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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am highly thankful to B.H.E.L. engineers and technical staff for providing us vital and valuable information about the different facets of an industrial management system. I express my gratitude to Human Resource and Development Centre department for giving me a chance to feel the industrial environment and its working in B.H.E.L. and I am thankful to Mr. B. Mondal, Sr. DGM for giving his precious time and help us in understanding various theoretical and practical aspect of my training on CNC under whose kind supervision we accomplished my training. I am also thankful to Mr. S.A. Dongre, Mr. R.S. Thombre, Mr. N.K. Bagare, Mr. M.K. Bhagat & Mr. Rakesh Dalal for their kind support. Gaurav Choudhary B.E. (ECE) 4th Year AITR, Indore

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PREFACE
At very outset of the prologue it becomes imperative to insist that vocational training is an integral part of engineering curriculum. Training allows us to gain an insight into the practical aspects of the various topics, with which we come across while pursuing our B.E. Vocational training gives us practical implementation of various topics we already have learned and will learn in near future. Vocational training always emphasizes on logic and common sense instead of theoretical aspects of subject. On my part, I pursued Four weeks training at B.H.E.L. Bhopal. The training involved a study of various departments of the organization as per the time logically scheduled and well planned given to us. The rotation in various departments was necessary in order to get an overall idea about the working of the organization. Gaurav Choudhary B.E. (ECE) 4th Year AITR, Indore

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BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

In the post of independence era when India was moving towards industrialization, the thrust by the government was in the core sector. With this objective BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED was setup in Bhopal in August 1956, with a view to reach self sufficiency in industrial products and power equipments. This plan was setup under collaboration of M/s. AEJ, U.K. Now more plants were setup at Tiruchy, Hyderabad and Haridwar with Czechoslovakian and Soviet Union assistance in May 1956, Dec.1965, and Jan. 1967 respectively. Today B.H.E.L. has become the largest engineering plant employing approximately 72000employees. Its headquarters are located at Delhi. B.H.E.L. is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy/infrastructure sector, today. B.H.E.L. was established more than forty years ago ushering in the indigenous heavy electrical equipments industry in India a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track record of performance. It has been earning profits since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77. B.H.E.L. manufactures over 180 products under thirty major product groups and caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz. ,Power Generation and Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, etc. The wide network of B.H.E.L.s fourteen manufacturing divisions, four power sector Regional centers, over 100 project sites, 8 service centers and 18 regional offices, enables the company to promptly serve its customers and provide them with suitable products efficiently and at competitive prices. The quality and reliability of its products is due to the emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in the world, together with technologies developed in its own R&D centers.

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B.H.E.L. has acquired certifications to Quality Management Systems- ISO 9001, Environmental Management Systems-ISO 14001and Occupational Health and Safety Management SystemsOHSAS18001 and has also adopted the concepts of Total Quality Management. B.H.E.L. has installed equipment for over 90,000 MW of power generation- for Utilities, Captive, and Industrial users. It supplied over2, 25,000 MVA transformer capacity and sustained equipment operating in transmission and distribution network up to 400 KV- AC& DC. It supplied over 25,000 motors with Drive Control System to power projects, petrochemicals, refineries, steel, aluminum, fertilizer, cement plants, etc. It also supplied traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000 Km railway network. Supplied over one million valves to power plants and other industries. B.H.E.L.s operations are organized around three business sectors, namely Power Industry including transmission, Transportation, Telecommunication and Renewable Energy and Overseas Business. This enables B.H.E.L. to have a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and respond quickly to the changes in the market. B.H.E.L.s vision is to become a world class engineering enterprise, committed to enhance stakeholder value. The company is striving to give shape to its aspirations and fulfill the expectations as a Navratna Company.

The greatest strength of B.H.E.L. is its highly skilled and committed 44,000 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself and improve his position. Continuous training and retaining, career planning, a positive work culture and participative style of management have engendered development of a committed and motivated work force leading to enhanced productivity and higher levels of quality.

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VISION, MISSION AND VALUES OF B.H.E.L

VISIONA world class engineering enterprise committed to enhancing stock holder values.

MISSIONTo be an Indian multinational engineering enterprise providing total business solution through quality product, system and services in the field of energy, industry, transportation, infrastructure and other potential areas.

VALUES Zeal to excel zest for change. Integrity and fairness in all matters. Respect for dignity and potential of every individual. Strict adherences to commitment. Ensure speed of response. Faster learning, team work and creativity.

Loyalty and pride in the company.

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BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED, BHOPAL

A brief introduction
By the end of five year plan it was envisaged by planning commission that the demand for power transformer would raise in the coming year. Anticipating the country's requirement BHEL decided to set up a plant which would manufacture power and other type of transformer in addition to capacity available at BHEL Bhopal. The Bhopal plant was engaged manufacturing of transformer of large rating. This unit of Bhopal was established in Raisen road in main city. It was 1st generation plant of BHEL, its foundation was laid by late MRS. Indira Gandhi, the prime minister. It is the largest power sector unit of B.H.E.L group manufacturing lot of machineries for industrial uses and also for power generation and making various parts for the locomotives like alternators, rectifiers etc.

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MANUFACTURING UNITS OF BHEL

First generation unit
BHOPAL HARDWAR HYDERABAD TIRUCHY Heavy Electrical Plant Heavy Electricals Equipment Plant Heavy Electrical Power Equipment Plant High Pressure Boiler Plant

Second generation units

JHANSI HARIDWAR TIRUCHY Transformer and Locomotive plant Central Foundry and Forge Plant Seamless Steel Tube Plant

Unit through Acquisition and Merger

BANGLORE Electronics Division

New Manufacturing Units

RANIPAT JAGDISHPUR RUDRAPUR BANGLORE Boiler Auxiliary Plant Insulator plant Component and fabrication plant Industrial system group

Focus
To built a high degree of customer confidence by providing increased value for his money through international standards of product performance superior customer service.

People orientation
To enable each employee to achieve his potential, improve his capability his role and responsibilities and participate and contribute to the growth and success of the company, to invest in human resources continuously and be alive to their needs.

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Technology
To achieve technological excellence in operation by development of indigenous technologies and efficient absorption and provide competitive advantage to the company.

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To fulfill the expectations which stockholder like government as owner, customers and country at large have from BHEL

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PROJECT REPORT ON CNC MACHINES

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INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL WORKING OF CNC MACHINE

CNC machine tools have been widely accepted as time proven manufacturing technique all over the globe. In India too, CNC machine have picked up momentum and Indian Industries are going for more and more CNC machine. Numerical control turns machine tools into a flexible production unit with a multitude of possible application. Although at first they were mainly used for manufacture of geometrically complicated parts, numerical control were later used for added enhanced efficiency in the medium batch production of turned and milled parts. The next step is the introduction of numerical controls in all sections of productions. The aim in all the cases is to combine high productivity with flexible possibilities of NC technology. Other machine processes are being added to turning and milling which may be already described as classical NC applications. Conventional methods are being replaced by NC for sheet metalworking processes of punching, nibbling and cutting. Productivity increases multifold using numerical control with grinder, gear hobblers and spark erosion.

ELECTRONIC REVOLUTION AND COMPUTER GROWTH

Modern day computerized numerical control system (CNC) is the result of advancement and sky rocketing microelectronics with everyday breaks its own record and grow by leaps and bounds. Initially NC machines had as many as 280 printed circuit board (PCB) and quite extensive wiring which consequently made maintenance very difficult and reliability was poor. First generation NC system had transistor elements. With advent of integrated circuits only 40 PCBs were used with reduced wiring for the system. Further integration called Medium Scale Integration (MSI) replaced nearly 10 ICs and system involved only 5 to 10 PCBs. With arrival of what is known as age of Microprocessors and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technique ,modern day CNC machines use only 2 to 4 PCBs. The trend with microprocessors helps in lowering cost of jobs and increment in reliability to appreciable label. Flexibility as inherent feature of minicomputer and microcomputer gave new technology Software Oriented System. Unlike rigid hardwire system which had been used hitherto, this new system comes to market as COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) system. With this latest technology, hardware cost of CNC system lowered considerably whereas flexibility increased multifold due to software capabilities. Electronic industries association defines numerical control as A system in which action is controlled by direct insertion of numerical data. The system must automatically interpret at least some potion of data.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CNC MACHINES

In simple word numerical control means control by numbers. In NC machine tools the main function is to control the displacement and positioning of slides, spindle, speed, feed rate, selection of tool and many other auxiliary functions. NC directs the machine tool to achieve all these function in a very controlled and systematic manner .The major elements that comprises NC machine tools are :- Control system CNC The machine tool Servo drive units Feedback devices Operator control Electrical cabinet

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Schematic diagram representation of CNC machine tool

In CNC system, tape instructions are read by tape reader. These instructions undergo electronic processing and system gives output in the form of electrical signal to servo drive of the machine tool to determine the length of movement and feed rates. System also directs commands to various relays, solenoids etc to initiate operation of the machine tools such as spindle motor starting and stopping, coolant supply, auto tool change and other miscellaneous functions. Once the machine tool has commenced its operation and operative element and moving, it become necessary to ensure that required lengths of movements have taken place or a particular function has been accomplished. This is done by feedback devices. Position feedback devices like linear scales, encoder, resolvers, inductosyn feedback status of actual position of slides to control system. A velocity feedback transducer known as Tachogenerator is used for velocity control as warranted during contouring operation. Feedback of auto tool change function etc are taken from proximity sensors or limit switches. Thus all operations of machine are monitored continuously with appropriate feedback devices. In case of failure or adverse feedback received by system, machine stops and system displays Fault message in clear English text.

TYPES OF NC
Based on feedback, NC system can be broadly classified in two types as Open loop and closed loop. The open loop system has no feedback, whereas closed loop system utilizes feedback transducers which continuously monitor the position of slides. This enable machine to achieve a very high degree of accuracy in slide displacement.

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Figure above showing open loop system

From metal removal point of view, the classification can be made as point to point, straight cut and contouring system. In point to point system, the machine performs machining

operations at specific positions and does not affect work piece while moving from one point
to another. An example of this type is NC drilling machine.

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Figure showing closed loop system:

Straight cut or straight line system provides movement at controlled feed rate in one axis direction at one time. The examples of this are face milling, pocket milling etc.

Figure demonstrating NC systems some of different paths and cut.

The continuous path control system calls for co-ordinate movement of the tool and work piece along different axes. This enables machining of complex profiles, contours and curved surfaces .

MACHINE TOOL REQUIREMENT

In a NC machine certain design features are desirable on machine tool. Simultaneous movement of 2 or more axes and high removal capability of NC machines demand high dynamic stiffness in drives and also stiff structural elements. The structure of NC machines should be very rigid to withstand heavy cuts and it must be maintained for long time to obtain high accuracies. High positioning accuracy needed in NC machine make it essential to have backlash free screw and nut and slides with a very low friction of co-efficient. This is achieved by ground re circulating ball screw and nut, tacho way bearings, hardened and ground guide ways and friction reducing linear such as Trite and PTFE. Electronic spindle drives on NC machines

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facilitate step less speed over a wide range of RPMs. All axes are driven by powerful DC Servo drives controlled by PWM or SCR controllers through preloaded ball screw and nuts. Automatic tool changer, centralized lubrication system, index table or fourth axis is common features on NC machines.

ACCURACIES
CNC machines ensure better and consistent accuracies on job compared to conventional machines. Positioning accuracies to be extent of +10 or -10 microns and repeatability of +5 or5microns can be achieved in NC machines depending on the elements used.

Parts Suitable For CNC Machines:To utilize the CNC machine effectively and economically the suitable pats selection is very important, the following guidelines should be observed: High number of operation per component. Complexity of operation. Size of batches medium. Repetitions of batches are often Labor cost of component is high. Requires substantial tooling. Requires 100% inspection. Setup and inspection time is high. Ration of cutting time to non-cutting time is high. Varieties of components produced are more. Skilled required by operator is high.

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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF CNC MACHINES

When a company or organization first decides to buy CNC machine, Orientation at all material level is required to get maximum return out of huge investment made. It is not sufficient that management understands the benefit of machine and decided to buy one, instead a deep insight of CNC technology is must and will quite obviously helps in buying suitable one and keeping its idle time minimum. Following are few points for effective utilization of CNC machine. It is vital that time taken for machine to become productive is as short as possible. The key to good CNC machine lies in prior planning, which should start the day management decides to buy CNC machine. Programmers, maintenance people and operators should be selected and trained before CNC arrives. Foundation and electric supply requirement should ready before machine arrives. For small organizations where experts and maintenance staffs are generally not available, proper support from supplier should be ensured. It should be ensured that suppliers of NC machines provide with all relevant technical documents for the machine. While NC can be out product its manual counterpart 3 to 4 times, you can just easily loose this multi machine capacity during breakdown. To keep down time minimum, sufficient quantities of spare are recommended by suppliers of machine should be maintain. Also it is always make sure that supplier of machine stocks critical parts and accessories. Sufficient thought should be given to tooling, accessories and all other peripherals that surround CNC. CNC machines must be placed at convenient places in the shop considering work flow and material handling. We cant keep NC machine waiting while we are searching for tools or waiting for availability of raw materials. Future expandability should always be in decision making while buying a CNC machine. Clean and dust free environment should be ensured in shop in order to minimize breakdown efficient working and consequently longer life of CNC machine.

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VARIOUS FUNCTIOS OF CNC

1) Axes position and velocity control. 2) Spindle speed. 3) Miscellaneous functions. 1.1 Various functional codes 1) Preparatory function: these are commands which prepare the machine for different modes of movements like position countering, thread cutting etc. 2) Dimensional Data: Movement of machine tool slides in one or more axes is determined by dimensional data entered in the program. 3) Miscellaneous Function: Some of the important miscellaneous function which worth to be considered here are coolant on or off, Spindle CW or CCW, program stop etc. 4) Speed Function(S): this function pertains to speed of spindle. 5) Feed Function (F): It pertains to feed rates of the slides. 6) Tool Function (T): this function pertains to the selection of required tool for the particular operation.

CODES USED IN CNC PROGRAMS

G-code is the name of any word in a CNC program that begins with the letter G and generally is a code telling machine tool what type of action to perform. Such as: Rapid Move etc. Controlled feed move in straight line or are series of controlled feed moves that would result in whole being bored, a work piece cut (routed) to a specific dimension, or a decorative profile shape added to edge of work piece. There are other codes; the type codes can be thought of registers in the computer X absolute position Y absolute position Z absolute position A position (rotary around X) B position (rotary around Y) C position (rotary around Z) U Relative parallel axis to X

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V Relative parallel axis to Y W Relative parallel axis to Z M code (another action register or machine code (*))(Otherwise refers to as miscellaneous function) F feed rate S spindle speed N line number R arc radius P dwell time T tool selection I arc data X axis J arc data Y axis k arc data Z axis D cutter diameter H tool length offset .(*)M codes control the overall machine, causing it to stop, start, turn on coolant, etc., whereas other code pertain to the path traversed by cutting tool may use same code to perform different functions; even machines that use the same CNC control.

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COMMON FANUE G CODES Code Description

G00 rapid positioning G01 Linear interpolation G02 CW circular interpolation G03 CCW circular interpolation G04 Dwell G10/G11 Data writing/Data write cancel G17 X-Y plane selection G18 X-Z plane selection G19 Y-Z plane selection G20 Programming in inches G21 Programming in mm G28 Return to home position G31 Skip function G33 Constant pitch threading G34 Variable pitch threading G40 Tool radius compensation off G41 Tool radius compensation left G42 Tool radius compensation right G81 Simple drilling cycle G82 Drilling cycle with dwell G83 Peck drilling cycle G84 Tapping cycle

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G90 Absolute programming G91 Incremental programming G94/G95 Inch per minute/Inch per revolution feed G96/G97 Constant cutting speed/Constant rotation speed

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BASIC ISO CNC CODES

M00 Program stop M01 Optional stop M02 Program stop M03 Spindle CW M04 Spindle CCW M05 Spindle stop M08 Coolant/Lubricant on M09 Coolant/Lubricant off M30 Program end M98 Subprogram call M99 Subprogram end G96 Constant surface speed G97 Constant spindle speed G50 Maximum spindle speed G95 Feed mm per revolution G94 Feed mm/min G00 Rapid movement G01 Linear interpolation F Feed S Spindle speed

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CNC MACHINES
There are different CNC machines in Bhopal unit, which serve some special purposes.

CNC OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME CUTTING

This machine is in bat-0 & is used for M.S sheet. This machine can cut up to 300mm thick sheet. It has four burners, which can work simultaneously. Control system : ESAB German (NCE-510) Axes: There are two axes in machine X and Y axis. In X axis tool can move up to 7 meters and in Y axis tool can move up to 3.5 meters Drive: D.C. Feedback rotary encoders

CNC CROPPING LINE

There are two cropping line CNC machine in bay-5. These are used to cut CRZO sheets for construction of core of transformer. First machine has been made by George German with control system from Siemens 810D. This machine mainly consists of two tools: punch and swing shear for cutting lamination as required by program. The other machine has been manufactured by Sooner Company. It has two punches. One fixed shear and one movable shear, which can shear straight as well as 45 degree. It consists of one tip cut and one V cut also. (a) Control System 810D (b) Axis: One axis (c) Drive Way (d) Feedback linear Scale

ASQUITH CNC BOGIE MACHINE CENTRE

This machine is in boogie shop. it is used for all operation in boogie manufacturing like milling, drilling and boring. All the operation can be done in the single machine. CONTROL SYSTEM : GE FANUC 15M Axis: It works three axis X, Y and Z axis. It can travel up to 8000 mm in X-axis. 4000 mm in Y-axis and 800 mm in Z-axis. Feedback linear scale.

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It has auto tool changer, which can change tools automatically. According to program its spindle diameter is 180 mm and 40 KW power is required to operate the spindle.

(A)HMT SB CNC LATHE

This is used for turning the job 1) Control system: Sinumeric 3T 2) Axis: It works in two axis X and Z axis. Tool can traverse up to 1000 mm in X-axis and 300mm in Z-axis. 3) Drive D.C. 4) Feedback: Rotary Encoder.

(B)HMT CNC VERTICLE MILLING MACHINE

This machine is used for milling purpose. 1) Control system : Sinumeric 800 M 2) Axis: it works in three axes X, Y and Z axis. Tool can travel 1200 mm in X-axis, 600 mm in Yaxis, 400 mm in Z-axis. 3) Drive D.C. 4) Feedback rotary encoder.

(C)COOPER CNC VERTICLE BORING MACHINE

This machine is used for boring purpose. 1) Control System: Crusader 2) Axis: Tool can move in two axes: X and Z- axis. It can move 600 mm in X- axis and 400 mm in Z-axis. 3) Drive D.C. 4) Feedback: Linear Sale

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ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

1. Productivity
Since cutting tool is brought to its machining position much more efficiently than it was done manually by the machine operator, NC machine is spending much more time per shift cutting than in past. Conventional machines very seldom remove metal for more than 15% of total available time under normal batch production conditions. Whereas CNC machine tools should be capable of removing metal for between 50% and 75% of available time. When working on medium batch production, CNC machining has around 4 to 1 productivity advantage over conventional machine. The actual advantage may vary from batch to batch depending upon the complexity of components to be produced and is normally proportional to the number of conventional operation required to produce the components.

2. Flexibility in design and production

Machine can switch over to different job as set up times are low and sudden changes in sales requirement are much more easily catered for. This enables the formulation of more aggressive marketing plans. The use of CNC machines also give designers freedom to design components which, by conventional means, are often impossible to produce. Change of design can also beeasily incorporated as it means change of tape.

3. Inspection
High position accuracies and repeatability are inherent features of CNC machines and reduce inspection time considerably. Normally a 100% inspection of the first component produced by a new tape is all that is necessary to prove the tape and tooling. Subsequently it is required to have only sample inspection. In process gauging and inspection is also provided on modern CNC machines.

4. Floor space
One CNC machine can replace five to six conventional machines. Thus manufacturing activities of a company can be expanded without increasing the floor area proportionately .

5. Inventory
By using CNC machine, procurement sizes and batch sizes can be reduced because of shorter lead times .This results in substantial saving. Lead time is time taken to progress a batch of component through a batch of production shop and is proportional to number of operation

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required by conventional methods. For example a component which requires 112 set ups by conventional methods may requires only 1 or 2 set ups in CNC machining center reducing total product flow times.

6. Material Handling
Handling of component from machine to machine which is necessary on conventional machine is significantly reduced on CNC machine, as all the operations are performed on one machine. This obviously reduces labor cost.

7. Tooling
This ability to complete machine part in a single setup means that fewer and simpler fixtures are required, which in turns requires less storage space and maintenance. The simpler a fixture is, the less expensive is to manufacture it.

8. Operators Skill
Dependence on skilled labor can be dispensed with. The accuracy of part produced with CNC machines machine depend upon accuracy and ability of machine and tape and not on individual operator.

9. Scrap and Rework

Drastic reduction in scrap is achieved because of the inherent accuracy and repeatability of CNC machine.

10. Costing
Time required to produce a component is a function of machining cycle of CNC machines and is not influenced by operators efficiency or variation in labors rate, a great stability of prices can often be achieved throughout the life cycle of the respective product. Also cost accounting becomes very precise.

11. Better Management Information and Control

With various advantages of CNC machines, decisions effecting unit cost, delivery and quality are firmly placed in the hands of management and not of the machine operator.

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Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A programmer logic controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for automation of industrial process such as control of machinery on factory assembly line. A plc is an example of real time system .since output result must be produced to input condition. A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically introduced as replacement for hard wired relay control panels. They were developed to be reprogrammed without hardware changes when requirements were altered and thus are reusable. PLCs are now available with increased functions, more memory and large input/output capabilities. In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The CPU receives input data, performs logical decisions

based upon stored programs and drives the outputs. Connections to a computer for
hierarchical control are done via the CPU.

input Processor Logic Memory output Power supply Power supply

Field devices

programm er

Generalized PLC block diagram

The I/O structure of the PLCs is one of their major strengths. The inputs can be push buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, analog sensor, selector switches, proximity switches, float switches, etc. The outputs can be motor starters, solenoid valves, position valves, relay coils, indicator lights, LED displays, etc. The field devices are typically selected, supplied and installed by the machine tool builder or the end user. The voltage level of the field devices thus normally determines the type of I/O. So, power to actuate these devices must also be supplied external to the PLC. The PLC power supply is designated and rated only to operate the internal portions

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of the I/O structures, and not the field devices. A wide variety of voltages, current capacities and types of I/O modules are available.

Basic PLC Components:Processor or central processing unit Rack or mountain Input assembly Output assembly Power Supply Programming unit, Device or PC Software

INPUT RELAYs-(contacts)
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are transistors.

INTERNAL UTILITY RELAYS-(contacts)

These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external relays. There are also some special relays that are dedicated to performing only one task. Some are always on while some are always off. Some are on only once during power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was stored.

COUNTERS
-These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed. Some manufacturers also include highspeed counters that are hardware based. We can think of these as physically existing. Most times these counters can count up, down or up and down.

TIMERS

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-These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and increments. The most common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and nonretentive types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.

OUTPUT RELAYS-(coils)
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or traces depending upon the model chosen.

DATA STORAGE
-Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. They are usually used as temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can also typically be used to store data when power is removed from the PLC. Upon power-up they will still have the same contents as before power was removed. Very convenient and necessary!!

Input ckt

Input relay

counter

Output relay

cpu memory Output ckt Internal utility relay Timer Data storage

Overview of twido soft PLC

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PLC OPERATION
A PLC works by continually Scanning
a program. We can think of this scan cycle as consisting of 3 important steps. There are typically more than 3 but we can focus on the important parts and not worry about the others. Typically the others are checking the system and updating the current internal counter and timer values

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Step 1-CHECK INPUT STATUS

-First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it ison or off. In other words, is the sensor connected to the first input on? How about the secondinput? How about the third... It records this data into its memory to be used during the next step.

Step 2-EXECUTE PROGRAM

-Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time. Maybe your program said that if the first input was on then it should turn on the first output. Since it already knows which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution results for use later during the next step.

Step 3-UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS

-Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your program during the second step. Based on the example in step 2 it would now turn on the first output because the first input was on and your program said to turn on the first output when this condition is true. After the third step the PLC goes back to step one and repeats the steps continuously. One scan time is defined as the time it takes to execute the 3 steps listed above.

RELAYS
Now that we understand how the PLC processes inputs, outputs, and the actual program we a real most ready to start writing a program. But first lets see how a relay actually works. After all, the main purpose of a plc is to replace "real-world" relays. We can think of a relay as an electromagnetic switch. Apply a voltage to the coil and a magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field sucks the contacts of the relay in, causing them to make ac o n n e c t i o n . T h e s e c o n t a c t s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a s w i t c h . T h e y a l l o w c u r r e n t t o f l o w between2 points thereby closing the circuit. A typical industrial relay

RELAY OUTPUT
Some common forms of a load are a solenoid, lamp, motor, etc. These "loads" come in all sizes. Electrical sizes, that is. Always check the specifications of your load before connecting it to the plc output. You always want to make sure that the maximum current it will consume is within the specifications of the plc output. If it is not within the specifications (i.e. draws too m u c h c u r r e n t ) i t w i l l p r o b a b l y d a m a g e t h e o u t p u t . W h e n i n d o u b t ,

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d o u b l e c h e c k w i t h t h e manufacturer to see if it can be connected wi thout potential damage. Some types of loads are very deceiving. These deceiving loads are called "Inductive loads" .These has a tendency to deliver a "Back current When they turn on. This back current is like a voltage spike coming through the system.

The relay is internal to the plc. Its circuit diagram typically looks like that shown above. When our ladder diagram tells the output to turn on, the plc will internally apply a voltage to the relay coil. This voltage will allow the proper contact to close.

When the contact closes, an external current is allowed to flow through our external circuit. When the ladder diagram tells the plc to turn off the output, it will simply remove the voltage from the internal circuit thereby enabling the output contact to release. Our load will then have an open circuit and will therefore be off.

TRANSISTOR OUTPUT
The next type of output we should learn about is our transistor type outputs. It is important to note that a transistor can only switch a dc current. For this reason it cannot be used with an AC voltage. We can think of a transistor as a solid -state switch. Or more simply put, an electrical switch. A s m a l l c u r r e n t a p p l i e d t o t h e t r a n s i s t o r s " base" ( i . e . i n p u t ) l e t s u s s w i t c

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h a m u c h l a r g e r current through its output. The plc applies a small current to the transistor base and the transistor output "closes". When it's closed, the device connected to the plc output will be turned on. The above is a very simple explanation of a transistor. There are, of course, more details involved but we don't need to get too deep. We should also keep in mind that as we saw before with the input circuits, there are generally more than one type of transistor available. Typically a plc will have either NPN or PNP type outputs. The "physical type of transistor used also varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. Some of the common types available are BJT and MOSFET. A BJT type (Bipolar Junction Transistor) often has less switching capacity (i.e. it can switch less current) than a MOS-FET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor- Field Effect Transistor) type. The BJT also has a slightly faster switching time. Once again, please check the output specifications of the particular plc you are going to use.

Shown below is how we typically connect our output device to the transistor output. Please note that this is an NPN type transistor. If it were a PNP type, the common terminal would most likely be connected to V+ and V- would connect to one end of our load. Note that since this is a DC type output we must always observe proper polarity for the output. One end of the load is

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connected directly to V+ as shown above. Let's take a moment and see what happens inside the output circuit. Shown below is a typical output circuit diagram for an NPN type output

Notice that as we saw with the transistor type inputs, there is a photocoupler isolating the "real world from the internal circuit. When the ladder diagram calls for it, the internal circuit turns on the photo coupler by applying a small voltage to the LED side of the photo coupler. This makes the LED emit light and the receiving part of the photo coupler will see it and allow current to flow. This small current will turn on the base of the output transistor connected to output 0500.Therefore, whatever is connected between COM and 0500 will turn on. When the ladder tells0 5 0 0 t o t u r n o f f , t h e L E D w i l l s t o p e m i t t i n g l i g h t a n d h e n c e t h e o u t p u t t r a n s i s t o r c o n n e c t e d between 0500 and COM will turn off

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One other important thing to note is that a transistor typically cannot switch as large a load as a relay. Check the manufacturers specifications to find the largest load it can safely switch. If the load current you need to switch exceeds the specification of the output, you can connect the plc output to an external relay. Then connect the relay to the large load. You may be thinking, "Why not just use a relay in the first place"? The answer is because a relay is not always the correct choice for every output. A transistor gives you the opportunity to use external relays when and only when necessary.

PLC PROGRAMMING
The principle of operation of a PLC is determined essentially by the PLC program memory, processor, inputs and outputs. The program that determines PLC operation is stored in the internal PLC program memory. The PLC operates cyclically, i.e. when at the beginning of the program. At the beginning of each cycle, the processor examines the signal status at all inputs as well as the external timers and counters and are stored in a process image input (PII). During subsequent program scanning, the processor the accesses this process image.T o e x e c u t e t h e p r o g r a m , t h e p r o c e s s o r f e t c h e s o n e s t a t e m e n t a f t e r a n o t h e r f r o m t h e programming memory and executes it. The results are constantly stored in the process image o u t p u t ( P I O ) d u r i n g t h e c y c l e . A t t h e e n d o f a s c a n n i n g c y c l e , i . e . p r o g r a m c o m p l e t i o n , t h e processor transfers

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the contents of the process image output to the output modules and to the external timers and counters. The processor then begins a new program scan.

Configuring Hardware and Software

Configuring Twido programmable controllers consists of selecting options for the hardware and software resources of the controller. These resources can be configured at any time while creating a program. Hardware resources are: the controller itself, hardware that connects to the controller, and the connections to the hardware. A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically introduced as replacement for hardwired relay control panels. They were developed to be reprogrammed without hardware changes when requirements were altered and thus are reusable. PLCs are now available with increased functions, more memory and large input/output capabilities. Fig.7gives the generalized PLC block diagram. In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The CPU receives input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs and drives the outputs. Connections to a computer for hierarchical control are done via the CPU. The I/O structure of the PLCs is one of their major strengths. The inputs can be push buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, analog sensor, selector switches, proximity switches, floatswitch es, etc. The outputs can be motor starters, solenoid valves, position valves, relay coils, indicator lights, LED displays, etc. The field devices are typically selected, supplied and installed by the machine tool builder or the end user. The voltage level of the field devices thus normally determines the type of I/O. So, power to actuate these devices must also be supplied external to the PLC. The PLC power supply is designated and rated only to operate the internal portions of the I/O structures, and not the field devices. A wide variety of voltages, current capacities and types of I/O modules are available.

INTERFACING
Interconnecting the individual elements of both the machine and the CNC system using cables and connectors is called interfacing. Extreme care should be taken during interfacing. Proper grounding in electrical installation is most essential. This reduces the effects of interference and guards against electronic shock topers on nil. It is also essential to properly protect the electronic equipment. Cable wires of sufficiently large cross-sectional area must be used. Even though proper grounding reduces the effect of electrical interference, signal cable requires additional protection. This is generally achieved by using shielded cables. All the cable shields must be grounded at control only, leaving other end free. Other noise reduction techniques

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include using suppression devices, proper cable separation, ferrous metal wire ways, etc. Electrical enclosures should be designed to provide proper ambient conditions for the controller. MONITORING In addition to the care taken by the machine tool builder during design and interfacing, basic control also includes constantly active monitoring functions. This is in order to identify faults in the NC, the interface control and the machine at an large stage to prevent damages occurring to the work piece, tool or machine. If a fault occurs, first the machining sequence is interrupted, the drives are stopped, and the cause of the fault is stored and then displayed as an alarm. At the same time, the PLC is informed that an NC alarm exits. In Hinumerik CNC system, for example, the following can be monitored: Read-in Format Measuring circuit cables Position encoders and drives Contour Spindle speed Enable signals Voltage Temperature Microprocessors Data transfer between operator control panel and logic unit Transfer between NC and PLC Change of status of buffer battery System program memory User program memory Serial interfaces

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DIAGNOSTICS
The control will generally be provided with test assistance for service purposes in order to display some status on the CRT such as: Interface signals between NC and PLC as well as between PLC and machine Flags of the PLC Timers of the PLC Counters of the PLC Input/output of the PLCF Or the output signals, it is also possible to set and generate signal combinations for test purposes in order to observe how the machine react to a changed signal. This simplifies trouble shooting considerably.

MACHINE DATA
Generally, a CNC system is designed as a general-purpose control unit, which has to be matched with the particular machine to which the system is interfaced. The CNC is interfaced to the machine by means of data, which is machine specific. The NC and PLC machine data can been tered and changed by means of external equipment or manually by the keyboard. These data are fixed and entered during commissioning of the machine and generally left unaltered during machine operations. Machine data entered is usually relevant to the axis travel limits, feed rates, rapid traverse speeds and spindle speeds, position control multiplication factor, Kv factor, acceleration, drift compensation, adjustment of reference point, backlash compensation, pitch error compensation, etc. Also the optional features of the control system are made available to the machine tool builder by enabling some of the bits of machine data. COMPENSATIONS FOR MACHINE ACCURACY Machine accuracy is the accuracy of the movement of the carriage, and is influenced by: (a) Geometric accuracy in the alignment of the slide ways (b) Deflection of the bed due to load (c) Temperature gradients on the machine (d) Accuracy of the screw thread of any drive screw and the amount of backlash (lost motion) (e) Amount of twist (wind up) of the shaft which will influence the measurement of rotary

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transducers The CNC systems offer compensation for the various machines' accuracy. These are detailed below: Lead Screw Pitch Error Compensation To compensate for movements of the machine slide due to in accuracy of the pitch along the length of the ball screw, pitch error compensation is required. To begin with, the pitch error curve for the entire length of the screw is built up by physical measurement with the aid of an external device (like laser). Then the required compensation at predetermined points is fed in to the system. Whenever a slide is moved, these compensation are automatically added up by the CNC system (Fig.8)

Backlash Compensation
Whenever a slide is reversed, there is some lost motion due to backlash between nut and the screw; compensation is provided by the CNC system for the motion lost due to reversal, i.e. extra movement is added into the actual movement whenever reversal takes place. This extra movement is equal to backlash between the screw and the nut. This has to be measured in advance and fed to the system. This value keeps on varying due to wear of the ball screws, hence the compensation value has to be updated regularly from time to time Inaccuracy due to sag in the slide can be compensated by the system. Compensations required along the length of the slide have to be physically measured and fed to the system. The system automatically adds up the compensation to the movement of the slide. Tool Nose Compensation Tool nose compensation normally used on tool for turning centers. While machining chambers, angles or turning curves, it is necessary to make allowance for the tool tip radius; this radius is known as radius compensation. If the allowance is nit made, the edges of the tool tip radius would be positioned at the programmed X and Z coordinates, and the tool will follow the path AB and the taper produced will be incorrect. In order to obtain correct taper, tool position has to be adjusted. It is essential that the radius at the tip of the tool is fed to the system to make an automatic adjustment on the position and movement of the tool to get the correct taper on the work.

Typical error curve

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Cutter Diameter Compensation

The diameter of the used tool may be different from the actual value because of regrinding of the tool or due to non-availability of the assumed tool. It is possible to adjust the relative position of cutter size and this adjustment is known as cutter diameter compensation.

Tool Offset
A part program is generated keeping in mind a tool of a particular length, shape and thickness as a reference tool. But during the actual m o u n t i n g o f t o o l s o n t h e m a c h i n e , d i f f e r e n t t o o l s o f varying lengths, thickness and shapes may be available. A correction for dimension of the tools and movements of the work piece has to be incorporated to give the exact machining of the component. This is known as tool offset. This is the difference in the positions of the centre line of the tool holder for different tools and the reference tool. When a number of tools are used, it is necessary to determine the tool offset of each tool and store it in the memory of the control unit.Fig.11 explains the function of the tool offset. Normally, it is found that the size of the work piece (diameter or length) is not within tolerance due to wear of the tool; it is the possible to edit the value of offsets to obtain the correct size. This is known as tool wear compensation.

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Fig.11 Tool offsets

HARDWARE RESOURCES
Types of hardware resources: Base and Remote controllers Expansion I/O AS-Interface V2 bus interface module and its slave devices Options The principle of operation of a PLC is determined essentially by the PLC program memory, processor, inputs and outputs. The program that determines PLC operation is stored in the internal PLC program memory. The PLC operates cyclically, i.e. when a complete program has been scanned; it starts again at the beginning of

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the program. At the beginning of each cycle, the processor examines the signal status at all inputs as well as the external timers and counters and are stored in a process image input (PII). During subsequent program scanning, the processor the accesses this process image. To execute the program, the processor fetches one statement after another from the. Program completion, the processor transfers the contents of the process image output to the output modules and to the external timers and counters. The processor then begins a new program scan. STEP 5 programming language is used for writing user programs for SIMATIC S5programmable controllers. The program can be written and entered into the programmable controller as in: Statement list (STL),Fig.12(a) Control system flowchart (CSF),Fig.12(b) Ladder diagram (LAD),Fig.12(c)

EXAMPLES OF PLC PROGRAM

Before attempting to write a PLC program, first go through the instruction set of the particular language used for the equipment, and understand the meaning of each instruction. Then study how to use these instructions in the program (through illustration examples given in the manual).Once the familiarization task is over, and then start writing the program. Follow the following steps to write a PLC program. List down each individual element (field device) on the machine as Input/output. Indicate against each element the respective address as identifier during electrical interfacing of these elements with the PLC. Break down the complete machine auxiliary functions that are controlled by the PLC into individual, self contained functions. Identify each individual function as separate block (PBxx/FBxx) Once the PBs and FBs for each function are identified, take them one by one for writing the program. List down the preconditions required for the particular function separately. Note down the address of the listed elements. Write down the flow chart for the function. Translate the flow chart into PLC program using the instructions already familiarized. Complete the program translation of all individual functions in similar lines. Check the individual blocks independently and correct the program to get the required results.

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Organize all the program blocks in the organization block depending upon the sequence in which they are supposed to be executed as per the main machine function flow chart. Check the complete program with all the blocks incorporated in the final program

PB 12 written is the individual function module for spindle ON for all the preconditions checked and found satisfactory. This function is required to be executed only when the spindle rotation is requested by the NC in the form of a block in the part program. Whenever NC decodes the part program block, it in turn informs the PLC through a fixed buffer location that spindle rotation is requested. Say Flag bit F 100.0 is identified for this information communication. With this data, spindle ON function module can be recalled in the organization block OB1 as follows. OB 1 A F 100.0 JC PB12 BE Now, spindle ON function module PB12 will be executed only when F 100.0 is set. Otherwise the function execution will be bypassed

APPLICATIONS OF PLC
In the present industrial world, a flexible system that can be controlled by user at site is preferred. Systems, whose logic can be modified but still, used without disturbing its connection to external world, is achieved by PLC. Utilizing the industrial sensors such as limit switches, ON-OFF switches, timer contact, counter contact etc., PLC controls the total system. The drive to the solenoid valves, motors, indicators, enunciators, etc are controlled by the PLCs. The above said controlling elements (normally called as inputs of PLCs) and controlled elements (called as outputs of PLCs) exist abundantly in any industry. These inputs, outputs, timers, counters, auxiliary contacts

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are integral parts of all industries. As such, it is difficult to define where a PLC cannot be used. Proper application of a PLC begins with conversion of information into convenient parameters tosave money, time and effort and hence easy operation in plants and laboratories. The areas where PLC is used maximum are as follows: 1. the batch processes in chemical, cement, food and paper industries which are sequential in nature, requiring time of event based decisions is controlled byPLCs. 2. In large process plants PLCs are being increasingly used for automatic start up and shut down of critical equipment. A PLC ensures that equipment cannot best rated unless all the permissive conditions for safe start have seen established. It also monitors the conditions necessary for safe running of the equipment and trips the equipment whenever any abnormality in the system is detected. 3. The PLC can be programmed to function as an energy management system for boiler control for maximum efficiency and safety. 4. in automation of blender recliners 5. in automation of bulk material handling system at ports. 6. in automation for a ship unloader. 7. Automation for wagon loaders. 8. For blast furnace charging controls in steel plants. 9. in automation of brick molding press in refractorys. 10. in automation for galvanizing unit. 11. for chemical plants process control automation. 12. in automation of a rock phosphate drying and grinding system. 13. Modernization of boiler and turbo generator set. 14. Process visualization for mining application. 15. Criteria display system for power station. 16. As stored programmed automation unit for the operation of diesel generator sets. 17. In Dairy automation and food processing.

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18. For a highly modernized pulp paper factory. 19. in automation system for the printing industry. 20. in automation of container transfer crane. 21. in automation of High-speed elevators. 22. in plastic molding process. 23. in automation of machine tools and transfer lines. 24. In Mixing operations and automation of packaging plants. 25. In compressed air plants and gas handling plants. 26. In fuel oil processing plants and water classification plants. 27. To control the conveyor/classifying system. Thus PLC is ideal for application where plant machine interlock requirements are finalized at a later stage and need changes during engineering trial runs, commissioning or normal use. It can be used extensively to replace conventional relay controls in power stations, refineries, cement, steel, fertilizer, petrochemical, chemical industries etc. Applications can thus be extended from monitoring to supervision, control and management.

CONCLUSION
It is true that CNC machine costs more to install initially. But higher initial cost is set off by the direct and indirect gains resulting from various advantages of CNC machines. In most cases, careful techno-economic evaluation of a given manufacturing situation will clearly bring out that unit cost of production is definitely less tools with that of so called conventional machines. To conclude numeric control is the most sophisticated form of automatic control of machine tool. It has high degree of precision and reliability. The control system has undergone several stage of development. Some of the special features offered by CNC machine manufacture are: Thermal stabilization Axis calibration Lost machine compensation With the various above qualities of CNC machine there are numerous advantages. They are High accuracy

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High reliability Less scrap and network Better machine utilization Computer control of manufacture capability of integration into distribution numeric control (DNC) etc. The programs written for CNC are easy to write and understand. These programs use either G-cod or M-code that runs the program. The codes are simple to understand.

No wonder CNC machines tools are becoming more and more popular day by day in modern industries. In longer run CNC machine pays for itself with such outstanding qualities. Plc is a simple computer which used for automation of real world processes such ascontrolling of machinery in a industry. Plc is a microprocessor based device with input and output circuitry that monitors the status of the field connected "sensor" inputs and controls attached output "actuators" according to user created logic program .application: maintaining the w a t e r l e v e l i n a t a n k b e t w e e n t w o f l o a t s w i t c h e s b y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e e l e c t r i c v a l v e . L a d d e r diagram is a language which composes of program using a relay logic symbols as a base in an image similar to a hard wired relay logic sequence. Advantages flexibility, pilot running, space efficiency, correcting errors, visual observation. The PLC offers a compromise between advance control techniques and present day technology. It is extremely difficult to forecast the rate and form of progress of PLCs, but there is strong evidence that development is both rapid a n d cumulative. Though a PLC is not designed to replace a computer, it is useful and cost effective for medium sized control systems. With the capability of functioning as local controllers in distributed control systems. PLCs will retain their application in large process plants. A further development of PLCs leads to the development of programmabl e f u n c t i o n controller (PFC) is compatible to PCs and directly controls the desired functions. In India every process industry is replacing relay control systems by PLCs and will go for PFCs in near future. In the near future every flats and offices may possess PFCs to control room temperature, as elevator controller, maintain water tank levels, as small telephone exchange etc.

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