CHAPTER

12
VECTORS
12.1 CARTESIAN SPACE COORDINATES
To introduce a Cartesian coordinate system in three-dimensional space, we begin with a plane Cartesian coordinate O-xy. Through the point O, which we continue to call the origin, we pass a third line, perpendicular to the other two. This third line we call the z-axis. We assign coordinates to the z-axis using the same scale, assigning the z-coordinate 0 to the origin O. For later convenience we orient the z-axis so that O-xyz forms a right-handed system. That is, if the index nger of the right hand points along the positive x-axis and the middle nger along the positive y-axis, then the thumb will point along the positive z-axis (see Figure 12.1.1).

O x

Figure 12.1.1

There are now three coordinate planes: the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane. The point on the x-axis with x-coordinate x0 is given space coordinates (x0 , 0, 0); the point on the y-axis with y-coordinate y0 is given space coordinates (0, y0 , 0); the point on the z-axis with z-coordinate z0 is given space coordinates (0, 0, z0 ).

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707

An arbitrary point P in three-dimensional space (see Figure 12.1.2) is assigned coordinates (x0 , y0 , z0 ) provided that
z (0, 0, z0) P(x0, y0, z0)

the plane z = z0 O (x0, 0, 0) y0 x

z0

(0, y0, 0) y x0 (x0, y0, 0)

Figure 12.1.2

(1) the plane through P parallel to the yz-plane intersects the x-axis at (x0 , 0, 0); (2) the plane through P parallel to the xz-plane intersects the y-axis at (0, y0 , 0); (3) the plane through P parallel to the xy-plane intersects the z-axis at (0, 0, z0 ). The space coordinates (x0 , y0 , z0 ) are called the Cartesian coordinates of P or simply the rectangular coordinates of P. A point is in the xy-plane iff it is of the form (x, y, 0). Thus the equation z = 0 represents the xy-plane. The equation z = z0 represents the set of all points (x, y, z0 ), that is, the set of all points with z-coordinate z0 . This is a plane parallel to the xy-plane. Similarly, the equation x = x0 represents a plane parallel to the yz-plane and the equation y = y0 represents a plane parallel to the xz-plane. (See, for example, Figure 12.1.3. There we have drawn the planes x = 1 and y = 3.)
z the plane x = 1 the plane y = 3

(0, 3, 0) (1, 0, 0) (1, 3, 0) y

Figure 12.1.3

The Distance Formula

The distance d(P1 , P2 ) between two points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) can be found by applying the Pythagorean theorem twice. With Q and R as in Figure 12.1.4, P1 P2 R

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and P1 RQ are both right triangles. From the rst triangle [d(P1 , P2 )]2 = [d(P1 , R)]2 + [d(R, P2 )]2 , and from the second triangle [d(P1 , R)]2 = [d(Q, R)]2 + [d(P1 , Q)]2 .

z P2(x2, y2, z2 )

R(x2, y2, z1) Q(x1, y2, z1) y (x2, y2, 0) (x1, y1, 0) (x1, y2, 0)

P1(x1, y1, z1)

Figure 12.1.4

Combining equations, [d(P1 , P2 )]2 = [d(Q, R)]2 + [d(P1 , Q)]2 + [d(R, P2 )]2 = (x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 . Taking square roots, we have the distance formula:
(12.1.1)

d(P1 , P2 ) =

(x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 .

The sphere of radius r centered at P0 (a, b, c) is the set of all points P(x, y, z) with d(P, P0 ) = r. We can obtain an equation for this sphere by using (12.1.1): Equation for a Sphere
(12.1.2)

(x a)2 + ( y b)2 + (z c)2 = r 2 .

See Figure 12.1.5. The equation for the sphere of radius r centered at the origin is
(12.1.3)

x2 + y2 + z 2 = r 2 .

See Figure 12.1.6. radius 3 centered at the point (5, 2, 0).

Example 1 The equation (x 5)2 + ( y + 2)2 + z 2 = 9 represents the sphere of

12.1 CARTESIAN SPACE COORDINATES

709

z z

(a, b, c) r b y y

(a, b, 0)

(x a)2 + ( y b)2 + (z c)2 = r 2

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2

Figure 12.1.5

Figure 12.1.6

Show that the equation x2 + y2 + z 2 + 6x + 2y 4z = 11 represents a sphere. Find the center of the sphere and the radius.
Example 2
SOLUTION

We write the equation as (x2 + 6x) + ( y2 + 2y) + (z 2 4z) = 11 and complete the squares. The result, (x2 + 6x + 9) + ( y2 + 2y + 1) + (z 2 4z + 4) = 11 + 9 + 1 + 4 = 25, can be written (x + 3)2 + ( y + 1)2 + (z 2)2 = 25.

This equation represents the sphere of radius 5 centered at (3, 1, 2).

Symmetry
You are already familiar with two kinds of symmetry: symmetry about a point and symmetry about a line. In space we can also speak of symmetry about a plane. These ideas are illustrated in Figure 12.1.7
P2 P2 P2

F M R

P1 (a) d(P1, M ) = d ( M, P2) point symmetry

P1 (b) d(P1, R) = d(R, P2) line symmetry

P1 (c) d(P1, F) = d(F, P2) plane symmetry

Figure 12.1.7

The endpoints P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) of the line segment P1 P2 are symmetric about the midpoint of the segment. This leads to the midpoint formula x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2 , , 2 2 2

(12.1.4)

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EXERCISES 12.1
Plot points A and B on a right-handed coordinate system. Then calculate the length of the line segment AB and nd the midpoint. 1. A(2, 0, 0), B(0, 0, 4). 3. A(0, 2, 5), B(4, 1, 0). 2. A(0, 2, 0), B(0, 0, 6). 4. A(4, 3, 0), B(2, 0, 6). 33. About the point (0, 2, 1). 34. About the point (4, 0, 1). 35. Find an equation for each sphere that passes through the point (5, 1, 4) and is tangent to all three coordinate planes. 36. Find an equation for the largest sphere that is centered at (2, 1, 2) and intersects the sphere x2 + y2 + z 2 = 1. 37. Is the equation x2 + y2 + z 2 4x + 4y + 6z + 20 = 0 an equation for a sphere? If so, nd the center and radius. If not, why isnt it? 38. Find conditions on A, B, C, D such that the equation x2 + y2 + z 2 + Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 represents a sphere. 39. Show that the points P(1, 2, 3), Q(4, 5, 2), R(0, 0, 0) are the vertices of a right triangle. 40. The points (5, 1, 3), (4, 2, 1), (2, 1, 0) are the midpoints of the sides of a triangle PQR. Find the vertices P, Q, R of the triangle. Describe the region 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. = {(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 + z 2 4}. = {(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 + z 2 > 9}. = {(x, y, z) : 0 x 1, 0 y 2, 0 z 3}. = {(x, y, z) : |x| 2, |y| 2, |z| 2}. = {(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 4, 0 z 4}. = {(x, y, z) : 4 < x2 + y2 + z 2 < 9}.

Find an equation for the plane through (3, 1, 2) that satises the given condition. 5. Parallel to the xy-plane. 6. Parallel to the xz-plane. 7. Perpendicular to the y-axis. 8. Perpendicular to the z-axis. 9. Parallel to the yz-plane. 10. Perpendicular to the x-axis. Find an equation for the sphere that satises the given conditions. 11. Centered at (0, 2, 1) with radius 3. 12. Centered at (1, 0, 2) with radius 4. 13. Centered at (2, 4, 4) and passes through the origin. 14. Centered at the origin and passes through (1, 2, 2). 15. The line segment joining (0, 4, 2) and (6, 0, 2) is a diameter. 16. Centered at (2, 3, 4) and tangent to the xy-plane. 17. Centered at (2, 3, 4) and tangent to the plane x = 7. 18. Centered at (2, 3, 4) and tangent to the plane y = 1. Show that the equation represents a sphere; nd the center and radius. 19. x2 + y2 + z 2 + 4x 8y 2z + 5 = 0. 20. 3x2 + 3y2 + 3z 2 12x 6z + 3 = 0. 21. x2 + y2 + z 2 6x + 10y 2z 1 = 0. 22. 4x2 + 4y2 + 4z 2 4x 8y 11 = 0. The points P(a, b, c) and Q(2, 3, 5) are symmetric in the sense given in Exercises 2334. Find a, b, c. 23. About the xy-plane. 24. About the xz-plane. 25. About the yz-plane. 26. About the x-axis. 27. About the y-axis. 28. About the z-axis. 29. About the origin. 30. About the plane x = 1. 31. About the plane y = 1. 32. About the plane z = 4.

In Exercises 47 and 48, the point R lies on the line segment that joins P(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and Q(b1 , b2 , b3 ). 47. (a) Find the coordinates of R given that d(P, R) = t d(P, Q) where 0 t 1.

(b) Determine the value of t for which R is the midpoint of PQ. 48. (a) Find the coordinates of R given that d(P, R) = r d(R, Q) where r > 0.

(b) Determine the value of r for which R is the midpoint of PQ.

c 49. Use a CAS to nd the equation of the sphere that has the line segment joining the points P(3, 2, 2) and Q(1, 4, 3) as a diameter. Sketch the sphere. c 50. Use a CAS to nd the perimeter and the area of the triangle with vertices P(4, 3, 2), Q(6, 2, 7), R(5, 1, 2). Sketch the triangle.