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D G Rossiter Department of Earth Systems Analysis International Institute for Geo-information Science & Earth Observation (ITC) <http://www.itc.nl/personal/rossiter> December 28, 2008
Copyright 2008 ITC. All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of the work as a whole (not parts) freely permitted if this original copyright notice is included. Sale or placement on a web site where payment must be made to access this document is strictly prohibited. To adapt or translate please contact the author (http://www.itc.nl/personal/rossiter).
Soil Sampling
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Soil Sampling
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Soil Sampling
An area-class map
Soil Sampling
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Representative sampling
Solution: the surveyor uses expert opinion of the soil-landscape model: Soils occur in specic positions because of the specic combination of soil-forming factors (Jenny equation) So, place observations in the most representative (typical, modal, central concept) sites, where the soil class is expected to be best-expressed * Some observations nearby to get an idea of heterogeneity * Maybe some quick observations (not full samples) near boundaries to improve their location
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Wysocki, D. A., Schoeneberger, P. J., & LaGarry, H. E. (2005). Soil surveys: a window to the subsurface. Geoderma, 126(1-2), 167-180
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Geometric series
A geometric series increases terms by multiplication It allows us to cover a wide range of distances (possible ranges) with a few stages. Increase spacing in geometric series: s = s1 sn Fill in series with further geometric means
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Series now {600m, 60m, 6m} Fill in with the geometric means * s2 = 600m 60m 190m * s4 = 60m 6m 19m Final series {600m, 190m, 60m, 19m, 6m}
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Unbalanced sampling
After the rst 4 stages, use an unbalanced design Only half the centres at Si (i 4) are further sampled at Si+1 This still covers the area, but only uses half the samples at the shortest ranges Number of pairs is still enough estimate short-range dependence
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Link with regional variable theory (semivariances): m stages; d1 shortest distance at mth stage; dm largest distance at rst stage
2 m 2 2 m1 + m
= = . . . =
(d1) (d2)
2 2 1 + . . . + m
(dm )
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Kriging prediction
Note: Prediction variance depends only on the spatial conguration of the observations, not on the data value.
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What is to be optimized?
An optimization criterion is some numerical measure of the quality of the sampling design. Some possibilities: 1. Minimize the maximum kriging variance in the area: nowhere is more poorly predicted than this maximum 2. Minimize the average kriging variance over the entire area
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* Grid should be slightly perturbed so samples do not line up exactly; avoids unexpected periodic eects (Problems: edge eects in small areas; irregular areas.)
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Error variance
Recall: The kriging variance at a point is given by: 2 (x 0 ) = = bT
N N N
2
i=1
i(xi, x0)
i=1 j=1
ij (xi, xj )
This depends only on the sample distribution (what we want to optimise) and the spatial structure (modelled by the semivariogram) In a block this will be lowered by the within-block variance (B, B)
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120
1
120
1
100
0.9
100
0.9
0.8
0.8
80 block.size
0.7
80 block.size
0.7
60
0.6
60
0.6
40
0.5
40
0.5
0.4
0.4
20
0.3
20
0.3
100
200 spacing
300
400
100
200 spacing
300
400
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Annealing
Slowly cooling a molten mixture of metals into a stable crystal structure. During annealing the temperature is slowly lowered. At high temperatures, molecules move around rapidly and long distances At low temperatures the system stabilizes. Critical factor: speed with which temperature is lowered too fast: stabilize in a sub-optimal conguration too slow: waste of time
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Simulated annealing
This is a numerical analogy to actual annealing: Some aspect of a numerical system is perturbed The conguration should approach an optimum The amount of perturbation is controlled by a temperature
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Outline of SSA
1. Decide on an optimality criterion 2. Place the desired number of sample points anywhere in the study area (grid, random . . . ); compute tness according to optimality criterion 3. Repeat (iterate): (a) (b) (c) (d) Select a point to move; move it a random distance and direction If outside study area, try again Compute new tness If better, accept new plan; if worse also accept with a certain probability
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Temperature
The distance to move a point is controlled by the temperature; this is used to multiply some distance. Tk+1 = Tk (1)
where k is the step number and < 1 is an empirical factor that reduces the temperature; we must also specify an initial temperature T0.
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Fitness
Several choices, all based on the kriging variance: Mean over the study area (MEAN OK) * appropriate when estimating spatial averages to a given precision Maximum anywhere in the study area (MAX OK) * appropriate when the entire area must be mapped to a given precision, e.g. to guarantee there is no health risk in a polluted area.
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Stopping criterion
Possiblities: xed number of iterations reach a certain (low) temperature after a certain number of iterations with no change.
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Acceptance criterion
Metropolis criterion: the probability P (S0 S1) of accepting the new scheme is: P (S0 S1) P (S0 S1) = = 1, if(S1) (S0) exp (S0) (S1) , if(S1) > (S0) c (2)
where S0 is the tness of the current scheme, S1 is the tness of the proposed new scheme, and c is the temperature. This can also be written: p = ef /Tk (3)
where Tk is the current temperature and f is the change in tness due to the proposed new scheme. Note that this will be positive for a poorer solution, so its complement is used for the exponent.
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A real example
Industrial area, existing samples; more must be taken to lower the prediction variance to a target level everywhere; where to place the new samples?
Reference: van Groenigen, J. W., Stein, A., & Zuurbier, R. (1997). Optimization of environmental sampling using interactive GIS. Soil Technology, 10(2), 83-97
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So the soil observations must somehow represent this feature-space, as well as geographic space, eciently.
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Regression modelling
1. Simple (one dominant factor) 2. Multiple 3. (Stepwise: automatic selection of predictor set dangerous!) 4. Standardized principal components: removes multi-colinearity (inter-correlated predictors), measurements on dierent scales Generally linear models are used; may linearize some predictors if necessary.
z = o +
i=1
iqi
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