump engages and disengages smoothly
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ADVANCED PUMPING
primer operation valves operate smoothly and are set for operation from tank all panel lights are serviceable to ensure a check (as in 1 above) has been conducted.
Each month, test as follows: operation from static/open water with specified nozzles for 15 minutes confirm that pump performance is maintained as specified. carry out an inspection (as in 2 above).
Servicing: annually, or if a fault is detected, ensure that servicing is carried out by an approved service technician to the manufacturer's specifications.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Section 6 summary
Appliance-mounted pumps are those fitted to the chassis of an appliance and are usually powered by the appliance's vehicle engine. Pumps may be midship-mounted or at the front or rear of an appliance, with side-, rear-, topor cabin-mounted controls. The power train consists of the engine, transmission, drive shaft and differential. Automatic transmissions may be fitted with a top-gear hold. Either a transfer case or a power take-off (PTO) is used to direct power to the pump. A transfer case redirects all power from the power train to the pump. An appliance can still be driven when using a PTO-driven pump. A secondary cooling system may be fitted to assist engine cooling during pumping operations. Before engaging the pump, consult your organisation procedures. Maintenance consists of checks, inspections, tests and servicing specified by your organisation and/or the pump manufacturer.
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1. 2. 3. Describe two different types of pump installations. Name two devices which can redirect power from the engine to operate the pump, and explain the difference between them. Describe a secondary cooling system and explain why it is needed.
Activities
1. Find out about the following features as used in your organisations pumps: 2. 3. 4. pump installations position of pump controls pump drive systems secondary cooling systems.
Inspect the pump/s and associated equipment mounted on an appliance in your organisation. Under supervision, engage and disengage the pump/s. Participate in a pump test.
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Section
Practical Pump Operation
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Practical pump operation

In the previous sections you have read about firefighting hydraulics, the centrifugal pump and associated pumps used for priming, and the operation of portable and appliance-mounted pumps. Section 7 concentrates on practical pump operations in different situations. It includes: positioning the appliance pumping from the appliance tank pumping from reticulated water pumping from static/open water delivering water gauge interpretation and fault finding relay pumping.
Positioning the appliance

The safety of firefighters and the efficient handling of any incident can depend on the suitable positioning of appliances on arrival. Safety factors which need to be considered when siting the appliance include: Ensure you are visible to other road users. Do not park in blind spots such as just over the crest of a hill or immediately around blind corners. Leave appliance beacons and lights turned on. However, be aware that, especially on freeways and arterial roads, beacons and hazard lights may distract passing motorists which sometimes leads to accidents. If at all possible, position the appliance off the roadway on hard, even ground, and allow good access to all lockers on the appliance. On occasions, the appliance may need to be used to protect the scene and be parked on the roadway. Apply the appliance parking brake and, if necessary, place wheel chocks. Remain clear of smoke, gases and contaminants by positioning up-wind and up-hill from the fire or incident. Be aware of the possibility of fire escalation, explosion and building collapse. Circumstances may dictate that the appliance needs to be sited close to the incident, for example, when there is an immediate need for equipment or where visibility of the incident is essential but never place yourself or other crew members in obvious danger.
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Park clear of power lines or trees that may fall as a result of the fire. If possible, park the appliance so the incident is visible from the pump panel. Keep access clear for the arrival and departure of other emergency service vehicles. Avoid the 'candle moth' syndrome (crowding appliances close to the scene) by positioning in the best position, not just close to the incident.
Apart from the safety factors listed above, position the pump to make the best use of the water source. Positioning considerations are included in the sections which discuss operating from the three most commonly used water sources the tank, a reticulated supply, and static or open water.
Pumping from the appliance tank

Often incidents are efficiently dealt with using the water from the tank supply on the appliance. As the pump operator (and possibly the driver), you must still consider all safety factors even though your water source (on-board water tank) allows more options. Delivery hose lengths should be kept to a practical minimum. However, keep in mind that the appliance should be sited clear of the fire or incident to avoid the effects of incident escalation, explosion or building collapse. Ensure that the capacity of the tank is sufficient for the incident before siting and setting-up. Careful selection of nozzle and branch capacities when working from the tank supply is imperative. Be aware at all times of the remaining quantity of water in the tank. In some circumstances, particularly during wildfire suppression, it may be necessary to restrict firefighting operations in order to maintain a reserve of water for crew protection. Consider what alternative or additional water supplies, such as support appliances, reticulated supply, or static water might be needed. During the course of the incident, it is extremely inefficient, and possibly dangerous, to have to reposition the appliance near an alternative supply once the water tank has been emptied. In summary, therefore, when operating from a tank supply you need to: take into account siting and safety considerations set up and deliver water in accordance with organisation operating procedures know the capacity of the branches and nozzles in use so that a quick mental calculation will result in an estimate of the expected flow rate and the operating duration of the tank supply never over-commit the tank supply (that is, attempting to deliver more water than the pipes can supply), and avoid completely emptying the tank consider, and look for, an alternative supply from other appliances, street mains, private water supply systems or static/open water advise the Officer-in-Charge and branch operator if the tank water supply is going to be insufficient and no other supplies are immediately available monitor instruments to guarantee efficient operation and to detect malfunctions.
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Pumping from reticulated water

There are many considerations in siting pumps when working from a reticulated supply. An overall assessment of the requirements for controlling the incident, along with the important local knowledge of the water supply characteristics (such as main sizes, pressures and volumes available) plays a part in the final decision. Your understanding of local supply characteristics helps you to predict the number and size of branches that can be used. This awareness will allow you to set up without the fear that the water supplies may be inadequate and that relocation might be necessary. If the water supply is poor, greater hydraulic efficiency is achieved by positioning the pump closer to the water supply. In some cases, it may be necessary to position the pump further from the fire, but close to a hydrant on a larger water main, or at a street intersection where there may be two separate water mains, each equipped with a hydrant. (See the learner resource PUAFIR203A Respond to urban fire for more information about fire hydrants.) In addition to the points identified in the above section on pumping from the appliance tank, when operating from a reticulated supply, you need to: where possible, position the pump to take advantage of the largest water main available or where it is possible to access additional supplies/mains use the largest diameter hose possible to supply water to the pump to maintain maximum hydraulic efficiency back fill the appliance water tank, (if possible and without affecting water being supplied to operating branches), to ensure continuing supply if the reticulated supply is lost if supplying water to another pump, consider twinning the hose lines to reduce friction loss set up as close as possible to the supply if water supply is poor so that you maintain maximum hydraulic efficiency maintain a slight positive pressure on the pump inlet gauge. Operating at an inlet pressure less than zero will collapse the soft supply hose between the water source and the pump, and can lead to cavitation (the formation of water vapour bubbles in a stream of water) monitor instruments to ensure efficient operation and detect malfunctions minimise water hammer, that is the shock caused by opening and shutting off a hydrant, pump delivery or controlled branch too quickly.
You need to calculate the reserve flow in the water main (the amount of water still available to be supplied to the incident). To do this, note the pressure on the inlet gauge prior to opening a delivery valve. Open the first delivery line and adjust to the required operating pressure. Again note the pressure on the inlet gauge and calculate the loss of pressure from the earlier pressure reading. The following figures give an approximate indication of available supply. If the drop in pressure on the inlet gauge is: less than 10%, 3 times the original flow is available less than 15%, 2 times the original flow is available less than 25%, a flow equal to the original flow is available more than 25%, less than the original flow is available.
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For example, a 25 mm nozzle delivering 1100 litres per minute is in use. Before the delivery was opened, the static inlet pressure was 400 kPa. With the nozzle operating, the residual inlet pressure is 300 kPa. This equals a 25% drop in pressure and indicates that a flow equal to the original (1100 litres per minute) is still available. Pump operators should use multiple supply hoses with as large a diameter as possible to supply as much water as possible to the pump. One way of checking if the water supply is being over-used is to feel the supply hose to see if it is going soft. Remember you can only deliver as much water as is being supplied. When shutting down, close off the reticulated water supply and relieve the pressure in the supply line through a delivery or into the appliance tank, before undoing supply hose couplings.
Pumping from static/open water

A static or open water supply is a body of water such as a dam, lake, stream, pool or tank which can be used for the incident. Draughting from such a supply is necessary when appliance tank capacities are insufficient and where no, or only poor, reticulated supplies are available. This section discusses: draughting emergency priming cavitation.
Draughting
Draughting is the lifting of water from a static/open supply. The pump must be sited as close as practicable to the surface of the water before commencing draughting. The greater the height of the suction lift, the less efficient the pump, and therefore the less water available for the incident. The pump should be sited on clear, firm ground, and as level as possible. The safety of the appliance and crew, and the ability to relocate if the need arises, must always be considered. Also, keep in mind any load limits on bridges, jetties or man-made landings you may be working from. When siting your appliance, remember to allow sufficient space for other appliances to turn around or to gain access. The water should be as clear as possible. Mud, weed and foreign bodies can make a pump inoperable. Take care that the water is not already contaminated from the fire or incident, or from up-hill or up-stream of the pumping position. The amount of water available should be sufficient for the incident and sufficiently deep to draught (3 times the depth of the suction strainer). If the water is not deep enough, a vortex (a small whirlpool) may introduce air into the suction hose and, when drawn into the pump, cause a loss of prime. If working from tidal water, consideration must be given to the level of water as the suction strainer may become exposed at low tide. In setting up to draught, note in particular that: You should set up, prime and operate your pump, and deliver water in accordance with your organisations operating procedures, monitoring instruments to ensure efficient operation.
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The priming pump, main pump, suction hoses and couplings must be in good condition if a prime is to be achieved. Only the minimum length of suction hose to guarantee the ongoing supply should be used. The longer the suction hose line, the greater the friction loss. The suction hose must be assembled making sure that couplings are tightened correctly. The suction strainer and basket need to be attached to prevent blocking of the pump inlet with mud, weed and foreign matter. A float may also be attached to the end of the suction hose to keep the strainer off the bottom of the water supply. Overhanging lengths of large diameter suction hose will need to be supported with lashing which will take much of the strain off the couplings. Padding may be needed between the suction hose and anything that is bearing against it likely to cause abrasion. It is necessary to avoid having any of the suction hose higher than the pump inlet as an air pocket may form.
Relevant valves on the pump and appliance reticulation pipework need to be in the correct positions prior to attempting to prime. To achieve a prime, you need to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Set the throttle at priming speed. (Refer to manufacturers specifications. Some primers are automatic and engage and disengage as required.) Operate the primer. (The inlet gauge will register an increasing vacuum reading while priming.) Adjust the throttle, once the pump is primed, (the pressure gauge will show a positive reading) Open deliveries as required.
When the pump is primed, the pump inlet (compound) gauge reading is proportional to the height of the lift. The gauge registers approximately 10 kPa for each metre of vertical lift. (Refer to Section 1.) For example, when a pump four metres above the water level is operating from an open water supply, the inlet gauge will indicate that approximately 40 kPa has been used in lifting the water to the eye of the pump. When estimating the flow rate needed for the incident, keep in mind the nozzles and branches to be used, and determine if the required rate is within the capacity of your pump. As already mentioned, although the maximum theoretical vertical lift is 10 metres and the maximum practical vertical lift is 8 metres under perfect conditions, the maximum lift usually attempted is 7.5 metres. The rated capacity of a pump is its output in litres per minute when working from a 3 metre lift. As can be seen from the following figures, the greater the vertical lift to be overcome, the less water that can be delivered to the incident: 3.0 metre lift 4.5 metre lift 6.0 metre lift 7.0 metre lift 7.5 metre lift rated capacity of the pump 1/7 loss of capacity 1/3 loss of capacity 1/2 loss of capacity 2/3 loss of capacity.
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If working from a limited water supply (such as a dam or swimming pool), you need to determine its capacity. Estimate how long it will last at the proposed flow rate and whether this is likely to be sufficient for the proposed firefighting operation.
Emergency priming
As discussed in the previous section, draughting requires a successful prime of the pump. There may be a number of reasons a prime cannot be achieved, including: loose couplings on suction hose air entering the suction through faulty couplings or damaged suction hose priming pump faulty incorrect valves open air pocket in suction hose vertical lift more than 7.5 metres suction hose not covered sufficiently with water (three times the diameter of the suction hose) suction strainer blocked.
If the priming pump fails there are steps by which a prime may be achieved using the blank cap on the pumps inlet, a collecting head, or by back flushing.
Using a blank cap

The steps to achieve a prime using a blank cap (the metal cap used on delivery outlets and on the suction inlet of the pump to prevent discharge of water) are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Connect all suction hoses. Leave a delivery slightly open. Run the pump. Hold the suction hose above the level of the pump. Pour water into the hose until water runs out the delivery. (This confirms that the pump casing is filled with water.) Close the delivery. Fill the suction hose completely with water. Screw a blank cap onto the end of the suction hose. Lower the suction hose into the water.
10. Remove the blank cap under water and at the same time operate the pump. 11. Replace the strainer/s under water if possible or ensure that no foreign matter enters the pump inlet. It is important to comply with your organisations OH&S policies during such priming operations.
Using a collecting head

To achieve a prime using a collecting head (used to collect water, usually from two to four lines, into the suction inlet of a pump), repeat steps 1 to 7 as for the blank cap, and then:
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ADVANCED PUMPING
1. 2. 3. 4.
Screw a collecting head onto the end of the suction hose. Lower the suction hose into the water. Operate the pump the collecting head allows water to enter via the clack or mushroom valve. Keep suction clear of foreign matter.
Priming by back flushing

Back flushing is a term used to describe the filling of the suction hose from the appliances water tank in preparation for draughting. With the pump idling and the suction strainer in the water, open the main tank-to-pump valve and allow water to flow from the tank into the suction hose. The intention is to fill the suction hose with water. When water is seen gurgling out of the suction strainer, increase the pump throttle setting, open a delivery and close the main tank-to-pump valve. Water should now flow smoothly from the static/open water source and out the delivery. Alternatively, another pump can be used to feed water to the pump that cannot prime. Once a prime is achieved, the other pump can be removed.
Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation of water vapour bubbles in a stream of water. It directly affects pump performance and suction lift. When the pressure on a liquid is reduced, its boiling point (the temperature at which it turns into a vapour) is also reduced. At normal atmospheric pressure, (about 100 kPa), water boils at 100C. If the atmospheric pressure were reduced to 70 kPa, the boiling point of water would be 89.6C. This phenomenon is the reason for cavitation in pumps. Cavitation can occur in any centrifugal pump that is attempting to pump more water than is available. This can happen when pumping from static/open water or a hydrant. As the pump inlet pressure drops, bubbles of water vapour may form in the water near the impeller eye where the area of lowest pressure occurs. As these bubbles reach the discharge side of the pump, the pressure on the water becomes greater and the bubbles implode or collapse. (That is, under the greater pressure near the periphery of the pump, the water vapour bubbles collapse back into water and other water rushes in to fill the rest of the space that had been taken up by the bubble.) These implosions may damage the impeller and housing by chipping away small bits of the metal, making the metal look pockmarked. Cavitation damage can cause the impeller to become unbalanced, which subjects pump seals, bearings and shafts to strain and vibration. One of the best indicators that cavitation is likely is when an increase in engine speed does not produce a consequent increase in pump discharge pressure. At the same time, there might be a sound as if pebbles were being run through the pump. When draughting from static/open water, cavitation may be caused by: a partially clogged intake strainer a suction hose that is too long or too small a lift which is too high water that is warm any combination of the above.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Note: You should be aware that cavitation can also occur when pumping from a hydrant. Such cavitation is usually caused by trying to pump more water than the hydrant can supply or by using too small a supply hose.
Delivering water
Delivery hose lines are those which run from the pump to the nozzles for the delivery of water on to the fire. As a pump operator, you are responsible for ensuring a safe and effective supply of water to the branch operators and associated firefighters. Delivery lines should normally be operated at optimum nozzle pressure. To achieve optimum nozzle pressure, the pump pressure needs to be adjusted to take into account friction loss and height loss. Remember that the energy in the water from the pump is in the form of both pressure and flow. If you increase the flow, say by opening another delivery or by an operator increasing the flow rate selected on a variable flow nozzle, the pressure will drop. To maintain the pressure, you need to add more energy to the water, by increasing the pump throttle setting. Conversely, if a delivery is closed down or the rate of flow of a variable nozzle is decreased, then the pressure will rise, unless you reduce the power setting on the throttle.
Water on
You should not deliver water to a nozzle until the branch operator is ready. Their readiness is normally indicated by them giving a recognised water-on signal. Failure to wait for such a signal may result in loss of control of the branch and injury to firefighters. The advice for water on and pressure adjustments may be passed on by word of mouth, by radio or by hand signals. You need to be familiar with your organisation's signals. With practice, you may be able to partially charge the hose line in anticipation of the water-on signal. However, water should never reach the branch until the branch operator is ready. Likewise, while the hose is still being coupled together, no water should reach any coupling until it is properly connected.
Charging a hose line

While a hose line is being charged with water, there is little energy in the water in the form of pressure, most of it is in the form of velocity energy as the water flows through the hose. Once water reaches the nozzle, however, the pressure builds up relatively quickly. When charging the hose, do it gradually so that the branch operator can anticipate the arrival of the water and counter the jet reaction from the nozzle once water is discharging. With practice, you may be able to charge the hose line relatively rapidly, then back off pressure as the water reaches the nozzle, then increase it to optimum pressure once you are certain the branch operator has it under control.
Delivering optimum nozzle pressure

Where the branch operator is visible, the pump pressure may be adjusted up to provide the optimum nozzle pressure once it is clear the branch is under safe control. Where the branch operator is not visible, you may need to be given directions by radio or relayed hand signals as to when to provide optimum pressure. Until that signal is received, the nozzle pressure should not exceed 550 kPa for a controlled branch and 400 kPa for an open branch.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Often an attack line (a delivery line being used to attack the fire) is advanced into a structure with the nozzle closed, or is standing by with a closed outlet to provide protection, say, at a motor vehicle accident. In such cases, you need to provide sufficient pressure to the closed nozzle to supply an effective firefighting stream if the nozzle suddenly needs to be operated. Remember that the pressure will drop as soon as the nozzle is opened. You may also need to consider pump and engine cooling if this pressure needs to be maintained for a significant time. Your organisations pumps might be fitted with pressure limiting devices which will enable you to control the maximum pressure being maintained.
Operating multiple lines

Opening up a new attack line may rob pressure from attack lines already in operation. You need to ensure that operators of existing lines are not endangered by any loss of pressure in their lines during that process. With practice, you will be able to adjust the throttle and open up the new delivery in a way that eliminates or minimises the pressure loss to the existing attack lines. Generally, when nozzles of different capacities and optimum pressures are working off the same pump, the pump pressure is adjusted to suit the needs of the higher capacity nozzle, providing safety is not compromised. While it may be acceptable to work with nozzles of different capacities off the same pump, there are of course some limitations. For example, a pump is unlikely to be able to safely and effectively supply both a high pressure, high-volume nozzle and a low pressure, low volume nozzle. At any incident where multiple hose lines are operating off a pump, confusion can occur when a single line needs to be shut down to have additional lengths added or to be re-positioned. This confusion can be overcome by numbering the hose line according to the delivery to which it is attached. Usually pump deliveries are numbered from the left side to the right side of the pump panel, when facing it. The first delivery line is coupled to delivery outlet 1, the next delivery line to delivery outlet 2 and so on. If a hose line is attached to delivery outlet 4, the branch operator is told that they have control of hose line 4. From that point on when instructions are given for water on and water off, the hose line number should be quoted. The instruction for supplying water to number 3 hose line could then be Water on, line 3! The same numbering system is also used for supply (or feed) hoses left side supply inlet is supply line number 1, and so on.
Valve, throttle and pressure relief operation

As already mentioned, for the safety of firefighters and for the maintenance of equipment, all valves need to be opened and closed carefully. All deliveries should be opened fully to allow the maximum flow possible. Engine power should be adjusted in a manner that reduces the chance of rapidly changing and dangerous operating pressures. Where fitted, pressure-relief mechanisms need to be adjusted and reset as soon as possible after the water on command has been given.
Shutting down and adding hose lines

When a delivery needs to be closed for the purpose of relocating hose lines, adding lengths of hose, or when more hose lines are brought into action, pump engine power needs to be adjusted to compensate for either the reduced or increased flow required.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
The power needs to be adjusted by means of the throttle at the same time that delivery valves are being opened or closed so that a constant pressure is delivered to the branch operator/s for the duration of the incident. Once again, a pressure-relief mechanism, if fitted, must be properly adjusted to the appropriate operating pressure.
Hose reel operation

You may face additional considerations when delivering water from the appliance through a hose reel, particularly a high-pressure hose reel. Given the variety of hose diameters and lengths on hose reels, it's impossible to be specific, but there are some important general considerations: organisation procedures will usually indicate the appropriate operating pressures and flows for your hose reels before getting to work with a hose reel, check the appliance is sited so that hose from the reel can reach the objective flow and pressure available through the hose reel must be sufficient to complete the task with volume/pressure pumps, it may be possible to operate the hose reel with the pump in either volume or pressure mode it will be necessary to adjust the pump pressure-relief mechanism (if fitted) prior to delivering water at high pressure to hose reels.
As discussed earlier, it is important not to let the pump churn water against a closed outlet for very long. The water may become heated and cause steam burns to firefighters, or damage to the pump or the vehicle engine if it depends on water from the pump for a secondary cooling system. You need to monitor this carefully, adjust the pump settings accordingly, and/or provide for cool water to circulate through the pump. Check that any braking mechanism is properly adjusted and that the hose off the reel drum is not run out at such a speed that the hose over runs and becomes tangled. The firefighter guiding hose back onto the reel needs to wear gloves, as sharp objects may be embedded in the hose.
Gauge interpretation and fault-finding

You need to continually monitor the pump gauges. If all systems are working correctly, you only need to adjust to changing conditions. However, if a problem occurs, accurate gauge interpretation and fault-finding allows you to identify and rectify the problem/fault. Remember, if the pump fails, the branch operators and other personnel at the incident could be placed in immediate danger. Pump inlet and delivery gauges respond to a variation in pump revolutions. With a branch in operation, increasing pump revolutions will cause the pressure reading on the delivery gauge to rise and the pump inlet gauge reading to fall. Conversely, decreasing the pump revolutions will cause the delivery gauge reading to fall and the pump inlet gauge reading to rise. Also, if the throttle is not altered, the delivery pressure will vary conversely to the rate of flow being delivered. For example, if a branch is shut down, the pressure will rise, or if another branch is opened, the pressure will drop. Although both delivery and inlet pressure gauges are calibrated in units of pressure, the pump inlet gauge also gives some indication of the amount of water available for use when working from a reticulated supply or static/open water. Some pumps may also be fitted with flow meters.
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Fault-finding can be difficult under stressful situations. You need to practise fault-finding during training sessions so that, should a problem occur at an incident, your skill as a pump operator will allow you to rectify the situation. As in the previous sections, the information on gauge interpretation and fault finding is divided into three parts according to the water supply being used: appliance tank reticulated water static/open water.
Appliance tank
When a pump is operating from the appliance tank, the delivery gauge should be set for the appropriate operating pressure for the particular branch or nozzle, taking into account estimated losses due to friction and height. In this mode of operation, it can be expected that the inlet gauge will show a slight negative reading. The following checklists outline what the gauge is likely to indicate, the likely cause and the corrective action to be taken. Fault: Failure to deliver adequate quantity of water Indication Potential cause High rpm with little or no Blockage on the inlet side of pressure reading on the delivery the pump. For example, the gauge. pipe from the water tank to the pump. Increased negative reading on the inlet gauge. Valve from water tank to pump closed. Tank valve not opened fully. Water tank empty, pump drive not engaged or pump not primed. Corrective action Clean out pipe and, if fitted, strainer.
Open tank valve. Open tank valve completely.
Zero reading on the inlet gauge.
Fill tank Engage pump Prime pump
Fault: Water being delivered, but low pressure reading on the delivery gauge Indication Potential cause Corrective action High rpm and low delivery Pump engaged in incorrect Select top gear. pressure. gear. No branch or nozzle on the hose. Wait for nozzle to be attached.
Branch or nozzle of much larger capacity then usual. Burst hose. Pressure-relief mechanism incorrectly set. Air lock.
Adjust pressure to suit nozzle requirements. Replace hose. Reset pressure-relief mechanism. Crack open spare delivery valve and release air.
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Fault: Reduced water flow, but increased pressure reading on delivery gauge Indication Potential cause Corrective action High reading on delivery gauge. All branches shut down. Shut down pump.
Little or no flow. Pump getting hot.
Hose or branch blocked.
Unblock or replace line. Release some water to cool pump.
Fault: Pump cavitation Indication High rpm. Fluctuation of pressure on delivery gauge. Increased negative reading and fluctuation on the inlet gauge. Noise of cavitation.
Potential cause Partial blockage on the inlet side of the pump.
Corrective action Clean tank-pump pipe and strainer.
Attempting to deliver more water than is available to the pump.
Reduce rpm until gauges give steady readings and noise of cavitation stops.
Reticulated water
As discussed earlier, when pumping from a reticulated water supply, the greater the positive reading on the inlet gauge the more water is available for use. Some possible fault indications when pumping from a reticulated water supply are shown in the following checklists. Fault: Failure to deliver adequate quantity of water Indication Potential cause Insufficient pressure reading on Insufficient water supply the delivery gauge. available for selected branches or nozzles. Blockage on the inlet side of the pump. Zero reading on the pump inlet gauge, supply hose/s soft and in danger of collapsing. Pump cavitation. Inlet valves partially or not opened. Hydrant standpipe not fully open. Supply hose/s of inadequate size or number. Water back-filling into appliance water tank through an open valve. Increase supply hose diameter or twin the line. Close tank valve. Corrective action Change branches or nozzles. Remove blockage.
Open inlet valves.
Open hydrant fully.
High negative reading on the inlet gauge and supply hoses hard.
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Fault: Unable to maintain required delivery pressure Indication Potential cause Reduced pressure reading on Burst hose. the delivery gauge. Incorrectly set pressure-relief mechanism. Reduced positive reading on the inlet gauge. Additional branches being operated.
Corrective action Replace hose. Reset pressure-relief mechanism. Increase rpm, if insufficient water available, advise Officer in Charge that line needs to be shut down.
Fault: Increased readings on delivery and inlet gauges Indication Potential cause Increased pressure on delivery gauge. Increased positive reading on inlet gauge. Increased water flow to pump.
Corrective action Reduce rpm.
Branches being shut down.
Shut down deliveries.
Blockage in hose or branch (for example a vehicle parked or building debris on hose). Another pump, further ahead in a relay, not using the full quantity of water available.
Remove vehicle or debris, or shut down line.
Communicate with pump operator (see Section 8).
Static/open water
In Section 5 of this section, you read that to operate from a static/open supply, a prime (removing the air from the pump and suction hose) needs to be achieved. The lower pressure in the supply hose required to lift the water to the eye of the pump means hard suction hose needs to be used to prevent the hose collapsing. Some possible fault indications are shown in the following checklists. Fault: Reduced flow of water Indication Increased pressure reading on delivery gauge. Potential cause All branches shut down. Corrective action Reduce rpm and shut down deliveries.
Reduced negative reading on inlet gauge.
Blocked hose or branch. A pump ahead in a relay not using the full amount of water available.
Remove blockage. Communicate with pump operator
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Fault: Reduced flow of water at constant RPM Indication Potential cause Increase in negative pressure on Drop in supply level, ebbing inlet gauge. tide, or quantity in dam reducing. Decreased pressure reading on delivery gauge. Blockage in suction side of pump. Blocked suction basket and strainer.
Corrective action Relocate pump.
Remove blockage.
Clean basket and strainer.
Fault: Increased flow but reduced pressure reading on delivery gauge Indication Potential cause Corrective action Increase in negative pressure on Burst hose. Replace hose. inlet gauge. No branch or nozzle on hose. Fit branch or nozzle.
Reduced pressure reading on delivery gauge.
Additional hose lines being added on the attack pump of a relay.
Adjust rpm.
Fault: Loss of prime Indication Zero reading on inlet and delivery gauges, and dramatic increase in engine rpm and noise.
Potential cause Air entering on the suction side of the pump through: faulty couplings or suction hose a vortex reduced level of water suction hose out of the water.
Corrective action
Replace suction hose. Place suction hose lower in water. Relocate pump. Add length of suction hose.
Relay pumping
Relay pumping is used where a source of water sufficient for the operation is a long-distance from the incident. Relay pumping consists of a number of pumps spaced at intervals between a water source and the incident. Lines of hose connect the pump at the supply to subsequent booster pumps and then to the incident-ground pump, which delivers water to the branch operator/s. The booster pumps are used to overcome the pressure losses due to head and friction in the hose lines making up the relay. Relay pumping may use either an open circuit or a closed circuit.
Open circuit
In an open circuit relay, water is delivered into a holding dam or the appliance tank of each unit in the relay. This temporarily enables a higher flow rate to be used than is being supplied by the relay by dipping into the reserve in the dam or tank for a short period. However, it has the
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disadvantage of not being able to use the residual pressure supplied from the previous pumper in the relay. For this reason, closed circuit relays are more common.
Figure 48: Open circuit water relay
Closed circuit
In the closed circuit relay, the water is pumped from the source by the base pump to the inlet of each subsequent booster pump, then to the incident-ground pump which delivers the water to the incident. To be fully effective, the closed circuit relay demands a higher standard of pump operation than normal. The pump operator must carefully monitor pump gauges, engine speed, and the hose line for the fluctuations in supply. Where the pump has no gauges, the operator must rely on continually observing the hose line supplying the pump.
Figure 49: Closed circuit water relay
Relaying over undulating ground

When the intervening ground between pumps is uphill, some of the pump pressure is used to raise the water to the higher level, with the result that less pressure is available to overcome friction loss in the hose. Conversely, when the ground between pumps slopes downhill, the static head offsets the frictional resistance in the hose. Pump spacing may need to be adjusted to take such situations into account. To calculate the effect of undulating ground, estimate the difference in height between the two pumps in metres and multiply this by 10 to give the static head in kPa. A height difference of less than 10 metres between successive pumps is normally disregarded as it will be insignificant and can be allowed for with the pump settings.
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Calculating the distance between pumps

When calculating the distance between pumps, you should allow for a delivery pressure of about 700 kPa and ensure a residual inlet pressure of 100 kPa (Check the requirement of your organisation). Therefore, you have some 600 kPa available to overcome the pressure losses due to head and friction. The distance between pumps and the number of pumps required for the relay can be calculated using the following formula: Lengths of hose between pumps = Friction loss per length of hose 600 kPa +/ static head
Note: plus static head = pressure gain down hill, minus static head = pressure loss uphill. For example, lets say you need to deliver water to the incident over a distance of 350 metres. The amount of head to be overcome is 20 metres within the first section of the relay. Friction loss per 30 m length of hose in each case is 100 kPa. Calculation one Hose lengths from the supply pump to the first booster pump: Lengths of hose between pumps = 600 kPa 200 kPa = 4 lengths = 120 m. 100 kPa Calculation two Hose lengths from the first booster pump to the next pump: Lengths of hose between pumps = 600 kPa +/ 0 kPa = 6 lengths = 180 m. 100 kPa Therefore, 3 pumps will be required for the relay: Base pump to first booster pump = 120 metres
Booster pump to incident-ground pump = 180 metres Incident-ground pump to the fire Total: = 50 metres = 350 metres.
Setting up the relay

The first arriving appliance is normally positioned at the incident scene, using its tank or a water source at the scene. Where possible, the largest capacity pump should be positioned at the water supply for greatest hydraulic efficiency and the smallest capacity pump would become the incident-ground pump. It must be remembered that the first arriving appliance may be committed at the scene and therefore may automatically become the incident-ground pump. Where pumps of different capacities are used, options such as varying the distance between pumps or using the pumps in parallel should be considered. Once the pumps to be placed in the relay have been identified, you can proceed to:
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determine the distance between pumps and note that each pump should have two spare lengths of hose in case a hose bursts lay the hose and position the pumps to set up the relay ensure that each booster pump has a spare delivery valve to release air from the system as water advances. The valve should be open. advise the base pump operator to deliver water at 500 kPa (or as identified in your organisations Standard Operating Procedures) arrange that when water flows from the open unused delivery valve of each booster pump, the valve is closed and pump pressure set to 500 kPa increase the pressure at the base pump to 700 kPa, once all the pumps in the relay have water adjust the output pressure of each successive pump to 700 kPa, setting the relief valve if applicable, and ensuring that the pump inlet gauge reads a minimum of 100 kPa arrange communications between all pump operators.
Note: Your organisation may require that relays are conducted at different pressures to those shown above. In such cases, substitute the pressures required by your organisation.
Shutting down the relay

It is equally important that the process of shutting down the water relay is carried out effectively to prevent pump or hose damage. Shutting down involves: commencing at the incident-ground pump, reducing engine rpm of each pump to idle starting at the incident ground pump, closing all deliveries disengaging/closing down pumps closing hydrant releasing residual pressure from system making-up equipment.
Breakdown
Should a booster pump suffer a mechanical defect, there is no need to shut-down the relay until you are ready to replace the defective pump. The relay will still continue to function, although there will be a drop of about 30% in the output and throttles will have to be adjusted to maintain maximum flow. Burst hose lines, outside the vision of pump operators, may be detected at the pump by a rapid drop in discharge pressure. If operating through twin hose lines, slowly close the delivery supplying the burst line, making a throttle adjustment, and continue pumping through a single line at the same pressure while replacing the damaged section. To identify the burst line, note the discharge pressure immediately upon closing the delivery. If the correct delivery has been closed, there will be substantial increase in pressure.
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The throttle setting of the other pumps must be adjusted. The pump with its inlet connected to the burst hose has to operate at near zero inlet pressure to maintain maximum flow while the damaged hose is replaced.
Communications
For the efficient operation of a water relay, it is important to maintain good communications along the route so that changes in conditions and orders to shut-down can be acted upon quickly. While the water relay is in operation, pump operators must remain continually alert. In addition to their normal function, they must realise they are part of a team, and ensure they communicate to maintain an effective relay. The ideal situation would be for each pump operator to have a portable radio. Any change in the flow or pressure at the incident-ground pump affects the flow or pressure at the other pumps. This is detected by the readings at the pump inlet and outlet gauges. Such changes should be communicated to each pump operator as they occur.
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Section 7 summary
Practical pump operation includes: positioning the appliance pumping from the appliance tank pumping from reticulated water pumping from static/open water delivering water gauge interpretation and fault finding relay pumping.
The appliance should be positioned in a safe location, not obstructing other units, within striking distance of the fire and taking water supply into account. Water from the appliance tank is used at many incidents. You need to ensure it is sufficient for the operation, or arrange for additional water supply. If a reticulated water supply is used, you need to ensure it is sufficient for the pumping operation. Using more than one hydrant and/or a larger main may assist. A static/open water source, such as a dam, lake, stream, pool or tank, can be used if there is no reticulated supply available. The pump should be positioned in a safe location that also minimises suction lift. Use an emergency priming technique if the priming pump fails to operate. Avoid pump cavitation and over-running of the water supply. Nozzles on delivery hose lines need to be supplied with water at their optimum operating pressure. Water should not be delivered to the nozzle until the branch operator is ready. When charging additional hose lines, you need to prevent water pressure being taken from hose lines already in operation. Valves and the throttle should be opened and closed in a manner that maximises safety for the branch operators. If fitted, pressure-relief mechanisms should be adjusted to provide supplementary protection against a sudden pressure increase at the nozzle. Observe the applicable organisation procedures when operating hose reels. A closed outlet may lead to hot water circulating in the pump. If the water is not cooled, firefighters may receive burns, or the pump may be damaged. Use the pump gauges to monitor pump operation, to identify any problems and to select the appropriate corrective action. Relay pumping is used where a source of water sufficient for the operation is a long distance from the incident. In an open circuit relay, water is delivered into a holding dam or the appliance tank of each unit in the relay. In a closed circuit relay, water is pumped from the source by the base pump to the inlet of each subsequent booster pump, then to the incident-ground pump. Should a booster pump suffer a mechanical defect, there is no need to shut down the relay until you are ready to replace the defective pump.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What are the three alternative sources of water supply? What do you need to do to calculate the approximate supply of water in a water main available when pumping? What do you need to do to achieve a prime? List six possible reasons why a prime cannot be achieved. What is back flushing and how is it achieved? What is cavitation and what does it do? List four possible causes of cavitation when draughting from static/open water. While draughting water from a static/open source, you suddenly get a decrease in the pressure on the (delivery) pressure gauge and an increase in the vacuum reading on the compound gauge. What could be the cause? What needs to be done to set up a water relay once the pumps to be used have been identified?
9.
Activities
Under supervision, participate in the following activities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Position a pumping appliance appropriately at various simulated incidents. Supply water to a site using the appliance water tank. Supply water to a site from a hydrant. Change over from the appliance tank to a hydrant. Supply water to a site from an open water source. Using gauges to monitor pump operation, identify and correct problems, as variations in flow and water supply conditions occur. Set up, operate and close down open- and closed-circuit relays.
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Section
Foam Systems
ADVANCED PUMPING
Section
Foam systems
Foam consists of bubbles which coat the surface of a combustible fuel with an extinguishing layer. Foam is produced by mixing foam concentrate with water (a process called proportioning) to produce foam solution and then aerating it to produce bubbles of foam.
Figure 50: Components of foam
A foam proportioning system is designed to introduce foam concentrate into a water stream in proportion to the water's flow rate. That is, as the water flows through the proportioner, foam solution is produced in a constant proportion. This section looks at: types of foam foam-making equipment.
Foam is also discussed in detail in learner resource PUAFIR203A Respond to urban fire.
Types of foam
Foam can be classified in a number of different ways by: the type of fire for which it is designed its expansion ratio the type of concentrate how much energy is used in its production.
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Class A and Class B foams

Class A foams are designed for use on class A fires (fires which involve common carbonaceous solids such as wood and paper). In Australia, they are commonly used for wildfire fighting and are sometimes referred to as bushfire fighting foams. They are typically used in 1% solutions or less. Increasingly, urban fire services are using Class A foam at structural fires. Class B foams are designed for use on Class B fires (fires involving flammable and combustible liquids, like petrol, oil or paint). They are typically used in solutions proportioned at 6% or 3%.
Low, medium and high expansion foams

The expansion of foam refers to the ratio of the volume of the aerated foam in its final produced form to the volume of the foam solution. The additional volume is made up of air from the foam aeration process. Table 3 shows the various expansion rates and the usual applications of each foam type. Foam type Low expansion foam Expansion ratio This foam has an expansion ratio ranging from 2:1 to 20:1, but usually between 5:1 and 15:1 (that is 1 litre of foam solution plus air equals 5 to 15 litres of finished foam.). It is typically produced by a self-aspirating (air-inducing) foam branch. This foam has an expansion ratio ranging from 20:1 to 200:1, but usually between 50:1 and 150:1. It is typically produced by a selfaspirating foam branch incorporating a net or mesh. This foam has an expansion ratio ranging from 200:1 to 2000:1, but usually no more than about 1200:1. It is typically produced by a foam generator with an air fan and a net, using synthetic concentrate. Application Low expansion foam is used to extinguish a wide range of fires such as a contained petrol spill and flammable liquid fires in vats.
Medium expansion foam
Medium expansion foam is used for a wide range of applications, such as sealing large spillages of hazardous liquids. High expansion foam is used for gaining control of inaccessible Class A and B fires such as those which occur in ships holds, basements or cable tunnels, and for totally flooding an area.
High expansion foam
Table 3: Low, medium and high expansion foams
WARNING: High expansion foam can exclude oxygen from a compartment in which it is being applied. In these situations, you need to wear breathing apparatus. Check your organisations Standard Operating Procedures.
Protein, synthetic, fluoro-chemical, fluoro-protein and alcohol type foams

The above terms refer to the composition of the foam concentrate. Protein foam concentrates are produced by chemically treating animal proteins. They were commonly used in the past to produce low expansion foams for flammable liquid firefighting, but they are now relatively uncommon. Synthetic foam concentrates are composed of synthetic foam-making chemicals. High expansion foam concentrate and class A foam concentrates are typically synthetic.
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Fluoro-chemical foam concentrates are more commonly known as aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) concentrates. They are commonly used in low expansion foam equipment for flammable liquid firefighting. They can also be used in medium and high expansion foam equipment, but do not expand as much as the specially designed high expansion foam concentrates. Fluoro-protein foam concentrates are used on flammable liquid fires, especially where it is important to have high resistance to flame burn-back (flames spreading back over an area previously extinguished) and where there is potential contamination by flammable fuels (for example, when used in sub-surface foam injection systems protecting bulk oil storage tanks). Alcohol and other polar solvents are miscible (dissolve in water) and special alcohol-resistant concentrates are needed to prevent such fuels from dissolving the foam bubbles. Alcohol-resistant versions of protein, synthetic, fluoro-chemical and fluoro-protein concentrates have been developed. Synthetic and fluoro-chemical foam concentrates are generally stable and retain their firefighting properties for many years. Protein and fluoro-protein foam concentrates usually deteriorate over a number of years and have a more limited shelf life. All foam concentrates require special handling and safety precautions. You should refer to your Material Safety Data Sheets for detailed information. The use of chemical goggles and gloves is typically required when handling foam concentrates. All of the above types of foam are aerated (expanded) by mechanical agitation, and are sometimes referred to as mechanical foams or air foams. Foam can also be generated by chemical means. In a chemical foam, the bubbles contain carbon dioxide gas, produced by a reaction between two liquids. Other components of the mixed liquid include foaming substances. The older foam extinguishers (reversible type) produce chemical foam.
Low and high energy foams

Most air foams use part of the pressure in the water stream to provide the energy for aerating the foam solution with air bubbles. The amount of energy used to do this is relatively low. In high energy foam systems, however, aeration is achieved by injecting compressed air into the foam solution. These compressed air foam systems (CAFS) are described in more detail later in this section.
Foam-making equipment
Foam-making equipment may consist of either portable gear or a system built into the appliance pump and pipe work. This equipment includes: foam-making branchpipes foam inductors foam generators round-the-pump foam proportioners (where the foam solution is mixed in the pump) automatic foam-proportioning systems compressed air foam systems.
Generally speaking, foam-making branchpipes, foam inductors and foam generators are used on appliances when only an occasional use of foam is expected. Round-the-pump proportioners are often fitted to appliances that use foam on a more regular basis. Automatic foam proportioning
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systems and compressed air foam systems are often fitted to appliances that use foam as their primary firefighting agent. Foam-making equipment should be flushed with clean water after use. There may be specific operating and maintenance instructions for particular models of foam-making equipment. You should refer to your organisation or the manufacturers instructions for details.
Foam-making branchpipes
Foam-making branchpipes are used in association with drums of foam concentrate. The branchpipe incorporates a foam proportioner which works on the venturi principle, which we have discussed previously. As water passes through a constriction in the branchpipe, it speeds up and drops in pressure. This pressure drop is used to induce foam concentrate from the drum up through a dip tube into the water stream.
Foam Foam concentrate Ejector pump Air Stage 2 Water Solution Induction Stage 1
Figure 51: Foam being induced through a low expansion foam branch
When a low expansion foam branch is operating at optimum pressure, concentrate mixes with the water in the correct proportion. Also, using the venturi effect again, air is then induced into the branchpipe. The aerated foam solution produces expanded foam from the branchpipe outlet. As the pump operator, it is essential that you supply the correct nozzle pressure to the foammaking branchpipe to ensure good quality foam production.
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Figure 52: Low expansion foam branches
Medium expansion foams are produced in special foam-making branchpipes in which the foam solution is aerated through a screen or gauze mesh or net to produce larger bubbles.
Figure 53: Medium expansion foam branch
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High expansion foams are produced in special foam-making generators in which the foam solution is aerated using a fan blowing air and sprayed foam solution through a screen or gauze net to produce very large bubbles.
Air
Foam
Fine mesh screen Foam solution
Fan
Figure 54: Operating principles of a high expansion foam generator
Foam inductor and generator

A disadvantage of a foam-making branchpipe is that the branch operators need to move the foam containers with them whenever they manoeuvre the branch. An alternative arrangement is to use a separate proportioner some distance back along the hose. When foam concentrate is mixed with the water stream at the proportioner, but the foam solution is aerated at the branch, the device is called an in-line inductor (or eductor, in some texts). When using an in-line inductor, it is essential to have the design flow rate of the branch match the design flow rate of the inductor, and for the correct pressure to be supplied to the inductor.
Figure 55: In-line inductor
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When the foam is both proportioned and aerated in the same device, it is called a foam generator. Foam generators are less common than in-line inductors. The aerated foam produced by a foam generator discharges through a straight branch after travelling through a large diameter hose from the generator.
Figure 56: Foam generator
When using either an in-line inductor or a foam generator, there is a limit to the length of hose which can be used between the proportioner and the nozzle. Usually, the length does not exceed 60 metres, but you should check your organisations or the manufacturers instructions for details.
Round-the-pump proportioner
A round-the-pump proportioner is a foam proportioning system built into the pump and pipe work system of the appliance. Some of the water from the discharge side of the pump is diverted through a proportioner and fed back into the inlet side of the pump. A metering valve on the proportioner allows the amount of foam concentrate to be varied depending on the rate of foam production that is needed. Effective operation of the proportioner depends on there being less-than-atmospheric pressure at the inlet side of the pump. This will be the case if water is being drawn from the appliance tank or a static/open water source. However, if water is being received from a pressurised supply, such as a hydrant or another appliance, the pressure will normally be above atmospheric. To overcome this limitation of round-the-pump proportioners, you will need to either feed water from a pressurised source into the appliance tank or, if inlet valves are fitted to the pump, manipulate those valves so that a pressure not above atmospheric is being fed into the pump.
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Figure 57: Round-the-pump proportioner
Automatic foam-proportioning systems

Automatic foam-proportioning systems are capable of accurately introducing the correct proportion of foam concentrate into the water being delivered from a pump over a wide range of flow rates. They typically use a pressure-balanced principle or are electronic in operation. Pressure-balanced systems work on the principle that if the orifice (opening) supplying water into the system and the orifice supplying concentrate in the system are operating at the same pressure, then the mixing of the water and concentrate will be in proportion to the relative sizes of the openings. The foam concentrate is supplied by its own pump. Pressure-sensing lines from the discharge side of the water pump and the foam pump feed into either side of a flexible diaphragm. This diaphragm, in turn, operates a valve that regulates the pressure output of the concentrate pump. If, for example, the concentrate pressure is higher than the water pressure, there will be an imbalance in the pressure on the diaphragm, causing it to restrict the concentrate pressure and bring it back into balance with the water pressure. Excess foam concentrate is fed back to the foam concentrate tank.
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Figure 58: Pressure-balanced, automatic foam-proportioning system
In a typical electronic foam-proportioning system, sensors detect the water flow rate and adjust the delivery of foam concentrate into the system to maintain the desired rate of proportioning.
Note: Some organisations now use fog branches, which may (or may not) have clip-on air inductors fitted, to deliver low expansion foam. In these cases the proportioning of the foam solution takes place separately, usually in an automatic foam proportioning system or a round the pump proportioner on the appliance.
Compressed air foam systems (CAFS)

Compressed air foam systems (CAFS) produce foam by injecting compressed air into a foam solution. The foam generated is mixed together as it passes through the delivery hose or through a mixing device. Compressed air foam systems can be used with almost any type of foam concentrate, but are generally used with 0.3% class A foam solution. They usually produce a higher quality foam than conventional foam systems. Most compressed air foam systems consist of a pumped supply of foam solution combined with a compressed air supply from an air pump or sometimes from a compressed air cylinder. Check valves to prevent foam solution from entering the compressed air supply and vice-versa. A flow valve on the compressed air supply maintains the foam solution and compressed air supplies in an appropriate balance. The aerated foam is usually discharged through a straight stream nozzle after travelling through a line of a (lay-flat) delivery hose. Variable pattern nozzles can be used to discharge the foam, but
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generally any obstruction to the flow of foam, such as valves which restrict the waterway of a nozzle will cause the foams bubble structure to deteriorate and form a more fluid foam. Mixers are generally used if the foam needs to be discharged immediately through a monitor (or turret nozzle) on the appliance. Because of the stored energy in CAFS, the stream has a longer range than conventional foam when discharged from a nozzle. As the foam consists mostly of air, the hose will be considerably lighter (typically about one third the weight) than if it was filled with water. The agitation and mixing of the foam as it passes through the hose is called scrubbing. The length of hose required for effective scrubbing depends on the type and diameter of hose, and the type of foam in use. As an example, a 0.3% foam solution in a 38 mm delivery hose typically requires about 30 metres. An unrestricted flow of foam also depends on the use of hose which is resistant to kinking. Some synthetic hose types kink more readily than natural fibre woven jacketed delivery hose and may be less preferred for use with CAFS. CAFS can be used for wildfire fighting and structural firefighting. It produces high quality foam which multiplies the efficiency of fire suppression several times over compared with plain water. It reduces firefighter fatigue through lighter hose weights and quicker fire knockdown. The supply of compressed air can also usually be used for other purposes, including the operation of air powered tools, for assisting with smoke removal, or as an air blower to help remove leaves or other light debris from an incident scene. CAFS is more complex and costly than some other types of foam systems and may require more operator training. Incorrect operation (e.g. inappropriate foam proportioning or imbalances in the supply of foam solution and compressed air) may lead to slug flow: This is when intermittent bursts of air and liquid discharge through the hose, instead of a steady supply of well mixed foam. Personnel not familiar with CAFS might be unaware of the stored energy in compressed air foam: nozzles should always be opened gradually and aimed so that will not cause injury or accidental damage.
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Section 8 summary
Foam consists of bubbles which coat the surface of a combustible fuel with an extinguishing layer. Foams are designed for use on class A or class B fires. The expansion of a foam refers to the ratio of the volume of the final aerated foam in its final produced form to the volume of the foam solution. Foam may be of low, medium or high expansion. Foam concentrates may be of the protein, synthetic, fluoro-chemical or fluoro-protein type. Alcohol-resistant versions are also available. Foam-making branchpipes, foam inductors and foam generators are examples of portable foam-making equipment. Foam-making branchpipes are used in association with drums of foam concentrate. The round-the-pump proportioner, automatic foam proportioner and compressed air foam system are examples of foam-making equipment that may be used on firefighting vehicles. Such equipment is usually permanently plumbed into the appliances pumping system.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What does foam solution consist of? Where are low, medium and high expansion foam used? Fluoro-chemical foams are more commonly known by what abbreviation? Why are special foams needed when dealing with fires or spills involving alcohol or other polar solvents? How is foam concentrate induced into a foam-making branchpipe? What is the difference between an in-line inductor and a foam generator? Why cant a round-the-pump proportioning system be used when water from a pressurised source is fed directly into the pump? How is the rate of proportioning kept constant in a pressure-balanced foam proportioning system?
Activities
1. 2. 3. 4. Find out what types of foam concentrates, foam expansion types and foam-making equipment are used in your organisation. Familiarise yourself with the handling instructions and/or Material Safety Data Sheets applicable to foam-making concentrates Under supervision, participate in drills involving the set-up and use of a foam-making branchpipe and/or foam generator or in-line inductor. Under supervision, participate in drills involving the use of an appliance-mounted foam system.
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Section
Self Assessment Answers Glossary/Acronyms Bibliography
ADVANCED PUMPING
Self assessment answers

Section 1 Firefighting hydraulics
1. The branch at the end of a hose line converts the water's pressure energy into velocity or kinetic energy. The reducing cross-section through which the water must pass in the branch converts pressure into velocity/kinetic energy so that it can form an effective firefighting jet or spray pattern. The nozzle controls the size and pattern of the water being discharged. Using the formula: L/min = 2/3 d2 (P/100), a 25 mm nozzle operating at 700 kPa would discharge 1102 L/min. The friction loss would increase if the hose was lengthened. The friction loss would decrease if the diameter of the hose is increased. The pressure at the bottom of the tank would be 8 X 10 = 80 kPa. Allowing 10 kPa per metre of height, 10 x 40 = 400 kPa would be required to compensate for the head or height loss. The supply of water would last (3 x 2 x 1 x 1000) 600 = 10 minutes. Note: At optimum pressure, a 20 mm nozzle discharges 600 L/min (see Table 1).
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Section 2 Centrifugal firefighting pumps

1. A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller, or impellers, rotating inside a pump casing. Water enters at the centre, or eye, of the spinning impeller and is flung out to the periphery (the outer edge of the casing) by centrifugal force as the impeller rotates. The water is collected inside the pump casing and discharged from the pump outlet. A centrifugal pump has the following advantages: gives a steady flow operates at variable pressure depending on need is simple in construction and operation is easily maintained and less likely to be damaged by bad pump operation is able to pump dirty or gritty water with minimal damage to the pump is small and compact allows flow to be interrupted without stopping the engine can be connected to an internal combustion engine by direct drive.
2.
Its main disadvantage is that it requires priming. 3. The impeller consists of a number of curved radial vanes fitted between circular side plates to generate centrifugal force when the impeller is rotated. The impeller is the spinning part of a centrifugal pump that imparts energy to the water. It is attached to a central rotating shaft. 4. The volute is the cavity inside the casing of a centrifugal pump. It is shaped like a snail shell. The cross-sectional area increases in a circular direction towards the outlet. The effect of this shape is to gradually reduce the velocity (kinetic energy) of the water and convert this velocity into pressure.
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Fixed guide vanes may be used to guide the water along its correct path and to reduce turbulence. 5. Multi-stage pumps allow flexibility where a variation in capacity and pressure is required and provide an appropriate option where delivery pressures exceeding those available from the single stage centrifugal pump are necessary. Multi-stage pumps also have the advantage of achieving higher delivery pressures while maintaining moderate engine speeds. A multi-stage series/parallel pump incorporates transfer or changeover valves between the various stages. Depending on the position of the valves, the pump may either be operated in series mode (the first impeller passing water to the second to build up pressure), or parallel mode (each impeller feeding directly to the pump outlet to produce high volume.) When water enters the channel of a peripheral pump, it drops to the base of the guide vanes and is then flung outwards between the vanes by centrifugal force. The water then moves to the base of the vanes again and the process is repeated many times. The spiralling water is dragged around in a circle by the impeller, and is finally expelled through the outlet at a pressure which is the equivalent of a multi-stage pump operating in series mode.
6. 7.
8.
9.
Section 3 Priming the centrifugal pump

1. A centrifugal pump designed for firefighting cannot usually pump air. Priming pumps, or primers, can pump air. Therefore, when using a centrifugal pump to draught water from a static/open water source, air in the pump and suction hose must be removed so that atmospheric pressure can force water from its source up into the pump. This is achieved by using a primer. All force and lift pumps produce a pulsating flow of water. If a constant, steady flow of water is needed, an air vessel can be fitted near the pump outlet. As the water is pumped out, some enters the air vessel and compresses the air within it. Between strokes, the compressed air within the air vessel drives this water back out again, resulting in a fairly steady stream. A water ring primer consists of an elliptical housing which contains a stationary hollow boss or axle, (incorporating an inlet from the pump and two discharge ports). The water in the housing is forced to move outwards by centrifugal force created by the rotating impeller. At the widest parts of the housing, two areas of low pressure are created inside the ring of water. These areas are filled with air forced in from the pump and suction hose by atmospheric pressure. As the water moves inwards at the narrower section of the housing, the air is forced into the discharge ports in the stationary boss. Since the impeller is located centrally in the elliptical housing, there are two pumping actions for each revolution. An ejector pump consists of a passage or pipe which is constricted at one point so that fluid or gas passing through it increases in velocity at the point of constriction. Speeding up increases the proportion of energy in the liquid or gas due to its velocity. The energy for this extra velocity is taken from the static pressure of the liquid or gas. At the constriction, the static pressure drops below atmospheric pressure. This is the venturi effect. When priming, the lower pressure generated within the venturi throat is used to remove air from the pump and suction hoses until priming is achieved.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Section 4 Pump gauges, valves and controls

1. A compound gauge is used on the inlet or feed side of the pump and can measure pressure below atmospheric (required when draughting from static/open water) and positive pressure
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(required when water is being supplied from a hydrant or other pressurised source). Compound gauges are usually diaphragm-type gauges. 2. The pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of water being delivered by the pump. Pressure gauges are usually of the Bourdon tube type. A Bourdon tube is a pressure responsive tube, that is, it reacts to pressures above and below atmospheric pressure. This almost fully circular tube is oval in cross-section. At one end, it is connected to the delivery side of the pump and, at its other end, to the gauge pointer by a link and pivoting and toothed quadrant. A hairspring keeps the teeth of the pinion in close contact with those of the quadrant. This linkage magnifies the movement of the pointer on the gauge dial. Changes in pressure cause the Bourdon tube to either straighten out (caused by greater pressure), or return to a more curved shape (lower pressure). More recent gauges are filled with glycerin, which acts as a damper and reduces the fluctuation in the pointer's movement to give a more accurate reading. 3. A flow meter or gauge indicates the rate of flow of the water being supplied. When used with automatic nozzles, a particular flow rate is supplied by the pump operator, rather than a particular pressure. Usually, there will be a separate flow meter for each outlet. Using a flow gauge or meter makes it possible for you to deliver the correct rate of flow to any type of nozzle, without having to calculate pressure loss due to friction or height. 4. The sight gauge, usually a clear plastic tube, is connected to the bottom and top of the water tank, set vertically and positioned where it is visible from the pump panel. Whatever the level of the water in the tank, it will be indicated in the tube (sight gauge). The indicator light panel uses a series of coloured lights to show when the water or foam concentrate tank is full, and when the level is at three-quarters, half, one-quarter or empty. These lights work as soon as the ignition is switched on. When the ignition is not on, a test can be made to check the water contents by pressing the 'test' button. 5. The pressure-relief mechanism is a safety device for branch operators. When operated correctly, the pressure-relief mechanism prevents sudden increases in pressure being transmitted to the branch operator. Pressure-relief mechanisms vary in design, but usually consist of a valve that automatically dumps some pressurised water back to the inlet side of the pump to prevent excessive pressure reaching the branch operators. 6. The lever slide throttle operates simply by moving the throttle lever in the appropriate direction to increase or decrease engine rpm. The slide mechanism should be adjusted so that it can move freely but can be set in any position. The Vernier micro throttle eliminates the difficulties of erratic throttle operation and allows greater control. As you rotate the micro throttle in an anti-clockwise direction, it pulls the cable forward and increases the revolutions. This avoids any sudden increases in pressure occurring.
Section 5 Portable pumps

1. When handling portable pumps, its important to employ correct lifting techniques. You need to: size up the load first, and get help if needed get a firm hold, keep arms close to your body keep your back straight
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ADVANCED PUMPING
2. 3.
avoid twisting when lifting lift with your leg muscles, not the back muscles. ensure that there are enough people for the task appoint a team leader to give all commands ensure everyone lifts on the leader's command keep the load level and balanced move in unison on the leader's command lower together on the leader's command. positioning the pump in a suitable place setting the engine throttle (and choke, if fitted) to the starting position turning the main switch (if fitted) to the on position cord starting the engine, or using the self-starter, (if fitted) moving the throttle to the normal idle position once engine is started connecting any associated suction hose and delivery hose priming the pump setting the throttle for the required discharge.
For loads which need a multiple-person carry:
Operation of a portable pump typically involves:
Some small portable centrifugal pumps are sometimes described as self-priming. This is not strictly true. They do not need a separate primer, but the pump casing needs to be filled with water before you commence pumping. This is normally done by unscrewing a cap on the top of the pump casing and pouring in water.
4.
A typical monthly inspection includes checking: drive-belt tension and condition intakes and strainers are clear engine starts and runs smoothly priming operation glands for leaks associated suction hose and strainer ensuring that weekly checks have been conducted.
Section 6 Appliance mounted pumps

1. Pump installations (two only need be described) include: front-mounted mounted on the front bumper and driven directly by the vehicles road engine midship-mounted mounted on or near the centre of the chassis, behind the crew cabin, and driven by a transfer case or power take-off rear-mounted mounted on the rear chassis and driven from the road engine through a transfer case or power take-off, and pump drive shaft.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
2.
Two devices which can be used to direct power from the engine to the pump are a transfer case and a power take-off. When a transfer case is used to direct power to a pump, the vehicle cannot be driven. When a power take-off is used, the vehicle can still be driven, but the power available to drive the pump may be limited. Secondary cooling systems come in various designs, but a typical system consists of a heat exchanger supplementing the engine radiator and fed with cool water from the appliance's firefighting pump. A small hose feeds water from the outlet side of the pump to the heat exchanger, with a return line feeding back to the inlet side of the pump. Liquid from the engine radiator is fed via a series of small pipes to a heat exchanger where it is cooled by water from the appliance's pump. The pump water does not mix with the radiator coolant, it simply picks up and carries away excess heat from the coolant.
3.
Section 7 Practical pump operation

1. 2. The three alternative water sources are the appliance tank, reticulated supply and static or open water. To calculate the reserve flow in the water main (the amount of water still available to be supplied to the incident), note the pressure on the inlet gauge prior to opening a delivery valve. Open the first delivery line and adjust to the required operating pressure. Again note the pressure on the inlet gauge and calculate the loss of pressure from the earlier pressure reading. The following figures give an approximate indication of available supply. If the drop in pressure on the inlet gauge is: 3. 4. less than 10%, 3 times the original flow is available less than 15%, 2 times the original flow is available less than 25%, a flow equal to the original flow is available more than 25%, less than the original flow is available. set the throttle at priming speed. (Refer to manufacturers specifications. Some primers are automatic and engage and disengage as required.) operate the primer. (The inlet gauge will register an increasing vacuum reading while priming.) adjust the throttle, once the pump is primed, (the pressure gauge will show a positive reading), and open deliveries as required. loose couplings on suction hose air entering the suction through faulty couplings or damaged suction hose priming pump faulty incorrect valves open air pocket in suction hose vertical lift more than 7.5 metres suction hose not covered sufficiently with water (three times the diameter of the suction hose) suction strainer blocked.
To achieve a prime, you need to:
Reasons a prime cannot be achieved include:
9-5
ADVANCED PUMPING
5.
Back flushing is a term used to describe the filling of the suction hose from the appliances water tank in preparation for draughting. With the pump idling and the suction strainer in the water, open the main tank-to-pump valve and allow water to flow from the tank into the suction hose. The intention is to fill the suction hose with water. When water is seen gurgling out of the suction strainer, increase the pump throttle setting, open a delivery and close the main tank-to-pump valve. Water should now flow smoothly from the static/open water source and out the delivery. Alternatively, another pump can be used to feed water to the pump that cannot prime. Once a prime is achieved, the other pump can be removed.
6.
Cavitation is the formation of water vapour bubbles in a stream of water. It directly affects pump performance and suction lift. Cavitation can occur in any centrifugal pump that is attempting to pump more water than is available. This can happen when pumping from static/open water or a hydrant. As the pump inlet pressure drops, bubbles of water vapour may form in the water near the impeller eye where the area of lowest pressure occurs. As these bubbles reach the discharge side of the pump, the pressure on the water becomes greater and the bubbles implode or collapse. These implosions may damage the impeller and housing by chipping away small bits of the metal, making the metal look pockmarked. Cavitation damage can cause the impeller to become unbalanced, which subjects pump seals, bearings and shafts to strain and vibration.
7.
When draughting from static/open water, cavitation may be caused by: a partially clogged intake strainer a suction hose that is too long or too small a lift which is too high water that is warm any combination of the above. drop in supply level, ebbing tide, or quantity in dam reducing blockage in suction side of pump blocked suction basket and strainer Determine the distance between pumps and note that each pump should have two spare lengths of hose in case a hose bursts. Lay the hose and position the pumps to set up the relay. Ensure that each booster pump has a spare delivery valve to release air from the system as water advances. The valve should be open. Advise the base pump operator to deliver water at 500 kPa (or as identified in your organisations Standard Operating Procedures). Arrange that when water flows from the open unused delivery valve of each booster pump, the valve is closed and pump pressure set to 500 kPa. Increase the pressure at the base pump to 700 kPa, once all the pumps in the relay have water. Adjust the output pressure of each successive pump to 700 kPa, setting the relief valve if applicable, and ensuring that the pump inlet gauge reads a minimum of 100 kPa.
8.
The most likely causes of a decreased pressure reading and an increased vacuum reading are:
9.
Once the pumps to be placed in the relay have been identified, you can proceed to:
9-6
ADVANCED PUMPING
Arrange communications between all pump operators.
Section 8 Foam systems

1. 2. Foam solution consists of a mixture of foam concentrate and water in the correct proportions. Low expansion foam is used to extinguish a wide range of fires such as a contained petrol spill and flammable liquid fires in vats. Medium expansion foam is used for a wide range of applications, such as sealing large spillages of hazardous liquids. High expansion foam is used for gaining control of inaccessible Class A and B fires such as those which occur in ships holds, basements or cable tunnels, and for totally flooding an area. 3. 4. 5. Fluoro-chemical foams are more commonly known as AFFF (aqueous film-forming foam). Alcohol and other polar solvents are miscible (dissolve in water) and special alcohol-resistant concentrates are needed to prevent such fuels from dissolving the foam bubbles. The foam-making branchpipe incorporates a foam proportioner which works on the venturi principle. As water passes through a constriction in the branchpipe it speeds up and drops in pressure. This pressure drop is used to induce foam concentrate from the drum through a dip tube into the water stream. When a low expansion foam branch is operating at optimum pressure, concentrate mixes with the water in the correct proportion. Also, using the venturi effect again, air is then induced into the branchpipe. The aerated foam solution produces expanded foam from the branchpipe outlet. 6. When foam concentrate is mixed with the water stream at the proportioner, but the foam solution is aerated at the branch, the device is called an in-line inductor. When the foam is both proportioned and aerated in the same device, it is called a foam generator. 7. Effective operation of a round-the-pump foam proportioning system depends on there being a less-than-atmospheric pressure at the inlet side of the pump. This will be the case if water is being drawn from the appliance tank or a static/open water source, but will not be the case if water is being supplied to the pump inlet under pressure. Pressure-balanced systems work on the principle that if the orifice (opening) supplying water into the system and the orifice supplying concentrate in the system are operating at the same pressure, then the mixing of the water and concentrate will be in proportion to the relative sizes of the openings. The foam concentrate is supplied by its own pump. Pressure-sensing lines from the discharge side of the water pump and the foam pump feed into either side of a flexible diaphragm. This diaphragm, in turn, operates a valve that regulates the pressure output of the concentrate pump. If, for example, the concentrate pressure is higher than the water pressure, there will be an imbalance in the pressure on the diaphragm, causing it to restrict the concentrate pressure and bring it back into balance with the water pressure. Excess foam concentrate is fed back to the foam concentrate tank.
8.
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Glossary/Acronyms
AFAC The Australasian Fire Authorities Council is the national body representing urban, rural and land management organisations within Australia and New Zealand with a responsibility for the protection of life and property from fire and other emergencies. Aqueous film-forming foam, a fluoro-chemical foam concentrate The metal cap used on delivery outlets and on the suction inlet of the pump to prevent discharge of water. The principal part of a pressure gauge in which a curved tube, closed at one end, tends to straighten as pressure increases, and to curve as pressure decreases. A tapered pipe, fitted to the end of a hose line, which increases the velocity (converting pressure energy to kinetic energy) of the water or foam solution travelling through the hose, and forms an effective firefighting jet or spray. The formation of water vapour bubbles in a stream of water. A type of pump consisting of an impeller, or impellers, rotating inside a pump casing. Water enters at the centre, or eye, of the impeller and is flung out to the periphery (the outer edge of the casing) by centrifugal force as the impeller rotates. A valve which permits water to flow in one direction only. A collecting head is used to collect (usually from two to four) lines into the suction inlet of a pump. A liquid that has a flash point above 61 C. A gauge capable of indicating pressures above and below atmospheric pressure. A compound gauge is used on the inlet side of a pump and is sometimes called an inlet gauge. Hose used on the delivery side of the pump. A valve controlling the discharge of water from a pump. On a centrifugal pump, the centre of the impeller where water enters the pump. Liquid that has a flash point below 61C. Foam is a mass of bubbles formed by mixing air with water and a foam concentrate in specific proportions. It is used as a firefighting agent to form a smothering, cooling and/or ignition-preventing layer over the surface of a flammable liquid or solid material fire. The layer of foam applied over a burning surface to smother the flames. A concentrated liquid foaming agent. When mixed with water, it forms the foam solution from which foam is generated.
AFFF Blank cap Bourdon tube
Branch
Cavitation Centrifugal pump
Clack valve Collecting head Combustible liquid Compound gauge
Delivery hose Delivery valve Eye Flammable liquid Foam
Foam blanket Foam concentrate
9-9
ADVANCED PUMPING
Foam inductor Foam solution Friction loss Hydraulics Impeller kilopascal Kinetic Energy Live hose reel Miscible liquid Nozzle Orifice Polar solvent Pressure gauge Priming pump Relay pumping Solvent Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
A device used to induce foam concentrate into a water stream using the venturi principle. A mixture of water and foam concentrate. Loss of water pressure during the passage of fluid through a pipe or hose. The study of the physical characteristics of fluids at rest and in motion. The impeller is the spinning part of a centrifugal pump that imparts energy to the water. It is attached to a central rotating shaft. Unit of measurement of pressure. A form of energy resulting from motion. A hose reel through which water can be pumped, regardless of the amount of hose coiled on the reel. Two or more liquids which can be mixed and will remain mixed under most conditions. Water and alcohol are miscible; water and oil are not. A fitting at the end of a hose line to control the size and/or pattern of the discharge of water or extinguishing medium. An opening in a pipe or fitting intended for the passage of a liquid. Generally a water miscible solvent, such as alcohol, which requires the use of a special foam concentrate for extinguishment. The gauge on the delivery (or outlet) side of the pump used to measure the pressure of the water being delivered by the pump. A small pump used to remove air from a centrifugal pump and associated suction hose to enable the centrifugal pump to draught water. Using a series of pumps positioned at intervals along a line or lines of hose to share the workload of pumping water over a long distance. A liquid such as water, oil or alcohol which will dissolve another substance (solid, liquid or gas) to form a solution. A set of organisational directives that establish a standard course of action on the fireground to increase the effectiveness of the firefighting team. They are written, official, applied to all situations, enforced and integrated into the organisations management of incidents. Hose used to draught from static/open water. It has a hard, usually reinforced, exterior to prevent it collapsing when a partial vacuum exists within the hose. Hose feeding from a water supply to a pump. Made from artificial substances rather than natural ones. A gaseous state of a substance that is normally a liquid or solid. The degree to which a liquid resists motion (how thick and sticky it is). The cavity inside the casing of a centrifugal pump (shaped like the shell of a snail).
Suction hose
Supply hose Synthetic Vapour Viscosity Volute
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ADVANCED PUMPING
Water hammer
The shock caused by opening and shutting off a hydrant, pump delivery or controlled branch too quickly.
Mathematical abbreviations and units of measurement d Diameter (in millimetres) H Head (in metres) kg Kilograms kPa kilopascals L Litres L/min Litres per minute mm millimetres m/sec2 metres per second per second N/m2 Newtons per square metre P Pressure (in kPa) Pa Pascal rpm Revolutions per minute
9-11
ADVANCED PUMPING
Bibliography
Brunacini, A. Fire Command, National Fire Protection Association, USA, 1985. Country Fire Authority of Victoria, Class A Foam Learning Manual, 1997. Home Office (Fire Department). Manuals of Firemanship, HMSO. London, UK. Book 2: Fire brigade equipment, 1974 Book 3: Fire extinguishing equipment, 1976 Book 5: Ladders and appliances, 1984 Book 7: Hydraulics, pumps and pump operation, 1986 Book 11: Practical Firemanship I, 1981 Queensland Fire and Rescue Authority, Q-STEP 107 Appliances, 1992. Queensland Fire and Rescue Authority, Q-STEP 207 Appliances, 1992. Queensland Fire and Rescue Authority, Q-STEP 106 Equipment manual, 1992. Queensland Fire and Rescue Authority, Q-STEP 112 Practical Firefighting, 1992. Queensland Fire and Rescue Authority, Q-STEP 212 Practical Firefighting, 1992. The Institution of Fire Engineers, Dictionary of Fire Technology, (3rd edn.), The Institution of Fire Engineers, Leicester, UK, 1979.
9-13
SAFETY FIRST

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Advanced Pumping

Reprinted, with minor amendments, by CFA under licence June 2009

Characteristics of nozzle discharge

Function of the branch and nozzle

Discharge through nozzles

Size of nozzle (mm) 12 15 20 25 30 32

Nozzle pressure (kPa) 250 350 500 700 800 800

Discharge (L/min) 150 280 600 1100 1700 1900

Jet reaction (kg force) 6 12 31 68 113 128

Figure 1: Discharge through nozzles

Advantages of optimum nozzle pressures

Fog and foam nozzles

Height of effective jets

Figure 2: Pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts

Figure 3: The pressure in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions

Figure 4: Pressure applied from outside is transmitted equally in all directions

The downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to its depth.

P=10kPa 1m2 1m2

Figure 5: Downward pressure of a fluid in an open vessel is proportional to its depth

Pressure, head, and height loss/gain

Newton (N) Pascal (Pa)

Figure 8: One cubic metre of water

Figure 10: Pressure depends on the head (depth)

Loss of pressure due to friction

Figure 11: Loss of pressure due to friction

Estimating friction loss

Typical low flow rates (L/min) 100 150 200

25 mm lined (kPa) 100 250 450

38 mm unlined (kPa) 45 100 175

50 mm lined (kPa) Negligible Negligible 15

Typical medium flow rates (L/min) 200 350 500

38 mm unlined (kPa) 175 500 1000

38 mm lined (kPa) 60 180 400

50 mm unlined (kPa) 40 125 260

70 mm lined (kPa) Negl. 10 20

Typical high flow rates (L/min) 500 1000 2000

65 mm unlined (kPa) 85 350 1400

65 mm lined (kPa) 30 120 500

70 mm unlined (kPa) 55 200 850

70 mm lined (kPa) 20 75 300

90 mm unlined (kPa) 15 65 260

Table 2: Effects of friction loss in a 30 metre length of hose

Typical friction loss at low flow rates

Typical friction loss at higher flow rates

Friction loss in delivery hose

Friction loss in supply hose

Pressurised water supply

Changing from tank to pressurised supply

Static/open water supply

Figure 12: The principle of lifting water by using atmospheric pressure

Negative pressure and suction lift

Figure 13: Negative pressure and suction lift

Calculation of static/open water capacity

Figure 14: Pumping from a swimming pool

Figure 15: Pumping from a cylindrical water tank

Rate of flow (litres per minute)

Self assessment questions

Centrifugal Firefighting Pumps

Centrifugal firefighting pumps

Figure 17: Centrifugal pump

Figure 18: Typical impeller

Figure 19: Guide vanes and volute