BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS

Basic Research Elements1

by Alan S. Cajes2 and Penelope B. Velasco3 ============================================== 1. The Research Problem Research aims at discovering meaning or significance. The discovery of meaning begins with asking a question. Meaning is an answer. It does not come unless one asks a question. In research, the question is called the statement of the problem. Three things are essential in research: a) The problem b) The method of answering the problem, and c) The answer to the problem So much depends on the problem that it needs very careful attention. Truly good academic problems arise from unanswered questions within a discipline (like Biology, Physics, Literature, Archaeology, Linguistics, and applied disciplines such as Education, Medicine, Nursing, etc.) The good problem is the offshoot of familiarity with the content and issues within a discipline. And this familiarity is the result of wide and intelligent reading of the literature of the given discipline. This familiarity consists in a good comprehension of the body of knowledge in the given discipline, or related disciplines. It is by knowing what is known that one is able to formulate questions, which ask for the discovery of what is not known. In practical terms, this means that every research must contribute something new to the fund of knowledge. Research that does not have any significant new contribution to knowledge is not worthwhile.

The authors consulted various materials in preparing this handout. Much of what is contained here, however, is taken from the unpublished works of Prof. Dr. Florentino H. Hornedo on research methods, as well as from the experiences of the authors. The authors lectured this topic to over 60 senior officers of the Philippine National Police at Camp Crame in the last quarter of 2001. 2 Mr. Cajes is currently taking up doctoral courses in development studies and philosophy at the University of Santo Tomas, which granted him a MA degree in Philosophy, magna cum laude, after taking up several courses in philosophy, political science and history since 1994. His research areas cover social and political philosophy, operations and quality management, sustainable development and environmental management. He has attended various local and international training programs in total quality management and environmental management. He is a senior project officer of DAPs Center for Governance-Environmental Management Office and concurrently Acting Director of DAPs Graduate School of Public and Development Management-Institute of Public Management. He is an assessor of the Philippine Quality Award. 3 Ms. Velasco is presently Director (on leave) of DAPs Graduate School of Public and Development Management-Institute of Public Management. She formerly headed a directorate under DAPs Center for Sustainable Local Development, as well as served as senior project officer of DAPs Center for Public Management. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Agriculture major in Horticulture at UP in Los Banos and took up graduate studies in Urban and Regional Planning at UP in Diliman. She has received various professional training programs in environmental management, local development, solid waste management, training management, project management, green productivity, etc.

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS 1.1 Statement of the problem This contains two parts:

a) A careful exposition of an area involving significant problems in order to show the nature and extent of the problems, and how such problems affect knowledge in the given discipline, and b) A clear and concise statement of the problem. The first is an essay that demonstrates the researchers intelligent and broad grasp of the key problems currently confronting his/her discipline. The second is a clear statement of the question/s to be answered, or the hypothesis to be tested. The statement of the problem in experimental research is usually in the form of a hypothesis or a series of related hypotheses that call for proof or disproof. Other types of research require that the problem be stated categorically in the form of a question or series of related questions. In case a question needs further specification by means of sub-questions, care is to be taken that the sub-questions are all comprehended by the primary question. Multiple questions and questions that add new problems not expressed or implied in the primary question must be avoided. Remember that the statement of the problem is not the same as the statement of the purpose of the study. The first is the question to be answered; the second is the reason for answering the question. A good statement of the problem must be consistent with the title and the methods and procedure to be used in the research. The title should be brief but descriptive and comprehensive. It should be an adequate index to the key contents of: a) The statement of the problem b) The method/s used, and c) The expected/hypothetical conclusion/s Although it is the first to appear on the research plan, it can remain tentative until the problem and methodology have been clearly formulated. 1.2 Importance of the study The importance or significance of a study is generally of two kinds: a) The importance of the expected findings of the study to the specific discipline to which the study belongs, and b) The benefit the human world may derive from the findings.

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Evidence of importance on the first level is generally sufficient. Importance in the second level if not discreetly put tends to be pretentious and violates the modesty generally expected of scholars. It is generally best to convince the reader that the answer/s one is trying to discover are important mainly to ones line of study, and leave the earth-shaking value of the study understated or implied. Research at the graduate school level is expected to show evidence of a) Mastery of scientific and rational methods of arriving at conclusions, and b) Actual contribution of new knowledge to the pool of human knowledge, or as it is sometimes put, to push back the horizons of knowledge. Unless a study meets this requirement, the study is not important. 1.3 Theoretical framework Evaluation plays a key role in research. To evaluate is to judge how a thing measures up to a given criterion. For example, in a marketing research, does the graph or sales indicate increasing or decreasing income? In an achievement test in a curriculum subject, do the scores indicate high or low achievement? Or in an Anthropology or Sociology research, do the findings indicate social reality in terms of a given social science theory such as Normativism, Functionalism, Structuralism, etc. Theory in research is based on a philosophy of reality and knowledge, which is the same as a philosophy or theory of science. This means that faced with identical facts, two scholars with differing theory orientation would differ in explanation. It is therefore essential for scholars and/or researchers to become deeply familiar with the theories in their fields of specialization. It is good to be familiar with many theories in order that one can make a proper choice. Some theories are good diagnostic tools. They reveal the condition of reality. But they may not be effective for determining the courses of action, or remedy in case of negative/undesirable conditions. Other theories are able to suggest courses of action and are therefore favorable to researches aimed at policy making. Critical thinking distinguishes a scholarly mind. It consists in active processing of data against theory. It is normative evaluation. Without theoretical grounding, the intellect has no anchor, no fixed point of view, nor has it a rational measuring stick. Lack of theoretical ground makes one impressionistic and prone to inconsistency and self-contradiction. When the theoretical framework (in the form of assumptions) has been completed, key terms, especially those that are used in a particular or unusual sense, are defined. Operational definitions are preferred. Sources of definitions are properly indicated. Definitions not indicated as having been borrowed from sources are assumed to belong to the author of the research.

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Operational definitions reduce abstract terms to concrete or quantifiable/measurable indicators. They are always in the framework of a theory. 1.4 Scope and limitation of the study Scope refers to the: a) Specific source/s of information, and b) Time involved in the study Since the scope or delimitation of the study directly affects the validity of the conclusions derived from it, it may be assumed that a study that has no specifically defined scope or delimitation of sources and time cannot lead to definite and valid generalizations and/or conclusions. Limitation refers to shortcoming or course of weakness of a study. The honest researcher must admit the weakness or limitation of any aspect of his/her investigation or his/her tools of investigation, and source of information. This fundamental rule is required by intellectual honesty. For example, using a translation as reference due to ones lack of proficiency in the original language of the source is a limitation of the investigator. This must be admitted explicitly, and evidence must be shown to indicate that diligent effort will be taken to overcome or minimize the effects of the limitation. Limitations that are so great as to cause doubt concerning the validity of conclusions of the study invalidate a research or a research plan. 2. Review of related literature It is assumed that before the researcher starts making the research plan, s/he has read all the important works related to the proposed study. The aims of the review of related literature are: a) To show that the researcher is familiar with the key ideas in his/her field of study; b) To show that the knowledge in the field is incomplete, unreliable or both, and c) To show that the findings of the proposed study will add to, supplement, and/or correct present knowledge. The tone and tenor of this review is both expository and evaluative/critical. The materials subject to review under this heading are all published and unpublished materials containing anything that has some pertinence to the proposed subject of study. This includes books, periodicals, documents, theses, dissertations, and all papers that are conventionally regarded among scholars as disciplinal literature. (This is why it is redundant to say literature and studies because the term literature includes all studies that are on record and reported).

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS 3. Research design/methodology

Method in research is the logic of how a scholar arrives at valid and reliable knowledge. It is a direct product of reason, and is the intellectual and rational basis of scientific certitude. There are as many types of method as there are types of logic, but the traditional methods are (1) historical, (2) descriptive, and (3) experimental. The historical method discovers truth of the past; the descriptive that of the present, and the experimental that of the possible future reality. The Historical Method The historical method attempts to account for the past by showing what causes produced what effects or results. It proceeds by discovering past events, conditions, and situations with a view to connecting such findings with other past events, conditions, and situations by way of causality. It discovers the past by discovering evidences of the past in the form of documentary, written, oral, graphic, and artificial records. This method aims to produce a narrative or story of how things or conditions came about. It takes its data from authentic records/documents/witnesses of the past. The Descriptive Method The descriptive method attempts to present an accurate picture of the state of things in the present. The picture may be verbal, graphic/pictorial, quantitative/statistical. It gets its data from current reports, surveys, and participant and non-participant observation. The quality of descriptive research depends on the validity and reliability of the sources of data. Many descriptive researches depend on data obtained through questionnaires and interviews. But questionnaires reflect opinions, perceptions, attitudes, and other subjective states of consciousness. That is why it is necessary to obtain objective corroborative information, and to interpret quantitative data according to the appropriate statistical principles. The Experimental Method When we look to the future, we ask ourselves what could happen. Our answer, of course, is always a kind of guess. Only the actual event can eventually show what really happens. The guess is called hypothesis --, that is, a statement whose truth is under investigation. The experimental method, therefore, is the testing of a hypothesis by methodic manipulation of relevant empirical factors with a view to arriving certainty regarding whether the hypothesis is sustained by the results of the methodic manipulation. The aim of experimental research is to obtain information that can serve as dependable basis for future action. For example, a new method of teaching is proposed for adoption. Its effectivity is unknown, or only affirmed by impressionistic

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opinion. To arrive at some certainty, it is best to subject the method to experimental testing. To experiment means to test an idea in actual practice. A chief test of the reliability of experimental findings is their confirmation by independent replication, provided that the replication is done under identical procedures and conditions. Procedure in research is subsumed under method. It is not synonymous with method. It is a series of steps undertaken to carry out the demands of method. Thus, formulation of the research plan, data gathering, authentication of documents, review of related literature, content-analysis, statistical treatment, and similar concerns of researchers are items of procedure undertaken for the purpose of attaining the aims of method. The type of method determines the type of procedure. That is why procedure is indicated under method in order to show that it is subsidiary. Procedure must be logically derived from method. Because method is logic, it is aimed at discovering meaning or significance, that is, the relationship (such as correlation, association, etc.) of phenomenon/facts with one another. It is important, therefore, that research be concerned not only with simple facts, but with facts and variables which can be associated/correlated. One may discover a relation of cause and effect (direct or indirect), or no relation at all. The relation of facts to one another may be in the simple form of attribution or property, or cause-and-effect, or a complex one like the correlation of several variables, which may even be of varied categories. For example, with regards to reading speed and comprehension, who perform better city children or rural children? Suppose the rural children do better, why? Then one needs to correlate variables in each case, which are significantly associated with the better achievement. Or, for example, Filipinos have high familism. We introduce the variable of religion like Islam. Do the Muslims exhibit higher, lower, or no significant difference in their degree of familism with the rest of the Filipinos? Or suppose we assume that familism is a fact of Filipino behavior, and them we ask: Who tends to have higher level of familistic behavior Muslims or Christians? Now, suppose Muslims show greater familism, why? Then we need to see the higher level of familism in correlation with conditions more pronounced among Muslims than among Christians, for example, mean educational attainment, socio-economic conditions, access to mass media and cross-cultural exposure, etc. A mere show of correlation is not enough. What makes a researcher is the ability to explain, not merely to discover. A simple rule to remember regarding meaning or significance is that meaning is relatedness or connectedness whether it be in the category of cognition (knowledge), affection (feeling, attitude), or operation (action, performance). The Research Design maps out the overall structure for the conduct of the investigation. It is like an architectural design prepared prior to building a house. It provided specific directions regarding how the different building blocks are put together. Research designs arms the researcher with tools to make him/her more efficient in time and resources. This means knowing the general arrangements for conducting the study, such as:

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The timing of observation will observation be conducted as the event is occurring or after it is competed? The number of groups to be studied will a group be compared with one that has been exposed to the variable studied or with one that hasnt, or will an observation be made on the various degrees by which this variable is manifested? The role of the researcher in relation to the event or the variables being studied for instance, will you make the event happen , or witness it as it happens in reality? What particular tools will you use to gather information? The appropriate research design will be influenced by the technical preparation of the researcher and his/her preference, given the various alternatives available in the conduct of the study. 4. Interpretation and Analysis (Findings/Generalizations) 4.1 Methods of collecting data Distinguishing Research Materials Materials which come to us from primary sources are usually the best and the purest, in much the same manner as water drawn from a mountain spring. The closer you are to its point of origin, the less chance it has to become contaminated. Examples of primary sources are: Experimentation Firsthand investigation; the interviewer and the questionnaire Doctoral dissertations and monographs in professional journals Letters, diaries and autobiographies Original creative work in art and literature Reports of governments and their agencies; national, provincial, municipal/city Annual reports of research foundations, universities and corporations Newspapers accounts, when written by the reporter who actually witnessed the event Secondary sources are finished products manufactured from the various raw materials listed above. They include summaries and popularizations based on the information gathered from firsthand sources. Most books of factual information offered to the general reading public are in this group. Third hand information is compiled from secondary materials. Examples of this kind are textbooks. Tertiary sources include all information, which is controversial in nature or not yet generally accepted by the majority of recognized scholars in the field.

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Techniques in Data Collection: Primary techniques involve the use of instruments formulated primarily to draw information from individuals who can convey their direct experience in relation to the topic. This involves a survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied This technique entails the use of instruments to secure information about present day activities and ascertain prevailing conditions. Common techniques are: b.1 Use of Questionnaire This technique has been used increasingly to inquire into the opinions and attitudes of a group and to secure information from varied and widely scattered sources. The questionnaire is particularly useful when one cannot readily see personally all the people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular reason to se the respondents personally. A questionnaire is an instrument that embodies a set of questions that are asked in a standardized manner to each respondent. Questions are standardized because they are raised in the same words and in the same order to each respondent. A questionnaire may be distributed through the mail or filled out by the respondent under the supervision of the investigator. The use of mailed questionnaire is most appropriate in surveys where it is possible to explain briefly in writing the purpose of the survey the questions can be made short and simply worded

It is not suitable when: It is necessary to explain lengthily about the purpose and objectives of the survey Difficult and elaborate questions are contemplated Spontaneous answers are desired

The open-ended and the fixed alternative questions The open-ended questions are designed to permit free responses from the subject rather than limit him/her to stated alternatives. In other words, this does not provide a list of alternative answers and therefore effective in revealing the respondents own definition of the situation. Examples: What problems have you encountered in implementing this program in your area?

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS How do you feel about the new office policy regarding wearing of uniforms?

The Closed or fixed-alternative questions limits the respondent to a choice among specific alternatives. It is analogous to the leading questions. A practical consideration attached to the use of this option is the time and costs involved in processing the answers. It is therefore important that the researcher creates the best possible instrument fro data collection while taking into account his/her limitations with respect to resources. Example: II. What problems do you encounter in the implementation of this program in your area? _____a. _____b. _____c. _____d. Lack of resources Lack of commitment among frontline workers Lack of interest among target beneficiaries Others (specify)

Advantages of the questionnaire The respondents may have greater confidence in their anonymity and thus feel free to express views they fear might be disapproved or might get them into trouble By its very nature, the questionnaire is likely to be less expensive procedure than an interview It requires much less skill to administer a questionnaire than an interview It can be administered to a large number of individuals simultaneously Disadvantages Complicated questionnaires requiring extended written responses can be used with only a very small percentage of the population. Even many college graduates have little facility for writing, and those who do, few have the patience or motivation to write as fully as they might speak. Questionnaires do not usually elicit so high a completion rate. When the questionnaires are mailed to a random sample of the population, the proportion of returns is usually low. Factors that influence the rate of returns for a mailed questionnaire: The sponsorship of the questionnaire The attractiveness and clarity of the questionnaire The length of the questionnaire The nature of the accompanying cover letter requesting cooperation

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS The ease of filling out the questionnaire and mailing it back The incentives offered to reply The interest of the questions to the respondent The nature of the people to whom the questionnaire is sent b.2 Interviews

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The interview is a highly flexible tool in the hands of skillful interviewers. The situation in which the researcher does the questioning is such that there is direct interaction between himself and his subject. The interview is the more appropriate technique for revealing information about complex, emotionally laden subjects and for probing the sentiments that may underlie an expressed opinion. There are two broad approaches to conducting interviews. These are: Standardized Interview This is characterized by raising a set of questions in a standardized way, as in questionnaires. It utilizes an instrument called interview schedule Unstructured interview This is characterized by asking a set of questions derived by the interviewer from a list of key topics as a guide. This allows the interviewer the freedom to pursue unanticipated topics or directions as they arise. The instrument formulated here is an interview guide. A variant of unstructured interview is the Focus group Discussion or FGD. This is undertaken by an interviewer with a small number of people who may share a common interest. They meet with the interviewer fro some hours and respond to open-ended questions. Participants are able to listen to what each one has to say which gives an opportunity to reflect on the opinion of others. In using this technique, it is suggested that total number of participants should not exceed 15 and that sessions should not be more than three hours. Advantages of FGD It has flexibility It has high face validity It has speedy results It is low in cost Disadvantages: Affords the researcher less control than individual interviews Data can be difficult to analyze Moderators require special skills Difference between groups can become troublesome Groups are difficult to assemble The discussion must be conducted in a conducive environment

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS The advantages of interviews:

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It can be used with a wider segment of the population. Even those with exiguous education will be able to answer the questions of a skillful interviewer. The identity of the respondent can be ascertained. Questions not readily grasped by interviewees can be rephrased, or repeated with proper emphasis and explanations when necessary. The interviewer has greater opportunity to appraise the accuracy and validity of replies. Contradictory statements can be followed up and possible reasons for contradictions determined. Many are willing and able to cooperate in a study when all they have to do is talk. People enjoy talking to others who appear friendly to them and are interested in what they think. Interviewees often feel free to express personal and confidential information, which they would not ordinarily do in writing.

Certain principles to be followed in conducting an interview Preparatory Stage This requires finding out how the people who are to serve as respondents of the survey feel and think about the areas of interest in the survey. This is followed by the formulation of a set of questions to be tried out with small diverse samples of respondents in order to discover how well these questions actually get the information and how the respondents react emotionally to them. The process may have to be repeated in order to discover the interviewing procedures that appear to work out satisfactorily. Setting The place where the interview will be conducted should be such that it is free from disturbance s, noise or intrusion. Establish rapport at the outset Care should be taken to establish a friendly atmosphere between the interviewer and the interviewee at the very beginning. During the interview process, a genuine liking and respect for each other must be developed. A state of rapport exists when the respondent has accepted the research goals of the interviewer and actively seeks to help him in obtaining the necessary information. Carrying the interview forward

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The process of carrying the interview forward is greatly aided by writing the questions in a fashion, which most closely approximates conversation while probing for those items for which the research is being conducted. Recording the interview The interview must be recorded to sure that all the information gathered is written out adequately. Closing the interview In closing the interview, express appreciation for the respondents generosity in extending his attention and time. Some General rules in the formulation of questions The formulation of the interview schedule and questionnaire is a major responsibility of the researcher. These are the basic instruments that he/she utilizes in gathering information. To ensure the validity and reliability of the instrument, the researcher can be guided by some important rules in framing it. These guidelines include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The purpose must be clearly stated in any instrument formulated. Directions on how to answer the questions must be clear. The questions must be clear and uniformly understood A question should cover only one topic at a time Respondents must be in a position to answer the questions. Avoid influencing respondents to answer in a particular way. Avoid embarrassing questions. Arrange questions in a logical order. The items in the instrument must cover all the variables incorporated in the research proposal 10. Do not forget to translate the instrument into the dialect the respondents are familiar with. b.3 Direct Observation This is labeled as such because the researcher obtains first hand account of the events as it occurs. The researcher witnesses the event in the natural setting. The observation is not mediated by other persons who have witnessed the event. Strengths of direct observation as a method: 1. It poses less distortion on recall 2. Applicability in studying individuals or groups who are not able to communicate orally or by writing. 3. Can be employed where there is resistance to interviews and/or questionnaires

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS Limitations: 1. 2. 3. 4.

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There may be areas or experiences not accessible to direct observation Non Access to sensitive positions or functions Limited to the here and now. May not capture inner feelings of subjects, unless translated into outward behavior

As part of the work in the planning of a field survey, whether the method of collection is by observation, mailed questionnaires or personal interview, plans should be laid out for the tabulation of the data collected. Areas of tabulation should likewise be decided. Also, a decision has to be made as to whether the processing and tabulation of data would be done by machine or by hand. Secondary technique of data collection applies tools that compile and summarize information from sources which do not provide direct interaction with persons who have experience on a given topic. This technique involves Factual Survey which entails reading of documents that will provide facts, data and other pertinent information that will help the researcher in finding out answers to his /her problems. Sources of data may include books, memoranda, population censuses, surveys by social scientists, economic statistics, health statistics, court records, school and office records, legal papers, newspapers and magazine reports, radio and television tapes, speeches, laws and regulations. Other non-conventional means of collecting data: Brainstorming This is a creative twist to the traditional method of group discussion. Its purpose is to elicit a number of new ideas about and responses to a problem. Unlike a typical discussion, brainstorming is based on four basic rules: Judicial judgment is ruled out In most business meetings, someone is always ready to throw cold water on what they think is a hot idea. Not so in brainstorming. Criticism is not allowed. Free wheeling is welcomed In an open, free wheeling system, one is looking for a concept that indicates the wilder, the better, and the more, the better. (rule 3) Quantity is wanted Combination and improvement are sought This means that one can build on another idea and hitchhike on previous ideas Proponents of brainstorming declare it an excellent way to bring forth ideas in a creative atmosphere. Critics cite the time-consuming element as wasteful of time and money.

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS 4.2 Presenting the results/findings

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A more common approach among many investigators in preparing the results is to first put the results in tabular form. After which, a careful analysis of the tables is made which forms the basis for organizing the chapter even before the actual text is prepared. Tables and figures are useful in describing the research results and in showing trends that have emerged from the analysis. A table or figure can present the overall picture of the data more clearly and economically than would be possible if each and specific fact was discussed in the text. Also, by using tables and figures, the writer is relieved of presenting a tedious recitation of all findings obtained and, instead, can emphasize those aspects of the results that seems to be most important or noteworthy. In writing the research results, the researcher should identify and interpret the major findings. He should discuss possible reasons why these results occurred, fit them into the findings of previous researches, suggest field applications and make theoretical interpretations. A great deal of thought and careful study is required in interpreting research results. The report should present the important and interesting findings in a precise manner. 5. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation This chapter usually includes a brief restatement of the problem, a description of the main features of the method omitting most of the details concerning subjects and measures, a listing of the main findings. The summary should be as brief as possible but it should present all-important information concerning the problem, method and findings. Findings are often listed by number with each major finding summarized in one or two sentences. The conclusions are presented in somewhat more detail. The researcher should be especially careful to draw all conclusions directly from the findings and to avoid speculations or assumptions totally unsupported by the findings because this is often viewed as a sign of immaturity and lack of objectivity. It is desirable to add a section on implications. Here, the writer can present possible applications of the findings, which may be beneficial to related institutions, sector or group. Implications for future studies may also be cited. 6. Bibliography
This is the systematic listing of all available references in libraries, archives, collections, and in other sources. Exhaustiveness is the ideal. Although last in the research study, it is the first to be done in the order of procedure and time. Before anyone can formulate a title or problem for the research plan, one has to know whether there are available sources, or the same area and problem. The way to discover the sources is to look for these wherever they may be and to make a listing of these.

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS Examples: Books

Basic Form Two Authors

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Bronowski, Jacob. The Ascent of Man. Boston: Wiley, 1958. March, James G., and Herbert A. Simon Organizations. New York: Harper, 1987.

More than three McPherson, William, Stephen Lehman, Craig Likness, and Marcia authors Pankake. The Technique of Group Discussion. Chicago:

Random House Publishing, 1990.

Two authors with Ebbit, Wilma R., and David Ebbit. Writers Guide and Index to same last name English. 6th ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964. Group or Corporation as author and publisher Editor and Author, emphasis on Author Book, Edition other than the first

University of the Philippines. The Faculty Handbook. Philippines, 1987 Hayes, William C. Most Ancient Egypt. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998 Ed. Keith C. Seele.

Cochran, John A. Money, Banking and the Economy. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1980.

Multivolume Works and Series Multivolume Bowsky, William M., ed. Studies in Medieval and Renaissance work, general History. 4 vols. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990-92.

title, reference to a particular volume Multivolume Crutchfield, James C. , ed. The Fisheries: Problems in Resource work, individual Management. Vol 1 of Studies on Public Policy Issues in title Resource Management . Seattle: University of Washington

Press, 1965. Journals

Basic Form

Aron, Raymond. The Education of the Citizen in Industrial Society. Daedalus (1982): 67-70.

Magazines
Weekly

Tuchman, Barbara w. The Decline of Quality. New York Times Magazine, 2 Nov. 1890. 38-45. Brown, Norman O. Apocalypse: The Place of Mystery in the Life of the Mind. Harpers, May 1990, 27-35.

Monthly

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Unsigned Article

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Report on Hepatitis in Blood. U.S . News and World Report, 7 June 1998, 78 Villadiego, Rita F. Senate Calls for Revisions in New Tax for Health Care. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 8 June 1999, A20. Credit for All at the World Bank. Editorial. Manila Bulletin, 9 June 1987, A24.

Newspaper
Basic entry

Editorial

Reference Works
Encyclopedia entry, unsigned Encyclopedia, signed entry Dictionary Entry

The Atom. Encyclopedia Britannica. 13th ed. Markowitz, William. Time, Measurement and Determination of. Encyclopedia Americana 1965 ed. Advertisement. Websters Third International Dictionary.

Public Documents
Congressional Hearing, House

Phil. Congress. Committee on Agriculture. Subcommittee on Dairy and Poultry. Microfinancing for Poultry and Processing Plant in Central Luzon. 8th Cong., 1st sess., 19 Oct. 1998. Quezon City: Publishing Office, 1999. Congressional Record. 8th Cong., 2nd sess., 1998. Vol. 72, pt 5, pp 567-798. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines

Congressional Record Constitution

Unpublished sources Manuscript, Title Papers on Industrial Espionage. Report of Agent 106. 19 July Supplied 1972. University of Washington, Seattle.
Typescript

The Oral Memoirs of J.R. Smith. TS. Oral History Division. Butler College, Butler, NY.

Dissertations
Dissertation

Santos, Mark J. Poetry of the Spanish Civil War. Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1995.

NonPrint Sources
Film

Robinson, Phil Alden, dir. Field of Dreams. With Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan , and James Earl Jones. Universal Pictures, 1989.

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Television Program Interview, in person Interview, telephone Paper read at a meeting

Off the Record. Writ. Paul Newman. Dir. Jack Nicholson. Prod. Randy David. ABS-CBN, 23 April 2000. Teller, Edward. Personal Interview. 12 July 1987. Purcell, Thomas. Telephone Interview. 25 Oct. 1993. Nichols, J.R. Opiates as Reinforcing Agents: Some Variables which Influence Drug-Seeking in Animals. Paper delivered at the American Psychological Association. Washington. 7 Sept. 1999.

Computer Materials CD-ROM Million Dollar Dictionary. CD-ROM. New York: Duns Marketing Service, 1988. Notes Books
Basic Form

Jacob Bronowski, 57-67

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The Ascent of Man (Boston: Wiley,1973),

Two Authors

James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organizations (New York: Harper, 1958). 79 William McPherson, Stephen Lehman, Craig Likness, and Marcia Pankake, The Technique of Group Discussion (Chicago: Random House Publishing, 1987), 67.
3

More than three authors

Multivolume Works and Series 4 Multivolume William M. Bowsky, ed., Studies in Medieval and Renaissance work, general History. 4 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1963-67). title, reference to 2:273-96.
a particular volume

Journals
Basic Form

Raymond Aaron, The Education of the Citizen in Industrial Society. Daedalus 91 (1962) : 249-50.

Magazines
Weekly

Barbara W. Tuchman, The Decline of Quality, New York Times

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS Magazine, 2 Nov. 1890, 38-45.

Monthly

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Norman O. Brown, Apocalypse: The Place of Mystery in the Life of the Mind. Harpers, May 1961, 27. Report on Hepatitis in Blood. U.S . News and World Report, 7 June 1976, 78. Rita F. Villadiego, Senate Calls for Revisions in New Tax for Health Care. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 8 June 1989, A20.
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Unsigned Article

Newspaper
Basic entry

Reviews 10 Signed, with Alan M. Dershowitz, Inside the Sanctum Sanctorium, review title, in of Independence Journey: The Life of Wiliam O. Douglas by magazine James F. Simon, New York times Book Review, 2 Nov. 1980, 9. 11 Signed, untitled, Robert E. Lott, review of Emilia Pardo Bazan, by Walter T. in journal Pattison, Symposium 28 (1974) 28 (1974) : 382. Reference Works
Encyclopedia entry, unsigned Dictionary Entry

12 13

The Atom, Encyclopedia Britannica. 13th ed. Advertisement, Websters Third International Dictionary.

Public Documents
Congressional Hearing, House

Phil. Congress, Committee on Agriculture, Subcommittee on Dairy and Poultry, Microfinancing for Poultry and Processing Plant in Central Luzon, 8th Cong., 1st sess., 19 Oct. 1998 (Quezon City: Publishing Office, 1999. Congressional Record, 8th Cong., 2nd sess., 1998. vol. 72, pt 5, pp 567-798.
16 17 15

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Congressional Record Constitution

Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines

Treaty

U.S. Department of States, Nuclear Weapons test ban, 15 Aug. 190, TIAS no. 1943, United States Treaties and Other International Agreements, vol. 34, pt. 6, p. 7. Robert Cockburn, letter to Lod Melville, 17 May 1819, Manuscript Collection, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J., group 125.
18

Unpublished sources
Manuscript, letter

BASIC RESEARCH ELEMENTS

19

Dissertations
Dissertation

Mark J. Santos, Poetry of the Spanish Civil War (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1972), 21.

19

Nonprint Sources
Film

Phil Alden Robinson, dir. Field of Dreams with Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan , and James Earl Jones, Universal Pictures, 1989.
21 22

20

Interview, in person Interview, telephone

Edward Teller, Personal Interview, 12 July 1987. Thomas Purcell Telephone Interview, 25 Oct. 1993.

Computer Materials
CD-ROM

Million Dollar Dictionary CD-ROM (New York: Duns Marketing Service, 1988).

23