171266

1 1'61266
AGARD-AG-145-b

'1

AGARDograph No. 145

on

Wind Tunnel Pressure Measuring Techniques

by D.S. Bynum, R.L. Ledford and W.E. Smotherman

DlSTRlBUTlO N A N D AVAILABILITY ON BACK COVER

/ --'- - =\ -

"

AGARDograph No. 145

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ORGANISATION DU TRAITE DE L ' ATLANTIQUE NORD)

WIND TUNNEL PRESSURE MEASURING TECHNIQUES

//-

1
,d/

_=

_ _ 4
--7-=-

W. E . Smotherman

Arnold A i r Force Station, Tennessee, USA

T h i s is one of a series of publications by t h e NATO-AGARD Fluid Dynamics Panel. D r . H. K. Doetsch of Arnold Engineering Development Center, Arnold A i r Force Station, Tennessee, is t h e Editor.

The m a t e r i a l in this publication has been produced from copy supplied and s e t by the author.

Published December 1970

533. 6. 071. 3:533. 6. 048. 2

Printed by Technical Editing and Reproduction Ltd Harford House, 7-9 Charlotte St. London. W I P IHD

11

..

SUMMARY

T h i s AGARDograph w a s written to give those unacquainted with modern wind tunnel p r e s s u r e m e a s uring techniques and equipment a broad view of the topic and t o provide sufficient r e f e r e n c e s s o that additional information may be easily obtained. The m a t e r i a l covered is limited to d i r e c t p r e s s u r e m e a s urements. i. e . , f o r c e p e r unit a r e a , and does not present techniques that determine p r e s s u r e through i t s relationship to other m e a s u r e d p a r a m e t e r s . T r a n s d u c e r s , signal conditioning, data recording equipment, and s t a t i c and dynamic calibrations a r e described.

SOMMAIRE Cette AGARDOgraphie a i t d p d p a r d e dans l e but de donner une v i e gdndrale du sujet A ceux que ne sont pas f a m i l i e r s avec,lys techniques actuelles de m e s u r e r l e s pressions ?ans l e s souffleries et de, fournir un nombre de r e f e r e n c e s suffisant d'obtenir des informations supplementaires et a s s e z en detail. L e prgsente rapport e s t limit6 de c o u v r i r seulement l e s mhthodes de m e s u r e d i r e c t e s c'est-;-dire ceux qui d4rivent l a pression p a r l a dhtermination de l a force p a r unite de s u r f a c e . I1 ne comporte pas l e s techniques d6terminant l a pression p a r l a relation avec des a u t r e s p a r a m i t r e s m e s u r 6 s . L e s capteurs $e pression, l e conditionnement des signaux. l'equipment d 'enregistrement des quantit6s donnhes et l e s etalonnages statiques et dynamiques sont d6crits.

iii

PREFACE

T h e authors wish'to e x p r e s s t h e i r appreciation to the numerous organizations and individuals who contributed t o the contents of this AGARDograph. The authors a r e especially indebted t o the Arnold Engineering Development Center, Arnold A i r F o r c e Station, Tennessee, USA, for approval of the use of AEDC m a t e r i a l and a s s i s t a n c e in preparation of the figures and manuscript. P e r s o n a l thanks a r e extended to W. T . E a r h e a r t for his technical review of the war!<, to D r . Hans Doetsch for both his technical review and editorial comments, to M r s . Brenda Phillips for typing t h e draft manuscript; and to George W. Chumbley, Edna Grant, and Cathy Bouldin for coordinating the preparation of the final manuscript and figures.

iv

CONTENTS Page
1. 2

4.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRANSDUCERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 Variable Resistance T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 1 Potentiometric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.2 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 . 2 Strain-Gage P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 2 . 1 Gaged Diaphragm P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 Cantilever Type T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 2 . 3 P r e s s u r e Vessel T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1. 2 . 4 Embedded Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 . 2 . 5 Unbonded Strain-Gage P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1. 2 . 6 General P e r f o r m a n c e of Strain-Gage P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . 2 . 2 Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 2 . 1 Diaphragm Type Variable Reluctance T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 . 2 Bourdon Tube Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.3 Linear Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r (LVDT) Type T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . 2 . 2 . 4 General P e r f o r m a n c e of Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . 2 . 3 Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 3 . 1 T h r e e Electrode Variable Capacitance T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 3 . 2 Two-Electrode Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 3 . 3 Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e - B a r Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 3 . 4 Summary of P e r f o r m a n c e of Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . 2.4 Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. 1 Compressive Element Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 4 . 2 Beam Type Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. 3 Piezoelectric B a r Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 4 . 4 Summary of P e r f o r m a n c e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .of Piezoelectric T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . 2.5 F o r c e Balance Type P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MEASURINGSYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 1 Pneumatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 1 1 T r a n s d u c e r Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 1 . 2 T i m e Response of P r e s s u r e Measuring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 1 . 2 . 1 Flush-Mounted T r a n s d u c e r Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 1 . 2 . 2 Response of Systems Employing Tubulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 3 Pneumatic Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 1 . 4 Thermo-Molecular E f f e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. 1 Variable. Resistance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 Bridge Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . 1 . 2 Balancing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 Shunt Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . 1 . 4 Power Supply Considerations.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . 3 . 2 . 1. 5 Signal Conditioning for Semiconductor Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . 3 . 2 . 1 6 Potentiometric T r a n s d u c e r Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 2 Signal Conditioning for Variable Reluctance and Linear Variable Differential Transformer P r e s s u r e Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . 3 Signal Conditioning for Piezoelectric T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 . 4 Signal Conditioning for Variable Capacitance T r a n s d u c e r s . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 2 . 5 Compensation for Acceleration Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 . 6 Multiplexing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.7 Data Recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CALIBRATION TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 Static Calibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 1 . 1 McLeod Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2 Liquid Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 . 3 Bourdon Tube Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 1 . 4 Dead Weight T e s t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 Dynamic Calibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 . 1 T i m e Domain Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 . 1 . 1 Shock Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 F a s t Opening Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 4 . 2 . 1 3 Drop T e s t Calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 . 2 Frequency Domain Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 2 . 1 Resonant Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 . 2 . 2 Non-Resonant Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 2 . 3 Valve Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 . 2.4 Reciprocity Calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 2 2 . 5 Electrostatic Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1 3 3 3 3 5 5 6 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 13 13 13 13 14 16 17 17 19 23 24 25 25 26 26 26 29 29 31 33 38 40 40 40 41 44 45 46 46

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47 49 52 54 54 56 58 58 59 60 61 61 62 62 62 66 67 70 72 73 73 73 75

Page
4 2 . 3 Frequency Domain Data from T i m e Domain Calibrations REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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75 76 82

TABLES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1 . Analog Recording Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. T i m e Domain Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Frequency Domain Calibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I Summary of Typical T r a n s d u c e r Capabilities ILLUSTRATIONS Figure

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 57 64
71

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . Atmospheric P r e s s u r e v e r s u s Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. P e r f e c t A i r P r e s s u r e Ratios v e r s u s Mach Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Location of E x t r e m e P r e s s u r e s in a Typical Wind Tunnel 4. 5. Potentiometric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Schematic

2 2
4 4
6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Potentiometric T r a n s d u c e r Force-Summing Members Bonded Strain-Gage Sensing Configuration Gaged Diaphragm T r a n s d u c e r

. 7. 8. 9. 10.
6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7
8 9

. . . P r e s s u r e Vessel T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embedded Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Unbonded Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. Diaphragm-Type Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . 13. Bourdon Tube Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . .
1 4.

Bonded Strain-Gage Cantilever T r a n s d u c e r Configurations .

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10 10 11
12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. Three-Electrode Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 . Two-Electrode Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r T r a n s d u c e r
17

13 14 15
16

Capacitance T r a n s d u c e r with Built-In Reference P r e s s u r e Lag System Variable Capacitance B a r Gage

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18.
19 .

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17 18 18 20 20
21

20 .
2 1.

. 23 . 24 .
22

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compressive Element Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . Piezoelectric "Stack" T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tube Loaded Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . Compressive Element (No P r e - L o a d ) T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . .
Basic Analogy of a Piezoelectric System Transient Response Acceleration-Compensated Compressive Element T r a n s d u c e r

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

25 26

.
.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

22
23 23
24

. . . . 27 . "Bimorph" Piezoelectric Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 . Cornel1 Beam-Type Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 . Piezoelectric B a r Gage Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 . F o r c e Balance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 . Wind Tunnel Model P r e s s u r e Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 . T r a n s d u c e r Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 . Water-Cooled P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 . Flush Mount P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r with T h e r m a l Protection (Silicone Compound) . . . . . 35 . Helium-Bleed Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi

Cornell Compressive Element. Acceleration-Compensated P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r .

24 25
26 27
27

28 28

Figure

Page Shock Mounted P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Low P r e s s u r e

. 37. 38.
36 39 . 40

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T r a n s d u c e r Installation and P r e s s u r e Sealing Technique . . . . . . . . .

28 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 42 42 42 43 43 44 44 45 46 47 47 48 49 50 51 51 52 53 53 53 54 55 58 59

. 4 1.
42 . 43

. . T r a n s d u c e r Diaphragm Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . Unfiltered P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Data T r a c e . . . . . . . . . . . Filtered P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Data T r a c e . . . . . . . . . . . Recessed P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Mounting Technique . . . . . .
High P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Installation and Sealing Technique

. . 45 . 46 .
44 47. 48 49

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Response Study Configurations of Low P r e s s u r e Variable Reluctance T r a n s d u c e r . . . . Low P r e s s u r e Variable Reluctance T r a n s d u c e r Response T i m e . . . . . . . . . . . . Stabilization T i m e ( t o One P e r c e n t ) of a P r e s s u r e System ( f r o m Ref . 106) . . . . . . . Basic P r e s s u r e Scanning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-Way P r e s s u r e Scanning Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section Showing Standard T r a n s d u c e r Fitting Mounted in Rotor of P r e s s u r e Scanning Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Response T i m e of 48-Way Switch Measured to 9 9 . 5 P e r c e n t of the Applied Port Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 0. 51

P r e s s u r e - T i m e Profile of T r a n s d u c e r in Scanning Switch with S i m i l a r Tube Systems Connected t o Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Method of Attaching Added Volume to Switch P o r t and Tube System

. . . . . . . . . .

5 2.

P r e s s u r e - T i m e P r o f i l e of T r a n s d u c e r in Scanning Switch with S i m i l a r Tubes Systems plus Volumes Connected t o Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomograph f o r Thermo-Molecular P r e s s u r e Correction at Orifices

. 54. 55 . 56 . 5 7.
53

. . . . . . . . . . Curves f o r Thermo-Molecular P r e s s u r e Corrections in Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . Full Bridge T r a n s d u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Closed Output Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P a r a l l e l Balance Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8 . Voltage -Bucking Balance Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 . Voltage-Bucking Balance Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0 . Single Shunt Calibration

. . 63.
61 62

Shunt Calibration with Parallel Balance Network Common Power Supply Connection

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................

. . . . 6 4 . Potentiometer Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 . L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r and Variable Reluctance Sensor . . . . . . . 66 . C a r r i e r Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T r a n s d u c e r Sensitivity v e r s u s T e m p e r a t u r e for Semiconductor S t r a i n Gages with Constant Current and Constant Voltage Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67 68

. . 69 . 7 0.
71 72 73

Operation of Simple Rectifier and Synchronous Demodulators Voltage Amplifier Equivalent Charge Amplifier

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Effect of Source Capacitance on High Frequency Response f o r a Typical Charge Amplifier Line D r i v e r Circuit . Clapp Oscillator

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r in Bridge Circuit

. 74 . 75 .

Single-Channel T e l e m e t r y System

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 76 . Block Diagram of Multiplexing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 . P r e s s u r e Range of Some Calibration Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 . Minimum E r r o r of Some P r e s s u r e Calibration Standards . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii

Block Diagram of System for Compensation of Acceleration Effects in P r e s s u r e Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure

Page McLeod Gage

60 60 61 61 63 65 66 67 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 72 73 74 74 75

. 80. 8 1. 82.
79

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Commonly Used Liquid Manometer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bourdon Tube Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .General Configuration of Deadweight T e s t e r ( A i r o r Oil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 . Shock Tube and Wave Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4 . Nomographs Relating Chamber P r e s s u r e s . Shock Strengths. and P r e s s u r e Steps . . . . 85 . Time-Distance Plot of Waves in Any Shock Tube for 5 = 0.65. . . . . . . . . . . . .
86

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Chamber Lengths v e r s u s Constant - P r e s s u r e Intervals At P r e s s u r e Pulse Generator (Sectioned View)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87. 88 . 89 90

.
. . .

91 92

93. 94 95 . 96 . 97

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NPL Semi-Dynamic P r e s s u r e Calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical Solenoid Valve Calibrator Schematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low P r e s s u r e Step-Function Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calibrating Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drop T e s t Calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transducer Signals from Drop T e s t Calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resonant Cavity Excitation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonresonant Cavity Excitation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rotating Valve Square Wave Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schematic for Reciprocity Calibration of Capacitance Microphones Synthesized Square Wave Function

. 98.

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

SYMBOLS

Speed of sound, f t / s e c ( s u b s c r i p t s indicate particular region in shock tube, Fig. 83. ) F r a c t i o n of activity of partially active bridge legs, output of bridge relative t o output without shunt balance network Volume p e r m i l l i m e t e r length of capillary in McLeod gage, c m 3 / m m Attenuation of t r a n s d u c e r output due t o shunting effect of balancing network Capacitance, farads o r picofarads Amplifier input capacitance, f a r a d s Cable capacitance, farads Charge amplifier feed-back capacitance, farads T r a n s d u c e r capacitance, farads Diameter, c m Diameter of f i r s t tube in composite tubing s y s t e m , in. Diameter of other tubes in composite tubing system, in. B a s e of natural logarithm E l e c t r i c a l potential o r voltage, volts T r a n s d u c e r z e r o output voltage, volts Balancing voltage added by voltage bucking network, o r output voltage from reciprocity calibration, volts Output voltages f r o m reciprocity calibrations, volts Capacitor voltage, volts Bridge circuit output voltage, net output voltage f r o m bucking balance network and bridge, eo = e l + e2, volts Voltage a s a function of t i m e Voltage a c r o s s bridge circuit load r e s i s t o r Charge amplifier output voltage, volts T r a n s d u c e r equivalent voltage generator output, volts F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m of the p r e s s u r e s y s t e m output voltage Frequency, Hz Resonant frequency, Hz Local acceleration due t o gravity, f t / s e c 2 o r c m / s e c 2 , r a t i o of acceleration t o local acceleration due t o gravity Conversion factor, 1.333 Ratio of actual damping t o c r i t i c a l damping; o r height of liquid manometer o r McLeod gage column; in., cm, m m Number of active halves of a bridge F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m of. the p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m t r a n s f e r function E l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , amp

E l e c t r i c c u r r e n t through bridge load resistance, amp

J-IT
Constant for reciprocity calibration, 107 for cgs units Knw, i, d Knudsen number based on wall t e m p e r a t u r e , indicated p r e s s u r e , and orifice diameter Length of tube, ft, c m Length of f i r s t tube in composite tubing system, c m Effective length of composite tubing s y s t e m , c m Length of other tubes in composite tubing system, c m Length, inches o r feet; number of analog inputs Length of shock tube d r i v e r , ft

Q
Ql

Qe
Qi L

L1

ix

AL M MS n N P

Change in length, in. Molecular weight, Mach number; number of groups of low level inputs Shock Mach number Number of p r e s s u r e ports Number of A-to-D c o n v e r t e r s P r e s s u r e ; psi, in. of water, in. of Hg, c m of Hg, mmHg, based on 0.0002 dyne/cm2, p b a r s
p

of Hg, decibels (db)

P1

P r e s s u r e at end of tube (known), shock tube driven tube initial p r e s s u r e , p r e s s u r e input t o McLeod gage o r liquid manometer P r e s s u r e at end of tube (unknown), p r e s s u r e input to liquid manometer, p r e s s u r e in region two of shock tube operation P r e s s u r e in region five of shock tube operation Ambient p r e s s u r e in reciprocity calibrator Model base p r e s s u r e P r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d with orifice a s diameter approaches zero, lbf / f t 2 Wind tunnel stilling chamber p r e s s u r e , initial p r e s s u r e in tubing s y s t e m Wind tunnel pitot p r e s s u r e P r e s s u r e a s a function of t i m e Wind tunnel wall p r e s s u r e , t r u e normal force p e r unit a r e a exerted by a gas, lbf/ft2 Wind tunnel f r e e - s t r e a m p r e s s u r e P r e s s u r e rise on shock tube s i d e wall a s shock wave p a s s e s P r e s s u r e rise on end of shock tube a s shock wave reflects F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m of the p r e s s u r e input function

4
QS

Heat flux, f t - l b f / f t 2 - s e c Charge f r o m piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r , picocoulombs E l e c t r i c a l resistance, ohms; universal gas constant, ft -1bf

slug OK

Resistance of top portion of bridge balance circuit potentiometer Resistance of bottom portion of bridge balance potentiometer

(RI
RI

+ R2) total
+
2R4 o r R2

r e s i s t a n c e of bridge balance potentiometer

Resistance of bridge balance potentiometer wiper s e r i e s r e s i s t o r

2R4

Divider r e s i s t o r in voltage bucking balance network T r a n s d u c e r input r e s i s t a n c e Amplifier input r e s i s t a n c e Resistance of bridge circuit shunt T r a n s m i s s i o n line r e s i s t a n c e T r a n s d u c e r output r e s i s t a n c e T r a n s d u c e r input pad r e s i s t a n c e Bridge circuit load r e s i s t a n c e Change in bridge l e g r e s i s t a n c e Sensitivities of t r a n s d u c e r s from reciprocity calibration T i m e ; sec, m s e c , psec T i m e required t o t r a v e l between two p r e s s u r e ports on a p r e s s u r e switch Initial rise t i m e of a p r e s s u r e switching s y s t e m without a volume Initial rise t i m e of a p r e s s u r e switching s y s t e m with a volume T i m e to first peak of t r a n s d u c e r response after s t e p input

T i m e t o r e c o r d p r e s s u r e at each position of a p r e s s u r e switch R i s e t i m e of p r e s s u r e at each position of a p r e s s u r e switch after the initial position

ttv

R i s e t i m e of p r e s s u r e at each position of a p r e s s u r e switch with a volume after the initial position at Total t i m e for a p r e s s u r e switch t o s c a n n ports, s e c ; nondimensionalized t i m e L T e m p e r a t u r e at end of tube where p r e s s u r e is known, OK T e m p e r a t u r e at end of tube where p r e s s u r e is unknown, P e r i o d of a s q u a r e wave, s e c T e m p e r a t u r e of gas molecules,
O K

O K

Total t i m e for p r e s s u r e switch with volume t o s c a n n ports, s e c Surface t e m p e r a t u r e of model, OK Shock wave speed, f t / s e c Bridge excitation voltage, volts; volume of tubing and m e a s u r i n g t r a n s d u c e r , cm3; initial volume of McLeod gage gas sample, c m 3 V1 v2
X
C Y

Voltage a c r o s s voltage bucking balance bridge Excitation voltage f o r voltage bucking balance networks Distance, ft T h e r m a l accommodation coefficient Cathode follower gain Ratio of specific heats ( 1 . 4 for a i r ) , s u b s c r i p t s (1, 2, 3) indicate region of shock tube operation, Fig. 8 3 Wavelength of radio t e l e m e t r y signal, m Unit s t r a i n , in. /in. Viscosity, poises Shock strength, p1/p2 Density, g m / c m 3 T i m e constant, sec

P
Y

x
E

Angular frequency, radians / s e c

ABBREVIATIONS

AEDC AC A-to-D BRL cm CA L CE C

Arnold Engineering Development Center, Arnold A i r F o r c e Station, Tennessee 37389 Alternating c u r r e n t Analog -to - digital Ballistics R e s e a r c h Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005 Centimeter Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratory, P. 0. Box 235, 4455 Genessee S t r e e t , Buffalo, New York 14221 Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation, 360 S i e r r a Madre Villa, Pasadena, California 9 1109 Consolidated Vacuum Corporation, Rochester, New York Direct c u r r e n t Field effect t r a n s i s t o r Frequency modulation Full s c a l e Foot Hertz, cycles p e r second Instrument Society of America, Penn-Sheraton Hotel, 530 William Penn Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219 J e t Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California Kilohertz, thousands of cycles p e r second Kilohms

cvc
DC FET FM
F. S.

ft Hz ISA JPL kHz kR

xi

LVDT mmHg MHz MO NBS NOL NPL PF psi ps id RAE RF

@

L i n e a r variable differential t r a n s f o r m e r Millimeters of m e r c u r y Megahertz, millions of cycles p e r second Megohms

U. S. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 20234

Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, Silver Spring, Maryland 209 10 National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, England Picofarads, farads

Pounds p e r s q u a r e inch Pounds p e r s q u a r e inch differential Royal A i r c r a f t Establishment, Ministry of Technology, Bedford, England Radio frequency Registered t r a d e m a r k von KLrmin Gas Dynamics Facility, AEDC Variable reluctance Micro, Microns of m e r c u r y , m e t e r s of m e r c u r y

VKF VR

xii

1. INTRODUCTION

P r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s in wind tunnels a r e of i n t e r e s t not only for determining the p r e s s u r e distribution on aerodynamic shapes but a l s o f o r determining t e s t conditions in the wind tunnel t e s t section. Up to about fifteen to twenty y e a r s ago, the majority of wind tunnel p r e s s u r e s w e r e measured with liquid manometers, for the most p a r t manually r e a d . Some automated manometers w e r e built, and s o m e a r e still being used. However, liquid manometers lacked the fast response, high and low p r e s s u r e capability, and amenability to automation required f o r pulsed and high speed wind tunnels. The liquid manometer h a s been replaced to a l a r g e extent by electro-mechanical t r a n s d u c e r s with automated data recording s y s t e m s . The purpose of this AGARDograph is t o present a description of basic modern equipment and techniques available for wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measurements. The purpose is not, however, t o present the most sophisticated s y s t e m s . This r e p o r t is not intended for the experts in the wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measuring field but f o r those who a r e not intimately acquainted with the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t . Abundant r e f e r e n c e s a r e included to help the r e a d e r in finding m o r e complete details of p r e s s u r e measuring and calibration equipment and techniques. Also included is a general bibliography of r e f e r e n c e s not directly connected to the text but which a r e pertinent to the subject. The range of p r e s s u r e s which can be encountered in a wind tunnel can be quite l a r g e , especially at high Mach numbers and altitudes. F i g u r e 1 shows the location of s o m e of the e x t r e m e s in p r e s s u r e s which can be expected in wind tunnels. The maximum p r e s s u r e is obviously pot the r e s e r v o i r or stilling chamber p r e s s u r e . The wall p r e s s u r e , pw, can take on any value from po near the stilling chamber t o approximately p,, the f r e e - s t r e a m p r e s s u r e , at the t e s t section. The pitot p r e s s u r e , p;, is generally the maximum value of p r e s s u r e encountered in the t e s t section. However, the pitot p r e s s u r e in the vicinity of a r a m p can be considerably higher than p; in high Mach number wind tunnels. The base p r e s s u r e , pb, is generally the lowest p r e s s u r e to be m e a s u r e d and w i l l be on the o r d e r of the f r e e - s t r e a m p r e s s u r e , p,. Approximate values of po, p;, and p can be predicted from Figs. 2 and 3 i f the altitude , simulation and Mach number a r e known. Figure 2 was plotted from 1 9 6 2 U. S. Standard Atmosphere data from ( l ) * ; however, for the purpose h e r e , a straight line approximation would have been adequate. The data in Fig. 3 are for perfect o r ideal air (2). Therefore, the r a t i o p; /pm is in slight e r r o r because of r e a l gas effects at high Mach numbers. The r a t i o of po/p, can be in e r r o r a s much a s a factor of two (high o r low depending on the value of t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e ) , at the higher Mach numbers because of the d e p a r t u r e of actual nozzle flow from the perfect gas situation ( 3 ) . In addition to the range of p r e s s u r e s to be measured, frequency and time response requirements a r e a consideration. Frequently, aerodynamicists a r e interested in the periodic p r e s s u r e fluctuation a s well a s the steady p r e s s u r e in continuous flow wind tunnels. T h e s e periodic p r e s s u r e s a r e generally l o w compared to the steady p r e s s u r e and can be a s high a s the 100-kHz range in frequency. Intermittent (blowdown) and pulsed (pulsed a r c heated, gun tunnels, shock tunnels, shock tubes, etc. ) wind tunnels r e q u i r e the p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m to respond to the transient nature of the p r e s s u r e s . This can r e q u i r e rise t i m e s to a s t e p p r e s s u r e of from a few seconds to l e s s than 100 Msec. Unfortunately, environmental effects other than p r e s s u r e a r e frequently applied to the measuring s y s t e m in the wind tunnels. Among the m o r e troublesome of these a r e heat flux and vibration which can present a difficult problem i f the p r e s s u r e measuring devices a r e located wholly o r in part in the wind tunnel model o r on the wind tucnel wall.

T e s t Section

Stilling Chamber,

PO

PO

Fig. 1 Location of E x t r e m e P r e s s u r e s in a Typical Wind Tunnel

*Numbers in parentheses denote r e f e r e n c e numbers.

Plotted from 1962 Standard Atmosphere Data ( 1 ) Altitude, 1000 meters

0
I

10
l

20
l

30
l

40
l

50
l '

60
'

70
1

80 9 0 1 0 0 110 120
' l ' l

- 103

101

-. I

- lo2
100

- 101
10-1

- 100
10-2
!! ! Y
X
M

."

I
10-3
I

\I

I
-10-1

! i

. I

- 10-2
10-4

10-5

3
I I
80

I
120

I \ I
360 400

- 10-4

10-6

40

160 200 240 280 320 Altitude, 1000 feet

Fig. 2 Atmospheric P r e s s u r e v e r s u s Altitude

Compressible F l o w Data for y 1.4 (2)

106

lo5

I
. i'

/I

lo4

V I

103

PO Pm 102

101

100

,4

10

12

14

16

18

20

Fig. 3 P e r f e c t A i r P r e s s u r e Ratios v e r s u s Mach Number

2.

TRANSDUCERS

Wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measurements a r e most frequently accomplished by use of t r a n s d u c e r s . F o r the purposes of this publication, a transducer w i l l be defined a s a device which provides an e l e c t r i c a l output signal for a physical quantity ( p r e s s u r e ) input, whether o r not auxiliary energy is required. T h i s output signal may be measured, stored, o r manipulated in other ways by the u s e of electronic signal conditioning equipment ( s e e Section 3. 2). P r e s s u r e s from 2 x psia to approximately 100, 000 p s i a r e successfully measured in wind tunnel t e s t s with the aid of elastic-type t r a n s d u c e r s whose e l e c t r i c a l output signal emanates from the deflection o r deformation caused by a p r e s s u r e activated sensing element. The most common types of elastic sensing elements a r e diaphragms (plates and membranes), bourdon tubes, bellows, v e s s e l s , and caps u l e s . In o r d e r to produce an e l e c t r i c a l signal, these elastic elements operate in conjunction with elect r i c a l sensing elements which provide an electrical change in response t o the deflection or deformation of the elastic element. The most frequently used e l e c t r i c a l sensing elements include potentiometers, metallic and semiconductor s t r a i n gages, variable reluctance devices, differential t r a n s f o r m e r s , piezoe l e c t r i c elements, and variable capacitance devices. The confines of this publication, obviously, do not permit a thorough and detailed treatment of all types of p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s employed in wind tunnel testing. The effort should, however, provide a general understanding of the most common types of t r a n s d u c e r s , along with r e f e r e n c e s which w i l l allow the interested r e a d e r to study further the theory and other details of the instruments. The commercial availability of the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s w i l l not be presented in this undertaking, but such information may be ound in the ISA "Transducer Compendium" ( 4 ) : T h i s s o u r c e includes many manufacturers and provides pertinent t r a n s d u c e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which w i l l aid the prospective buyer in obtaining an applicable instrument. A s u m m a r y of the general performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the m a j o r types of p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s is given in Table I. TABLE I SUMMARY O F TYPICAL TRANSDUCER CAPABILITIES

Transducer Type Variable Resistance 3x

Pressure Measurement Range to 100, 000 psi

Nominal Operating Temperature Range -430 to 300F -65 to +250"F** -65 to +250"F

Nominal Temperature Sensitivity 0. 25% F.S. per IOOOF 2% F . S . per 100F**

2.0% F.S. per 100F

Resonant Frequency

Acceleration Sensitivity

Up to 1 MHz

From 0.001% to 1% F.S. per g From 0.0005% to 1.0% F.S. per g From 0. 0001% to 0.5% F.S. per g From 0.0005 psi per g to 0. 1 psi per g
10% F.S. per g

Variable Reluctance

to 10, 000 psi

Up to 25 kHz

Variable Capacitance Piezoelectric

2 x

to 10.000 psi

-55 to +225'F

1. 0% F.S. per 100F

Up to 300 kHz*

5 x

to 100.000 psi

-400 to +500"F

1% to 5% F. S. per 10F 0'

Up to 500 kHz*

F o r c e Balance

1 . 5 to 10,000 psi

+40 to +165"F

1.5% F.S. per 100F

See Note 1

*Does not include bar-type gages which may have r i s e times a s low a s 0. 1 Psec. **Potentiometric Transducers Note 1: Response time to 99% final value for a step p r e s s u r e input ranges from 0. 1 to 1 . 0 s e c .

2 . 1 Variable Resistance T r a n s d u c e r s

The majority of variable r e s i s t a n c e t r a n s d u c e r s may be listed in two categories: t r a n s d u c e r s which provide l a r g e r e s i s t a n c e changes that normally operate in potentiometer circuits; and t r a n s d u c e r s with s m a l l r e s i s t a n c e changes which a r e usually employed in bridge circuits. T h e most prominent differences in t h e s e two types of devices a r e found in the a r e a s of resolution and noise generation a s well a s sensitivity. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s along with others w i l l be discussed for s o m e of the m o r e common potentiometer and strain-gage-type t r a n s d u c e r designs.
2. 1. 1 Potentiometric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s
2. 1. 1. 1 Principle of Operation

. The basic operating principle of the potentiometric p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r is presented i n Fig. 4. The device consists of t h r e e main components: the force collector, the sliding contact wiper, and the r e s i s t ance wire winding o r other type r e s i s t a n c e element. The p r e s s u r e to be m e a s u r e d is applied to the force collector (capsule) which, through a linkage rod, moves a sliding contact wiper) a c r o s s the electrical

r e s i s t a n c e wire windings. T h i s action provides a r e s i s t a n c e change between the wiper signal lead and an excitation lead. Hence, with the wire winding excited a s shown, a voltage change between the wiper and excitation lead can be realized. F o r most transducer designs, this change is linear, but s i n e , logarithmic, and other functicns may be obtained by proper components and assembly techniques. More detailed treatments of the potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r theory a r e presented by Neubert (51, Dummer (6), and Norton, (7). S i g n a l Lead (Wiper)
C 01 l e c t o r )

Pr es s ur e
S l i d i n g C o n t a c t Wiper

i -

Exc i t a t i on

R e s i s t a n c e Wire C o i l o r Other R e s i s t a n c e Element

Fig. 4 Potentiometric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Schematic The force-summing m e m b e r s ( o r elastic elements) most frequently used in the construction of t h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s include capsules and bourdon tubes a s shown in Fig. 5. Capsule elements a r e normally used for p r e s s u r e ranges up to approximately 300 psi. T h e s e elements consist of two die-stamped, dishshaped, corrugated diaphragms of s p r i n g alloy attached at the outer circumference. Materials commonly employed in capsules include Inconel-X@*, phosphor bronze, and NI-Span-C@ **. The l a t t e r is most widely used because of its t e m p e r a t u r e stability c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Additional information concerning capsule c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be found in (8), (9). ( l o ) , and (11). Reference ( 1 2 ) is especially helpful a s it d e s c r i b e s many transducing techniques including capsules. In a typical design, p r e s s u r e is admitted into the capsule through a port in one of the diaphragms. A linkage rod is attached to t h e c e n t e r of the opposite diaphragm s o that the diaphragm deflection (caused by the p r e s s u r e application) moves the linkage rod in the direction shown in Fig. 5. A nominal full-scale deflection for such a s y s t e m is two percent of the capsule d i a m e t e r . In o r d e r to obtain l a r g e deflections, two or m o r e capsules may be cascaded s o 2s to add the deflections of each.

Pressure

Lhessure S i n g l e and M u l t i p l e C a p s u l e s Helica 1

@-Pressure

P r e s s? ure -

I--Spiral C-Shaped Arrows Show D i r e c t i o n of D e f l e c t i o n Fig. 5 Potentiometric T r a n s d u c e r Force-Summing Members Twisted

*Trademark International Nickel Co. **Trademark H. A . Wiison Co.

T h e bourdon tube is a s p r i n g alloy tube with an elliptical c r o s s section which is closed at one end and is shaped in a curved o r twisted configuration a s shown in Fig. 5. When p r e s s u r e is admitted into the tube, the difference in a r e a exposed to the p r e s s u r e c a u s e s the curved tube to tend to straighten. Hence, i f the open end is held securely, the closed end w i l l move. The bourdon tubes can generally provide g r e a t e r deflections than capsules a s Neubert (5) shows that C-shaped ( F i g . 5) tubes of 2-in. bending d i a m e t e r have a useful t r a v e l of about 0. 125 in. Ni-Span-C@alloy is the most popular bourdon tube m a t e r i a l because of i t s t e m p e r a t u r e stability. F u r t h e r studies on the deflections and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e tubes a r e available in (12), (131, (14), and (15). Many t r a n s d u c e r designs incorporate the s p i r a l , helical, and C-shaped bourdon tubes because of t h e i r l a r g e deflections which in s o m e c a s e s 'permit t r a n s d u c e r s to be built without an e x t r a linkage between the tube and the r e s i s t a n c e element. This minimizes vibration, friction, and backlash problems. Twisted bourdon tubes provide less deflection, and t h e i r application is generally r e s t r i c t e d t o the higher p r e s s u r e range potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s . The r e s i s t a n c e element of a potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r most frequently consists of e l e c t r i c a l w i r e wound on a mandrel. The wire is generally a platinum alloy on the o r d e r of 0. 001-in. diameter, wherea s t h e mandrel is an insulating m a t e r i a l such a s c e r a m i c , phenolic, etc. F o r a detailed treatment of this type of r e s i s t a n c e element, s e e Dummer ( 6 ) . Although the wirewound elements a r e m o r e common, other elements such a s carbon-film and conductive-epoxy have recently found application in the potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r field. T h e s e elements offer improved resolution and may be fabricated in much s m a l l e r configurations. Smooth s u r f a c e s a r e a l s o provided, and this lends to better noise and vibration characteristics. 2. 1.1. 2 P e r f o r m a n c e Potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s , especially those employing wir,e winding r e s i s t a n c e elements, a r e hampered by resolution and noise problems. A s the wiper moves a c r o s s the windings, a s t e p r e s i s t a n c e change (5) is generated when the wiper disconnects with one winding or makes contact with another. The amplitude of this s t e p change, and hence the resolution, depends mainly upon the geometry of the wire windings and wiper. A nominal value of resolution for most potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s is 0. 2 percent of full s c a l e . E l e c t r i c a l noise is a l s o generated because of contact r e s i s t a n c e variations a s t h e wiper t r a v e l s over the r e s i s t a n c e element. The variations a r e generally caused by contact p r e s s u r e fluctuations and particle contamination at the wiper-wire contact. This noise generation tends to i n c r e a s e with the life of the ins t r u m e n t because of wear and misalignment of the wiper and t r a c k . Noise spikes may a l s o be caused by vibrations which tend to lift the wiper f r o m the r e s i s t a n c e element. Any linkages required in the t r a n s ducing s y s t e m w i l l cause the instrument to be m o r e sensitive to vibration. A frequently used method of reducing the harmful effects of vibration is oil damping on the linkages and elastic elements. 'The damping fluid (usually silicone oil) surrounds the e n t i r e transducing configuration. Recent t r a n s d u c e r designs have pushed the vibration survival capability t o 50 g. Because of the relatively low mechanical resonant frequency and l a r g e internal volume, the potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s a r e generally not considered for .dynamic m e a s u r e m e n t s . The l a r g e physical s i z e (on the o r d e r of 1 . 5 - i n . diameter by 3 in. long).of these instruments is undesirable for many applications. Full-scale p r e s s u r e ranges from 0 . 5 to 20,000 p s i a r e available, and differential, gage, and absolute p r e s s u r e configuration a r e provided. Potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s with a s t a t i c e r r o r band ( 4 ) ( t h e e r r o r band applicable at room conditions and in the absence of vibration, shock, etc. ) of 0. 3 to 0 . 5 percent of full s c a l e a r e common. T h e s e instruments a r e normally built to operate in a t e m p e r a t u r e range from - 6 5 to +250F with a nominal t e m p e r a t u r e sensitivity of approximately 0.02 percent per O F . Probably the most outstanding feature of the potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r is its high e l e c t r i c a l output, since r e s i s t a n c e changes a s l a r g e a s 100 KO p e r p s i ( 4 ) may be obtained. The performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s well a s the availability and cost of many potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s a r e furnished in the ISA "Transducer Compen- ' dium" ( 4 ) . In s u m m a r y , it may be said that the general application r e g i m e of the potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r involves a r e a s of low acceleration for the measurement of static' p r e s s u r e s where extremely high e l e c t r i c a l output is required. 2 . 1 . 2 Strain-Gage P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s With strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s , a p r e s s u r e change is converted into a change in r e s i s t a n c e caused by the s t r a i n in a s t r a i n gage o r gages. Most strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s incorporate four active strain-gage elements and a typical application is given in Fig. 6 . This is the so-called bonded strain-gage technique and consists of four gages bonded t o the elastic element (cantilever). When a force is applied a s shown, the two top s t r a i n gages (Gages 1 and 2 ) a r e in tension and i n c r e a s e in r e s i s t a n c e while the botto,m elements (Gages 3 and 4) a r e in compression and d e c r e a s e in r e s i s t a n c e . By connecting the two elements whose r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s (Gages 1 and 2) and the two whose r e s i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s (Gages 3 and 4 ) in diagonally opposite a r m s of a bridge a s shown in Fig. 6, maximum output is obtained. In s o m e t r a n s d u c e r designs only one o r two active s t r a i n gages a r e employed, and the bridge configuration is completed by dummy (inactive) s t r a i n gages o r fixed r e s i s t o r s .

Power

R1 and R2 i n T e n s i o n R 3 and R4 i n Compression

a.

b.

Fig. 6 Bonded Strain-Gage Sensing Configuration T h e most common types of s t r a i n gages a r e s m a l l wire, m e t a l foil, and semiconductor. The theory, construction, and application of t h e s e various strain-gage configurations a r e adequately t r e a t e d in (7), (16), (171, ( 181, (19), (20). (21), and (22). In recent y e a r s , the use of w i r e s t r a i n gages has substantially d e c r e a s e d because of the advantages offered by the foil and semiconductor types. The foil and semiconductor types a r e manufactured in s m a l l e r configurations which permit the design of miniature, high frequency t r a n s d u c e r s . Semiconductor gages 0 . 0 4 0 in. long by 0.010 in. wide and etched foil gages 0. 100 in. long by 0. 020 in. wide a r e available, and r e s i s t a n c e values ranging from 120 to 5000 ohms a r e common for both types. The semiconductor gages offer an outstanding advantage over metal gages ( w i r e and foil) a s t h e i r gage factor is approximately 75 t i m e s g r e a t e r . The gage factor is defined a s the r a t i o of the normalized gage r e s i s t a n c e change t o the mechanical unit s t r a i n in the gage

(%/e).

The advent

of the semiconductor s t r a i n gage has made possible the development of s m a l l and extremely stiff p r e s s u r e s e n s o r s , permitting high frequency dynamic measurements to be made m o r e conveniently and m o r e a c curately. Because of the higher output, the higher stiffness s e n s o r s may be used down to a s m a l l e r p e r centage of the full-scale range. This "rangeability" may be used to reduce the number of different t r a n s d u c e r ranges required to investigate a wide p r e s s u r e regime. Methods f o r t e m p e r a t u r e compensating metal strain-gage ( w i r e and foil) t r a n s d u c e r s over a t e m p e r a t u r e range f r o m -430 to +300F for both z e r o drift and sensitivity change have been devised and a r e described in (51, (16), (23), and (24). In l a t e 1958, when semiconductor s t r a i n gages w e r e f i r s t being used in t r a n s d u c e r construction, problems w e r e encountered that w e r e attributable t o the t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the elements. The change in gage factor with t e m p e r a t u r e ranges from l%/lOOF t o almost 20%/lOO0F, whereas the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient of r e s i s t a n c e v a r i e s from 3%/ 100F t o 20%/ 100F. T h i s wide range of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s led t o the development of t e m p e r a t u r e compensation techniques s o m e what different from those normally employed for metal s t r a i n gages. T h e s e techniques, described in ( 251, ( 261, and ( 27) provide semiconductor-type t r a n s d u c e r s with t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s comparable to those of metal gages. Strain gages ( w i r e , foil, and semiconductor) a r e bonded to the p r e s s u r e sensing m e m b e r by the use of adhesives. . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l different adhesives and application techniques available, and t h e s t r a i n gage supplier normally'furnishes the n e c e s s a r y installation information. References (28) and (29) t r e a t this subject in detail. 2. 1. 2. 1 Gaged Diaphragm P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s One of the.most convenient applications of bonded s t r a i n gages for the measurement of p r e s s u r e is a diaphragm with the s t r a i n gages bonded directly to the s u r f a c e a s shown'in Fig. 7. A diaphragm (12) is essentially a thin c i r c u l a r plate fastened (.usually welded o r soldered) around its periphery t o a support shell. Frequently used diaphragm m a t e r i a l s include s e v e r a l types of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and beryllium copper. When p r e s s u r e is applied to one of the s u r f a c e s , the diaphragm deflects in accordance with t h e theories presented in (30)and (31). The gaged diaphragm element is useful in a r e a s of high acceleration, s i n c e only one moving part (diaphragm) is involved, and hence the s e i s m i c m a s s is s m a l l . Although this type s e n s o r is of simple construction, an inherent problem is present. Neubert ( 5 ) has shown that nonlinearity can exist i f the proper relationship between the diaphragm thickness, diaphragm diameter, and p r e s s u r e range is not established. However, Neubert ( 5 ) presents data which can be used t o design around this problem.

If s t r a i n gages a r e located on a diaphragm a s shown in Fig. 7, elements 1 and 2 w i l l be in tension while 3 and 4 w i l l be in compression. By electrically connecting t h e s e gages a s shown in Fig. 7d, a fully active bridge is realized. Pressure

Pressure

t r a i n Gages

I/

L S t r a i n Gages 1 and 2 i n Tension S t r a i n Gages 3 and 4 i n Compression

Diaphragm Response t o P r e s s u r e

f-S u p p o r t
a.

Shell
C.

rStrain Gage
SUPPort She1

-x
Strain Gage 4

Power Input

L S t r a i n Gage 3

output

b.

E l e c t r i c a l Hook-up d.

Fig. 7 Gaged Diaphragm T r a n s d u c e r If a diaphragm is attached at the end of a tube o r c a s e , a s in Fig. 7a, a so-called flush diaphragm t r a n s d u c e r exists. This is a valuable instrument for fast t i m e - r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e m e n t s frequently r e quired in wind tunnel t e s t s . With the t r a n s d u c e r diaphragm located flush with a model s u r f a c e o r tunnel w a l l , t h e t i m e lag attributable to tube lengths (see Section 3. 1) o r other pneumatic configurations is minimized. T h i s arrangement does, however, r e n d e r the t r a n s d u c e r m o r e susceptible t o t e m p e r a t u r e effects and damage f r o m flow contamination. A further discussion of this problem can be found in Section 3. 1.1. In measurement a r e a s where fast response t i m e s a r e not required, the diaphragm may be placed down inside a c a s e , and hence the sensing element is afforded s o m e protection f r o m the m e a s urement environment. Rogers ( 3 2 ) d i s c u s s e s the design and performance of a flush-diaphragm-type t r a n s d u c e r used for s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s . This instrument employs semiconductor s t r a i n gages and is only 0 . 2 5 in. in diameter by 0.025 in. thick. A unique diaphragm-type t r a n s d u c e r is described by Clements. Wood, Weisblatt, and Pallone ( 3 3 ) . The device is 0. 100 in. in diameter and employs a 0. 00025-in.-thick diaphragm with a bonded platinum-rhodium wire s t r a i n gage and is reported to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s down to 10-4 psi. Gaged diaphragm p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s utilizing vacuum deposited m e t a l s t r a i n gages a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available. T h e s e instruments are fabricated by depositing an e l e c t r i c a l insulating film on t h e diaphragm s u r f a c e and then depositing the four m e t a l film s t r a i n gages onto the film. T h i s technique p e r m i t s the fabrication of t r a n s d u c e r s s m a l l e r than those normally possible with conventional foil gages and a l s o eliminates the problems associated with the strain-gage adhesives.

Recent advances in the semiconductor field have led to the development of a monolithic integrated circuit Wheatstone bridge consisting of the four s t r a i n sensitive r e s i s t i v e a r m s formed directly on a silicone diaphragm. These devices, a s reported by Kurtz and Gravel (341, r e p r e s e n t a significant s t a t e of-the-art advancement in miniaturization, a s flush diaphragm p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s with a diameter of 0.070 in. (35) have been fabricated using such diaphragms. T h e i r inherent high natural frequency ( = 1 MHz) and high output make them ideal for dynamic m e a s u r e m e n t s where point p r e s s u r e profiles a r e required. 2. 1. 2 . 2 Cantilever-Type T r a n s d u c e r s This type of bonded strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r consists essentially of a p r e s s u r e collecting element which, through a linkage rod, t r a n s m i t s its force t o a cantilever instrumented with s t r a i n gages. The p r e s s u r e collecting elements most frequently used a r e diaphragms [flat ( 1 2 , 30, 31), and corrugated ( 1 2 , 36)], capsules ( 9 , 12, 36). and bellows (12, 37). The cantilever stiffness should be high in c o m parison with that of the p r e s s u r e collector to minimize the effects of h y s t e r e s i s , nonlinearity, and instability of the latter. Some practical arrangements of cantilever-type p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e given in Fig. 8. Four s t r a i n gages a r e bonded to the cantilever in the configuration shown in Figs. 6 and 8c and electrically connected a s shown in Fig. 8d. Because of the s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a cantilever (311, t r a n s d u c e r s of this type may be successfully employed for the measurement of low p r e s s u r e , a s fulls c a l e p r e s s u r e ranges a s low a s 0. 1 p s i a r e available. However, the resonant frequency' (38) is r e l a tively low because of the combined s t i f f n e s s and m a s s of the p r e s s u r e collector-linkage rod-cantilever system, and consequently the acceleration sensitivity is high. A l a r g e number of these t r a n s d u c e r s incorporate tubing, fittings, o r other pneumatic configurations for the p r e s s u r e input, and this r e n d e r s the devices inadequate for many dynamic measurement (Section 3. 1. 2) requirements. Pressure

1
\TO

Cantilever b.

r-

Bellows To C a n t i l e v e r

a.

Capsule

Bellows

f
I
4
r Diaphr'agm
Pow er I npu t

Beam

Lstrain Gages

c.

Diaphragm

d.

E l e c t r i c a l Connection

Fig. 8 Bonded Strain-Gage Cantilever T r a n s d u c e r Configurations P a i n t e r ( 3 9 ) describes a diaphragm-cantilever-type t r a n s d u c e r designed to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s from 0 to 0. 1 psi. The instrument utilizes semiconductor s t r a i n gages and has a resonant frequency of approximately 1500 Hz. A cantilever-type t r a n s d u c e r , employing a rubber diaphragm, for the m e a s u r e ment of f r o m 0 to 0 . 1 psi is discussed in (40). This device a l s o uses semiconductor s t r a i n gages but is s m a l l e r (0. 500 in. in diameter by 0. 230 in. thick) than the t r a n s d u c e r presented by P a i n t e r (39). An ins t r u m e n t utilizing a metal bellows which activates a bonded wire s t r a i n - g a g e cantilever s e n s o r is des c r i b e d by Kolb and Szczepanik ( 4 1 ) . This t r a n s d u c e r is relatively l a r g e ( 2 . 5 in. in diameter by 2. 5 in. long) and is designed to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s up to 15 psi. Cantilever beams with integral s t r a i n gages (35) a r e also available. They consist of monocrystalline silicon to which the semiconductor s t r e s s s e n s o r s a r e atomically bonded using techniques ( 3 4 ) of solid s t a t e diffusion a n d / o r epitaxial growth. The four s t r a i n s e n s o r s a r e an integral and inseparable p a r t of

the silicon substrate, and hence the problems common with bonding adhesives a r e eliminated. The s t r a i n s e n s o r s a r e located on t h e silicon cantilever beam a s shown in Figs. 6 and 8 s o a s to provide the full bridge configuration of Fig. 6b o r 8d. Beams a s s m a l l a s 0. 100 in. long by 0. 022 in. wide by 0. 001 in. thick a r e available and may be used in conjunction with diaphragms, bellows, e t c . , to provide the t r a n s ducing s y s t e m s shown on Fig. 8. T h e s e cantilevers permit the construction of s m a l l t r a n s d u c e r s and a l s o provide the advantage of the high sensitivity semiconductor s t r a i n s e n s o r s . 2. 1 . 2 . 3 P r e s s u r e Vessel T r a n s d u c e r s Wind tunnel t e s t p r e s s u r e s ranging f r o m approximately 1000 to upwards of 100, 000 p s i may be m e a s ured with t r a n s d u c e r s employing the p r e s s u r e v e s s e l technique. The p r e s s u r e v e s s e l ( F i g . 9 ) consists of a cylindrical tube with one end closed while the other is open to receive the p r e s s u r e to be measured. With p r e s s u r e applied to the inside of the tube, a b a r r e l o r hoop s t r a i n is provided at the outside c i r c u m ference according t o the theory of (42). Two s t r a i n gages a r e bonded around this outside circumference t o detect the hoop tension while two identical elements a r e bonded to the solid end of the s t r u c t u r e where little o r no s t r a i n is present. The two-hoop tension gages a r e usually located with t h e i r axis 60 deg off the axis of the cylinder s o a s to s e n s e not only the hoop tension but a l s o the longitudinal tension. By connecting the four s t r a i n gages as shown in Fig. 9b, a full bridge two-active-arm configuration, with its inherent t e m p e r a t u r e compensating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , is obtained. P r e s s u r e Vessel ("A" OD, 0 . 2 7 2 - i n c h

ID)

rf
/

15/16 Hex f o r Wrench 1-1/16 NEF-3

E l e c t r i c a l Connector Plug F l o a t i n g i n Vacuum Grease (0;250-inch Diameter)

/

2 Dummy S t r a i n Gages

(No S t r a i n ) Used t o Complete B r i d g e (a) S t r a i n G a g e s , 1000 A c t i v e Gages

L 2 A c t i v e S t r a i n Gages (Both i n T e n s i o n , I n s t a l l e d w i t h Active Axis a t 60 deg t o C e n t e r l i n e of t h e V e s s e l )

a,

F o i l Type

"A"

inches 0.332 0.384 0.510

Pressure

Range, p s i

10,000

50 000

Signal

* Based

on 2 0 , 0 0 0 - p s i S t r e s s u n d e r t h e A c t i v e Gages

Power Dummy Gages (b) Fig. 9 P r e s s u r e Vessel Type T r a n s d u c e r A t r a n s d u c e r of this type ( F i g . 9 ) has been successfully employed at the AEDC. T h e v e s s e l cavity is filled by a m e t a l plug floating i n vacuum g r e a s e . This configuration provides t h e r m a l isolation between t h e flow medium and the s t r a i n gages. The t r a n s d u c e r is built in p r e s s u r e ranges from 10,000 t o 50, 000 psi, and both metal foil and semiconductor s t r a i n gages a r e used a s dictated by the application requirements. Two notable disadvantages 05 this type t r a n s d u c e r a r e that it is limited to the m e a s u r e ment of high p r e s s u r e s and i t s l a r g e m a s s which lends to relatively high acceleration sensitivity.
2. 1. 2 . 4 Embedded Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r s

T h e basic configuration of this type t r a n s d u c e r consists of a s t r a i n gage embedded in a r e s i n a s shown in Fig. 10. When a uniaxial p r e s s u r e is applied, a s t r a i n is transmitted through the epoxy r e s i n t o the s t r a i n gage which in t u r n provides a proportional r e s i s t a n c e change. A t r a n s d u c e r s i m i l a r to this is described by Chiku and I g a r a s h i (43). The instrument utilizes two semiconductor s t r a i n gages (one positive gage factor and one negative gage factor) connected in a half bridge. The t r a n s d u c e r is ext r e m e l y s m a l l ( = 0. 035 in. in d i a m e t e r ) and is designed to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s up to approximately 750 psi. The higher p r e s s u r e range t r a n s d u c e r s generally employ a s h o r t length of manganin w i r e a s the encapsulated s t r a i n gage. Such devices a r e discussed in (44) and (45). Keough (46) also d e s c r i b e s a t r a n s d u c e r

10

of this type designed for extremely fast t i m e response ( = 0. 25 P s e c ) which is capable of measuring p r e s s u r e s up to 200 kbars ( 3 x 106 psi). T h i s high range capability is, however, not required in normal wind tunnel testing . Shell

LElectrical

LEpoxy S t r a i n Gage

Resin E l e c t r i c a l Schematic

Leads Fig. 10 Embedded Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r

T h e embedded strain-gage-type t r a n s d u c e r is used infrequently, but is applied in high p r e s s u r e a r e a s where fast response is required s i n c e most of t h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s p o s s e s s a rise t i m e a s low as 1 microsecond. 2.1.2.5 Unbonded Strain-Gage P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

The unbonded strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r operates on basically the s a m e principle a s the bonded type (5, 47); that is, the e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of a wire or filament v a r i e s with s t r a i n changes. Wires o r filaments a r e s t r u n g between e l e c t r i c a l insulating pins - one on a fixed f r a m e and one on a movable a r m a t u r e . The w i r e s a r e installed under an initial tension and arranged a s shown in Fig. l l a to f o r m t h e four-active-arm, full bridge circuit of Fig. l l b . Under p r e s s u r e the e l a s t i c element (usually a diaphragm o r bellows) displaces t h e a r m a t u r e , causing filaments 1 and 2 to elongate ( i n c r e a s e res i s t a n c e ) while 3 and 4 shorten ( d e c r e a s e r e s i s t a n c e ) . T h e filaments a r e normally s m a l l e r than 0.001 in. in diameter and a r e made from many different m a t e r i a l s of which most a r e nickel alloys.

r
Movable

S t r a i n Sensing Filaments

Electrica 1 Insulating

- D i a .phragm

Pres -s u r e

S t r a i n Sensing Filaments 1 and 2 I n c r e a s i n g R e s i s t a n c e 3 and 4 D e c r e a s i n g R e s i s t a n c e

Signal out E l e c t r i c a l Schematic

(a 1 Fig. 11 Unbonded Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r

(b 1

This type t r a n s d u c e r is most effectively used for s t a t i c p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s s i n c e the relatively l a r g e m a s s of the a r m a t u r e does not permit high resonant frequency n e c e s s a r y for many dynamic applications. This l a r g e m a s s also h a m p e r s the usefulness of the t r a n s d u c e r in a r e a s of high acceleration. The unbonded strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r is a l s o limited by the low sensitivity (output) inherent for w i r e s t r a i n gages. P r e s s u r e ranges from 1 p s i to approximately 100,000 p s i a r e provided by this type i n s t r u ment.
2. 1 . 2 . 6

General P e r f o r m a n c e of Strain-Gage P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

The different types of s t r a i n - g a g e t r a n s d u c e r s discussed h e r e provide combined performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s adequate for many wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measurement applications. T h e t i m e response r e g i m e from s t a t i c p r e s s u r e to dynamic p r e s s u r e ( w h e r e flush-mpunted instruments with resonant

11

frequencies of 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 Hz a r e adequate) is covered by this type t r a n s d u c e r . F u l l - s c a l e p r e s s u r e r a n g e s from 0 t o 0. 1 p s i to 0 t o 100,000 p s i a r e provided, and s t a t i c e r r o r bands as low as 0. 1 percent of full s c a l e a r e achieved in s o m e models. Full s c a l e outputs from = 2 mv p e r volt excitation for m e t a l s t r a i n gages t o = 200 mv p e r volt excitation for semiconductors a r e available. T e m p e r a t u r e compensation techniques permit fabrication of t r a n s d u c e r s with t e m p e r a t u r e sensitivities as low a s 0.25 percent of full s c a l e p e r 100F t e m p e r a t u r e change over a t e m p e r a t u r e range'from -430 t o 300F. Acceleration and vibration e r r o r s a r e obviously different for various strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s , but a r e especially low f o r the gaged diaphragm (Section 2. 1. 2. 1) configuration. T h e other types a r e somewhat sensitive t o acceleration, and in p r e s s u r e ranges below 10 psi, e r r o r s of 0.5 percent of full scale p e r g a r e not uncommon. F o r m o r e complete specifications of various commercially available strain-gage-type p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s , the ISA "Transducer Compendium" ( 4 ) may be consulted.

2 . 2 Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

2. 2 . 1 Diaphragm-Type Variable Reluctance T r a n s d u c e r s A variable reluctance (VR) p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r commonly used for wind tunnel p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e ments employs a diaphragm a s the elastic element and is shown in simplified form in Fig. 12. A diaphragm of magnetic m a t e r i a l , supported between two inductance c o r e a s s e m b l i e s , completes a magnetic circuit with the c o r e s . The diaphragm deflects (30, 31, and 48) when a differential p r e s s u r e is applied t o the p r e s s u r e p o r t s . T h i s i n c r e a s e s t h e air gap in the magnetic flux path of one c o r e while d e c r e a s i n g the gap in the other; hence, the reluctance of each flux path is a l t e r e d . The overall effect is a d e c r e a s e in inductance of one of the wire wound coils and an i n c r e a s e in the other. If the two coils ar'e connected a s shown in Fig. 12, a half-bridge, two-active-arm device is formed and may be t r e a t e d as discussed in Section 3 . 2 . 2 . A m o r e complete consideration of the theory and operation of this diaphragm type variable reluctance device is given by P a t t e r s o n ( 4 9 ) . Advantages offered by this type t r a n s d u c e r a r e found in the a r e a s of M gn e t ic a sensitivity and a c c e l e r a Core 7 tion capabilities. P r e s s u r e sensitivities a s high a s one volt p e r p s i a r e available, and p r e s s u r e s down to approximately 0. 00003 p s i may be m e a s ured. Because of the exAir t r e m e l y low s e i s m i c m a s s Ga P (diaphragm only) of this sensing device, it is capable of withstanding high levels of acceleration. By proper orientation ( d i a phragm parallel t o axis of acceleration) t h e effects of acceleration a r e minimized and the t r a n s d u c e r may be effectively used to m e a s u r e low p r e s s u r e s in an environment of m o d e r a t e acceleration levels. T h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e frequently built in miniature configurations ( a s s m a l l a s 5 / 8 in. d i a m e t e r ) (50 and 51) which allows a number of the t r a n s d u c e r s to be employed in the s m a l l models required for many wind tunnel t e s t s . Because of the relatively low internal volume of most diaphragm-type VR t r a n s d u c e r s , many wind tunnel dynamic p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e s u c c e s s fully made by use of this instrument. However, response-time limitations a r e imposed by the p r e s s u r e - i n l e t port configuration, especially at low absolute p r e s s u r e s (Section 3. I). A m a j o r disadvantage of this t r a n s d u c e r is its susceptibility to particle contamination. If the fluid contains particles, they may easily become lodged

Pressure Port

IA YI

rInductance Coil 1

.Pressure Sensing Diaphragm

Dl
t

\Inductance

Coil 2

Pres sur e

Signal

AC E x c i t a t i o n

E l e c t r i c a l Configuration Fig. 1 2 Diaphragm-Type Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e Transducer

12

in the s m a l l a i r gap ( = 0. 001 in. ) between the c o r e and diaphragm and subsequently a l t e r the performance of the instrument either by mechanical o r magnetic interference. Another disadvantage is the e l e c t r i c a l (inductive) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which necessitate the u s e of A C excitation. Smotherman, et al. ( 5 0 and 51), d e s c r i b e a t r a n s d u c e r of this type which is built i n s e v e r a l p r e s s u r e ranges that p e r m i t t h e measurement of p r e s s u r e s f r o m 0.001 to 15 psi. T h e miniature t r a n s d u c e r ( 0 . 5 7 5 in. in d i a m e t e r by 0. 186 in. thick) has a t i m e response on the o r d e r of 10 m s e c at the low absoiute p r e s s u r e ( = 0.001 psia) levels. A diaphragm-type VR t r a n s d u c e r which reportedly m e a s u r e s p r e s s u r e s a s low a s 0.00003 p s i is described by H e y s e r (52). P a t t e r s o n ( 4 9 ) a l s o d i s c u s s e s an instrument of this s a m e type. References (51) and (53) d e s c r i b e a diaphragm-type VR t r a n s d u c e r which incorporates a fast t i m e - r e s p o n s e p r e s s u r e inlet port a s well a s acceleration compensation. The unit is designed t o m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s f r o m 0. 001 to 0. 1 p s i with a t i m e response on the o r d e r of 1 m s e c . The t r a n s d u c e r is a double diaphragm device: one is t h e p r e s s u r e s e n s o r and the other a c t s a s an a c c e l e r o m e t e r t o cancel the acceleration effects. Two half -bridge variable reluctance configurations a r e provided, and i f the two signals a r e properly summed the output caused by acceleration can be canceled.
2 . 2 . 2 Bourdon Tube Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

A VR transducing technique consisting of a twisted bourdon tube ( 1 2 ) is shown in Fig. 13. The ins t r u m e n t incorporates four inductance coils located on the magnetic c o r e arrangement of Fig. 13a. The elastic element is a twisted bourdon tube (12) held rigidly a t t h e open end and attached t o a flat magnetic a r m a t u r e at the closed end. When p r e s s u r e is introduced into the tube, it tends t o untwist and t h e r e f o r e r o t a t e the a r m a t u r e . This changes the a i r gaps in the magnetic c o r e c i r c u i t such that the inductances of L 1 and L2 ( F i g . 13a) i n c r e a s e while L3 and L4 d e c r e a s e o r vice v e r s a . With the four coils connected a s shown in Fig. 13c,' a f o u r - a c t i v e - a r m f u l l bridge is provided. F u r t h e r variable reluctance theory may be found in ( 5 ) and (49).

7 ore C
nduc t a n c es oils

R o t a t i n g Armature ( S e e Below)

(a)

Bourdon T w i s t e d Tube ( S e e Below)

.on Armature

Bourdon m i s t e d Tube Pressure (b)

output Signal

E l e c t r i c a l Schernat i c

Fig. 13 Bourdon Tube Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r T h e twisted bourdon-tube-type t r a n s d u c e r is generally not a s effective f o r m e a s u r i n g dynamic p r e s s u r e a s is the diaphragm VR t r a n s d u c e r (Section 2. 2. 1). The internal volume of the bourdon tube is often l a r g e enough to cause significant t i m e l a g (Section 3. 1. 2) especially at low absolute p r e s s u r e levels. T h e

13

m a s s of t h e tube and t h e a r m a t u r e l i m i t s t h e resonant frequency (38) of the instrument and a l s o r e n d e r s it m o r e sensitive to acceleration than the diaphragm type. The twisted tube t r a n s d u c e r is seldom used for the measurement of v e r y low p r e s s u r e s a s the most applicable range is 5 t o 10,000 psi. T h i s t r a n s d u c e r is not as susceptible to flow contaminations a s is the diaphragm type because the p r e s s u r e medium is confined to the bourdon tube interior, and hence the a i r gaps a r e protected. T h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e normally l a r g e r than the diaphragm type and a r e not a s applicable where s p a c e limitations exist. 2. 2. 3 L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r (LVDT) T r a n s d u c e r s The l i n e a r variable differential t r a n s f o r m e r (LVDT) (54 and 55) t r a n s d u c e r consists of t h r e e coils wound on a form a s shown in Fig. 14a. A magnetic c o r e centered in the coils is f r e e to be displaced by a p r e s s u r e activated elastic element ( 1 2 ) such a s a diaphragm, bellows, etc. The c e n t e r coil is the p r i m a r y winding of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r and r e q u i r e s AC excitation. The two outside coils form the seconda r i e s of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r and a r e connected a s shown in Fig. 14b. When the c o r e is centered the induced voltages in these two secondary windings a r e equal and 180 deg out of phase, and t h e r e f o r e a z e r o is available. When the magnetic c o r e is displaced by the action of the applied p r e s s u r e , the voltage in one secondary i n c r e a s e s and that in the other d e c r e a s e s . Hence, a voltage output proportional t o the p r e s s u r e input is provided. T h e most notable advantage of the LVDT-type Sec: o n d a r y t r a n s d u c e r is its high Coi sensitivity a s outputs up to 30 volts p e r p s i a r e available (4). This p e r m i t s p r e s s u r e s i n the range of 0.001 p s i to be measured. Magnetic Mov a b 1 e The dynamic response of Core the LVDT is limited by the relatively low resonant frequency created by the m a s s of the magnetic c o r e and linkage; therefore, the instrument is m o r e effectively used in measuring s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s . The c o r e m a s s a l s o h a m p e r s the usefulness of the LVDT in a r e a s of high acceleration. This type t r a n s d u c e r is generally l a r g e ( 4 ) compared with many other types of t r a n s d u c e r s and often cannot be used because of this disadvantage.

'7

Primary
CO117

rsecondary Coil 2

v///H

.r l. a s t i c E

E l. e m e n t

P r es -sure

(a)

!k

Secondary 1

2 . 2 . 4 General P e r f o r m a n c e of Variable Reluctance P r e s s u r e Transducers

Primary C o i l Input Voltage

Variable -reluctance -type p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e generally cons i d e r e d to be high sensitivity, low p r e s s u r e devices. The diaphragmE l e c t r i c a l Schematic type provides outputs up to one volt p e r psi, whereas the LVDT may p r o duce up to 30 volts p e r psi. This (b) allows p r e s s u r e s down to 0.00003 p s i to be m e a s u r e d . Although low p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s provide the most Fig. 14 L i n e a r Variable Differential frequent applications for the VR t r a n s Transformer Transducer d u c e r s , higher p r e s s u r e s up to 10,000 p s i can a l s o be measured, especially when the twisted bourdon tube technique is employed. The diaphragm-type normally provides f a s t e r t i m e response than the other VR t r a n s d u c e r s discussed and is successfully used for many wind tunnel dynamic m e a s u r e m e n t s . Variable reluctance t r a n s d u c e r s normally operate over a t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of approximately -65 to 250'F with a nominal t e m p e r a t u r e sensitivity of 0. 02% per O F . More d e tailed specifications f o r t r a n s d u c e r s of this type may be found in the ISA "Transducer Compendium" ( 4 ) .

2. 3 Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

2 . 3 . 1 T h r e e Electrode Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

A capacitance-type p r e s s u r e pickup employing a metal diaphragm ( 1 2 and 30) o r s t r e t c h e d membrane ( 1 2 and 30) separating two volumes is shown in Fig. 15. This is known a s the t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e technique

14 Pressure

and consists of stationary m e t a l plates positioned on each s i d e of the diaphragm s u c h that a s m a l l a i r gap ( = 0. 001 in. ) dielectric is provided between the p r e s s u r e sensing diaphragm and the stationary electrodes. When a p r e s s u r e is applied, cl the diaphragm w i l l deflect toward one of the stationary electrodes and away from the other. This movement of the diaphragm changes the capacitance between it and the plates; capacitance i n c r e a s e s with one of the plates while d e c r e a s i n g c2 with the other. The e l e c t r o d e s are normally connected a s shown in Fig. 15b to f o r m a two-active-element El device which may be e m In ployed in an AC bridge o r other signal conditioning c i r c u i t r y a s discussed in Section 3. 2 . 4 . A m o r e d e tailed t r e a t m e n t of the variable capacitance theory is given by Neubert (5).

l
P r e s s u r e S e n s i n g Diaphragm

A i r Gap ( D i e l e c t r i c )

Stationary Electrode

An outstanding feature of this type of t r a n s d u c e r is i t s ability to m e a s u r e extremely low p r e s s u r e s . With the proper signal conditioning, p r e s s u r e s a s low a s 0.0000002 ( 2 x p s i (56) may be measured, and the instrument is often used a s a p r e s s u r e standard for the calibration of other p r e s s u r e s e n s o r s , especially in this low p r e s s u r e differential r e g i m e . T h i s t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e t r a n s d u c e r is commonly used f o r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e m e a s urements but with the p r o p e r design of the internal volume and p r e s s u r e inlet tube (Section 3. l), the t r a n s ducer response is adequate for many dynamic applications. T h i s t r a n s d u c e r provides the s a m e advantages offered by other types of t r a n s d u c e r s which employ a diaphragm elastic element, that is, high resonant frequency, low sensitivity t o acceleration (because of low s e i s m i c m a s s ) , and high acceleration survival capability.

I
E l e c t r i c a l Schematic (b) Fig. 15 T h r e e - E l e c t r o d e Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r

Because of the s m a l l a i r gap ( = 0.001 in. ) between the diaphragm and t h e stationary electrodes, this instrument is susceptible t o particle contamination. Any particles which exist in the p r e s s u r e media may be lodged in this s m a l l air gap and hence r e s t r i c t t h e movement of the elastic element o r possibly change the dielectric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the variable capacitors. P a r t i c l e o r dust filters may be employed in the p r e s s u r e inlet tube t o minimize this problem; however, t h e response c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s u c h filters must be compatible with the application. The relationship between (applied) p r e s s u r e and capacitance change for this t r a n s d u c e r is nonlinear (51, especially for the l a r g e r diaphragm deflections. The nonlinearity is compensated out t o s o m e d e g r e e by use of this three-electrode, push-pull arrangement s i n c e the diaphragm is moving toward one electrode and away f r o m the other. A nominal non-linearity e r r o r for the three-electrode instrument is 1 . 5 percent of F . S . , but this e r r o r may be reduced to fO. 025 p e r cent with p r o p e r signal conditioning (56). MacDonald and Cole (57) d e s c r i b e a t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e capacitance-type t r a n s d u c e r designed for wind tunnel p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h i s miniature (0.125- by 0.25- by 0.375-in. t r a n s d u c e r is designed t o m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s up t o 4 p s i and has a sensitivity of one volt p e r p s i which p e r m i t s p r e s s u r e s down to approximately 0.05 p s i t o be detected. Another t r a n s d u c e r of basically t h e s a m e type is presented by Dimeff (58). T h i s instrument was designed in full-scale ranges from 0 . 0 1 t o 0.4 p s i f o r m e a s u r e m e n t s in a low density wind tunnel. 2 . 3 . 2 Two-Electrode Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s
A variable capacitance p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r employing only two electrodes is shown in Fig. 16. T h i s type is s i m i l a r to the t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e configuration in operating principle (5), but it has a stationary elect r o d e positioned on only one s i d e of t h e diaphragm, and t h e r e f o r e only one active element (capacitance)

15

is provided. The instrument is normally a r r a n g e d so that an applied p r e s s u r e causes the diaphragm t o deflect toward the stationary electrode, decreasing the a i r gap ( d i e l e c t r i c ) and hence increasing the capacitance between the diaphragm and the s t a t o r . An e l e c t r i c a l schematic of the one active element is shown in Fig. 16, and it may be operated into a variety of signal conditioning c i r c u i t s a s discussed in Section 3. 2. 4.

Pressure Port

Diaphragm

Pressu

Electrode

Case

Stator E l e c t r i c a l Schematic

Fig. 16 Two-Electrode Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r This technique is probably m o r e widely used than the t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e configuration mainly because it is s i m p l e r to build. Obviously, the s m a l l a i r gaps a r e difficult to obtain, and since the two-electrode configuration incorporates only one such gap, construction t i m e is reduced. T h e two-electrode technique offers another advantage in that it is not susceptible t o particle contamination. With the p r e s s u r e applied a s shown in Fig. 16, it is evident that the s m a l l a i r gap ( d i e l e c t r i c ) is not exposed to the p r e s s u r e media; therefore, the main c a u s e of the contamination problems is eliminated. Since the twoelectrode t r a n s d u c e r employs only one stationary electrode, the p r e s s u r e inlet port may be built with few r e s t r i c t i o n s and even in a flush diaphragm configuration. T h i s means it would be m o r e applicable than the three-electrode pickup ( F i g . 15) f o r many dynamic measurement requirements. A significant problem associated with the two-electrode t r a n s d u c e r is i t s non-linearity (5). T h i s single element pickup does not p o s s e s s the inherent non-linearity compensation of the three-electrode (two-active-element) instrument and non-linearities up to 10 percent a r e not uncommon. T h i s non-linearity may be reduced, however, by u s e of the appropriate signal conditioning equipment. Since the two-electrode configuration employs only one active element, it provides approximately half the sensitivity (provided other p a r a m e t e r s a r e equal) of the t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e device and therefore, is l e s s effective for low p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e ments. A two-electrode variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r designed to m e a s u r e shock tunnel p r e s s u r e s up t o 2 p s i is considered by Dimeff (58). This s e n s o r is only 0. 2 in. in diameter and is fabricated in a flush diaphragm configuration for fast t i m e - r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A t r a n s d u c e r of this type designed by Coon (59) and discussed by McDevitt, et al. (601, is employed in a F M t e l e m e t r y circuit (Section 3. 2. 4 ) t o t e l e m e t e r p r e s s u r e data f r o m a free-flight model in wind tunnel t e s t s . T h i s variable capacitance device is 0. 25 in. in d i a m e t e r by approximately 0. 25 in. long and has a full-scale p r e s s u r e range of 0. 10 psi. The t i m e duration of the free-flight p r e s s u r e t e s t for which this t r a n s d u c e r is employed is on the o r d e r of 100 m s e c . A t r a n s d u c e r s i m i l a r to this and a l s o used for free-flight model p r e s s u r e m e a s urements is described by H a r r i s o n (61). T h i s p a r t i c u l a r unit is 0. 342 in. in diameter by 0. 189 in. long and is capable of measuring p r e s s u r e s down to = 0 . 0 0 2 psi. F i g u r e 1 7 shows a two-electrode variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r ( 6 2 ) designed for free-flight p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s in a gun range facility at the AEDC. This 0- t o 10-psi t r a n s d u c e r incorporates a unique r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e s y s t e m which provides a constant r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e during the t e s t flight t i m e ( = 100 m s e c ) . T h i s condition is accomplished with a r e f e r e n c e tank, which encloses t h e t r a n s d u c e r ,

16

and a l a g line (10-in. length of 0. 010-in. -ID tubing). The response c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of this r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e s y s t e m a r e such that the r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e at the back s i d e of the diaphragm does not a p p r e ciably change during the flight t i m e . This t r a n s d u c e r was designed to survive acceleration levels up t o 250,000 g ' s which may be imposed during the launching p r o c e s s . The r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e tank which is built around the t r a n s d u c e r provides a very important function for this capability a s it isolates the t r a n s ducer from hydrostatic p r e s s u r e o r other spurious forces which may be s e t up in the t e l e m e t r y package ( 6 2 ) during the launch.

Lag Tubing R e f e r e n c e P o r t

0.050-OD x 0.035-ID Pressure Port 0.0005 A i r Gap

0.0005-Thick Diaphragm
i

0,010-ID Lag Tubl

Reference Pressure Reservoir

Epoxy R e s i n

0 . 3 4 0 Diam

T r a n s d u c e r M a t e r i a l : 302 S t a i n l e s s S t e e l Dimensions a r e i n i n c h e s . Fig. 1 7 Capacitance T r a n s d u c e r with Built-In Reference P r e s s u r e Lag System Another capacitance t r a n s d u c e r developed for employment in a t e l e m e t r y package for the m e a s u r e ment of wind tunnel free-flight model p r e s s u r e s is reported by Choate (62, 63, and 64). This t r a n s d u c e r is l a r g e r (0. 750 in. in d i a m e t e r by 0 . 4 0 0 in. thick) than the t e l e m e t r y t r a n s d u c e r s discussed above, but it is used to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s down t o 0.0005 psi. The instrument is a l s o equipped with a r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e l a g s y s t e m s i m i l a r to that discussed previously for the t r a n s d u c e r in Fig. 17. Pose1 ( 6 5 and 66) d i s c u s s e s a two-electrode variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r incorporating a composite dielectric. This arrangement differs f r o m the conventional two-electrode device in that t h e dielectric (between diaphragm and stationary electrode) is made up of an a i r gap plus a thin l a y e r of m i c a instead of just an a i r gap. T h i s configuration is reported t o improve the linearity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the two-electrode device; however, doubts a s to the effectiveness of this technique a r e expressed by Neubert (5).
2. 3. 3 Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e - B a r Gages

Short-duration p r e s s u r e pulses o r step-function p r e s s u r e s with s t e e p fronts may be m e a s u r e d by u s e of the variable capacitance p r e s s u r e - b a r gage shown schematically in Fig. 18. This configuration consists of a thin ( = 0 . 0 0 3 in. ) dielectric located between two electrodes to f o r m a capacitor on a rod o r b a r a s shown. The t r a n s d u c e r operates on the principle ( 6 7 and 68) that when a p r e s s u r e is applied to the front (top) of the bar configuration, a traveling wave p a s s e s through the dielectric (capacitor) and continues along the bar until it is reflected at the end. During the passage of this wave through the dielectric, the capacitance between the electrodes is changed i n proportion to the p r e s s u r e . If the duration of the p r e s s u r e pulse is less than the time required for the wave t o p a s s down the length of the b a r and r e t u r n t o the dielectric (capacitor), a meaningful r e c o r d of the p r e s s u r e input may be obtained.

17

However, when the reflected wave r e t u r n s t o the s e n s o r ( d i e l e c t r i c ) , the output w i l l be a r e s u l t of both the p r e s s u r e input and t h e reflected wave, and hence the ,information obtained is complex and nor/mally unusable. The fabrication of these t r a n s d u c e r s is generally difficult since the bonding faces between the dielectric, electrodes, and b a r must be such that the traveling wave is not r e flected at any of t h e s e locations. T h i s condition may be established by selecting m a t e r i a l s ( f o r t h e dielectric, electrodes, and b a r ) whose acoustic impedances a r e equal. T h i s detail of construction is fully t r e a t e d by Baganoff ( 6 7 ) and Davies ( 6 8 ) .

Pressure

I
Electrode

Dielectric

T h i s t r a n s d u c e r is used mainly for p r e s s u r e q e a s u r e m e n t s in shock tube facilities. Baganoff (67) d e s c r i b e s a p r e s s u r e b a r gage which has a r i s e t i m e of approximately 0 . 1 p s e c and can m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e pulses up t o 5 p s e c in duration. This instrument is relatively l a r g e in s i z e (1. 375 in. in d i a m e t e r ) and was designed to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s Electrical in the range of 0. 2 to 1 psi. Baganoff a l s o d i s Schematic c u s s e s ( 6 9 ) a modification ( p r i m a r i l y s i z e ) of this t r a n s d u c e r which increased the dwell t i m e f r o m 5 to 23 p s e c . Another improvement of this bar gage Fig. 18 Variable Capacitance B a r Gage (70) incorporates an e l e c t r i c a l insulating sheet on the front of the top electrode s o a s t o isolate the s e n s o r from the flow and hence protect the device f r o m the effects of flow ionization. The r e a d e r is a l s o r e f e r r e d to Section 2.4. 3 for a discussion of a s i m i l a r b a r gage using a piezoelectric element instead of t h e capacitance s e n s o r . 2 . 3 . 4 Summary of P e r f o r m a n c e of Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s Probably the most outstanding feature of the variable capacitance transducing techniques is its capability t o m e a s u r e low p r e s s u r e s , a s levels down to 2 x 10-7 p s i (56) may be detected when the appropriate signal conditioning equipment is employed. The majority of variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r s utilize diaphragm o r s t r e t c h e d membrane e l a s t i c elements, and, therefore, they a r e applicable in many a r e a s where accelerations exist. The types of capacitance devices discussed h e r e permit the measurement of p r e s s u r e s in a t i m e r e g i m e f r o m s t a t i c for the diaphragm type to a 0. 1-psec r i s e t i m e for the p r e s s u r e b a r . A frequent measurement application of the diaphragm-type variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r is in t e l e m e t r y s y s t e m s . The capacitive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the instrument makes it especially convenient t o employ in the oscillator circuit of common t e l e m e t r y t r a n s m i t t e r s . Although this type instrument is generally considered a low p r e s s u r e device, p r e s s u r e ranges up to 10, 000 p s i may be provided. Variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r s which operate over a t e m p e r a t u r e range of -55 t o -1225F with a t e m p e r a t u r e sensitivity a s low a s 0. 01% p e r O F a r e available. More complete specifications on various variable capacitance p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e given in ( 4 ) .

2 . 4 Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s
,I

Cady ( 7 1 ) defines piezoelectricity a s an e l e c t r i c a l polarization produced by mechanical s t r a i n in c r y s t a l s belonging to c e r t a i n c l a s s e s , the polarization being proportional t o the s t r a i n and changing sign with it. When a piezoelectric element is s t r e s s e d mechanically, i t s dimensions change and it generates an e l e c t r i c charge. If the element electrodes a r e not s h o r t circuited, a voltage associated with the charge a p p e a r s . This type s e n s o r , unlike those previously discussed, is self-generating; that is, it does not r e q u i r e external e l e c t r i c a l power a s do the variable r e s i s t a n c e , variable reluctance, etc. The r e l a tionship between the applied s t r e s s e s and the resulting e l e c t r i c a l output depends on the physical and piezoelectric properties of the elements and this theory is t r e a t e d extensively in (711, ( 7 2 ) . and (73). The K i s t l e r Instrument Corporation ( 74) p r e s e n t s a unique and effective explanation of this basic piezoelectric phenomenon through the following analogy. Among familiar hydraulic circuits, t h e r e exists a s i m p l e analogy ( F i g . 1 9 ) t o a piezoelectric s y s t e m . An elastic, s a t u r a t e d sponge joined by a tube to a fluid container closely r e s e m b l e s an e l a s t i c c r y s t a l s a t u r a t e d with electrons and connected to a container for electrons, a capacitor. When an externally applied f o r c e deforms the elastic s t r u c t u r e of e i t h e r s y s t e m , the ejected quantity of liquid or electrons fills respective containers t o s o m e potential (H or V) directly proportional t o the quantity and inversely proportional to the container s i z e . Releasing the force r e v e r s e s the p r o c e s s . A dump valve in the bottom of the fluid container functions the s a m e a s a shorting switch a c r o s s the capacitor to quickly empty the container of any accumulation. A leak in the fluid container a c t s like a leakage r e s i s t a n c e around the capacitor to also empty the container, but at a slower r a t e . Analogous physical p a r a m e t e r s discussed above determine the response to transient ( F i g . 20) or oscillatory input f o r c e s . The level (amplitude) of the hydraulic or e l e c t r i c a l potential s e r v e s a s an

18

information bearing signal for instrumentation o r control s y s t e m s . The signal resulting f r o m a steady force input r e m a i n s indefinitely when t h e r e is no leak (infinite r e s i s t a n c e to flow). With a finite leak, the signal exponentially decays to z e r o because the leakage flow d e c r e a s e s a s the potential drops. If the discharge continued at i t s initial r a t e following a s t e p function input, the container would empty in one t i m e constant equal to the product of the r e s i s t a n c e t i m e s the capacitance. When a transient event o c c u r s within one percent of this s t o r a g e t i m e constant, the distortion attributable t o leakage is a l s o l e s s than one percent. Thus, over the event-time interval, the s y s t e m effectively exhibits s t a t i c response. Under ideal conditions, quartz t r a n s d u c e r s and electrostatic charge amplifiers (Section 3. 2. 3) s t o r e signals f o r days o r even weeks. T h e ability of a s y s t e m t o follow low-frequency, repetitive events r e l a t e s directly t o its s t o r a g e capabilities.
HYDROSTATlC ELECTROSTATIC SYSTEM SYSTEM ELASTIC, SATURATED SPONGE n

QuANrln

C = CAPACITOR SIZE C = CONTAINER AREA R = LEAKAGE RESISTANCE S = SWITCH OR VALVE OUTPUT SIGNAL IS H OR V

i
( F i g u r e s Reproduced -ough C o u r t e s y of jtler Instrument bumpa ny )
~

LAW OF HYDROSTATICS

Fig. 19 Basic Analogy of a Piezoelectric System

I
l

1
l

1
l

1
i

1
l

STEP FUNCTION FORCE INPUT , I # ,

K k b i

/I

1
TIME

1 1

AH

OUTPUI SIGNAL WITH NO LEAK

4LAT(EVENT TIME) ~ = R C(TIME CONSTANT)

Fig. 20 Transient Response A variety of piezoelectric m a t e r i a l s a r e used, with quartz, barium titanate, and lead zirconate titanate being the most popular. Neubert ( 5 ) tabulates the physical and piezoelectric p r o p e r t i e s for t h e s e m a t e r i a l s and many others s o m e t i m e s used. Quartz c r y s t a l s a r e selected from those found in t h e i r natural state, and the elements a r e made f r o m s l a b s cut from the c r y s t a l with careful attention to the existing c r y s t a l l o graphic (71) axes. The c e r a m i c elements ( b a r i u m titanate, lead zirconate titanate, etc. 1 a r e formed from finely powdered m a t e r i a l s that a r e p r e s s e d into the d e s i r e d shape and then s i n t e r e d by firing at high t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e piezoelectric e f f e c t is c r e a t e d a s they a r e polarized by exposure to an e l e c t r i c field during the cooling a f t e r the firing p r o c e s s .

19

Piezoelectric elements w i l l r e a c h a C u r i e point when heated. At this C u r i e point t e m p e r a t u r e the crystalline s t r u c t u r e changes, polarization is lost, and hence t h e piezoelectric effect is destroyed. Quartz elements have a C u r i e point of approximately 1000F, whereas this t e m p e r a t u r e for s o m e of the c e r a m i c elements is a s low a s 250'F. The output of a piezoelectric element may also be affected by the pyroelectric effect ( 7 1 ) which c a u s e s changes in output proportional to the change in t e m p e r a t u r e experienced by the c r y s t a l . T h e pyroelectric effect for quartz is negligible but is very pronounced for most of the c e r a m i c s . F r o m t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , it is evident that the quartz element is m o r e applicable in a r e a s of t e m p e r a t u r e change and especially in a r e a s of high operating t e m p e r a t u r e s . Although the quartz element has a weaker pyroelectric effect, most t r a n s d u c e r s incorporating quartz c r y s t a l p o s s e s s a significant z e r o drift with t e m p e r a t u r e change. A l a r g e portion of this drift is probably caused by the element mounting configuration which includes coefficient of t e m p e r a t u r e expansion mismatches. F o r many measurement applications, techniques for isolating o r protecting the t r a n s d u c e r f r o m t h e s e hostile t e m p e r a t u r e environments have been devised and a r e discussed in Section 3.1. 1. T h e charge sensitivity of c e r a m i c elements is generally 10 to 100 t i m e s g r e a t e r than that for quartz elements, and hence the c e r a m i c elements a r e often m o r e effective in the measurement of low p r e s s u r e s . Because of i t s low dielectric constant and thus capacitance, quartz provides a voltage sensitivity approximately twice that of most c e r a m i c s . T h i s advantage is normally not realized in m e a s u r e m e n t s applications because of the l a r g e amount of capacitance effectively added t o the element by the required cable between the t r a n s d u c e r s and t h e signal conditioning (Section 3 . 2 . 3 ) . Recent advances in the t r a n s i s t o r and microelectronics field have led t o the design of miniature voltage amplifiers ( o r followers) which may be packaged d i r e c t l y behind the piezoelectric element in the t r a n s d u c e r (Section 3. 2. 3). This configuration may be used to take advantage of the high voltage sensitivity of quartz s i n c e very little capacitance is added between t h e element and the signal conditioning ( i n t e r n a l amplifier). Refinements and improvements of this technique would certainly make the quartz element m o r e effective for low p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s . The mechanical properties of quartz allow it t o be used a t much higher p r e s s u r e s than is possible f o r the c e r a m i c element. T r a n s d u c e r s employing quartz c r y s t a l s a r e available in p r e s s u r e ranges up t o 100,000 psi, whereas the ceramic-type t r a n s d u c e r s a r e generally limited t o 5000 psi. Although normally r e s t r i c t e d t o dynamic measurements, piezoelectric-type p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s , when used with the appropriate signal conditioning equipment, a r e capable of n e a r s t a t i c response (Section 3. 2. 3). S e m i - s t a t i c calibrations a r e possible under favorable environmental conditions, and s h o r t - t e r m s t a t i c and very low frequency m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e s o m e t i m e s obtained. Since the internal r e s i s t a n c e of the piezoelectric element is high ( l o l o to 1014 ohms) and the capacitance is low ( 5 to 500 pF), a slight leakage r e s i s t a n c e path a c r o s s the element electrodes o r a c r o s s the e l e c t r i c a l connector pins can c a u s e e r r a t i c operation and limit the low frequency response of the s e n s o r . Hence, c a r e must be taken t o protect the piezoelectric element and all connectors f r o m m o i s t u r e o r other contaminants that might c r e a t e conduction paths. 2.4. 1 Compressive Element P i e z o e l e c t r i c P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s A convenient and effective method of employing piezoelectric s e n s o r s in p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s is shown in Fig. 21. The disk shape piezoelectric element is placed between the diaphragm and the t r a n s d u c e r body (insulation). The diaphragm-shell assembly is threaded tightly onto the body to pre-load the s e n s i n g configuration s o a s to obtain high natural frequencies. With the p r e s s u r e applied a s shown, t h e piezoelectric element is c o m p r e s s e d and a charge associated with the thickness mode c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e element is generated a c r o s s the electrodes on the faces of the disk ( 5 and 71). The diaphragm has a ' v e r y low stiffness compared t o the piezoelectric element, and i t s function is t o provide the mechanical pre-load as well a s a p r e s s u r e s e a l t o protect the element f r o m the p r e s s u r e medium. This flush mounted design coupled with its high natural frequency (100 kHz o r g r e a t e r ) allows the t r a n s d u c e r t o respond t o rapidly varying p r e s s u r e s . T r a n s d u c e r s of this type are used at t h e AEDC t o m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s ranging from 0. 1 t o 10.000 p s i in a shock tunnel with a useful r u n t i m e of approximately 1 m s e c . The lower p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s ( 0 . 1 to 300 p s i ) are accomplished by u s e of lead zirconate titantate elements while quartz is employed for t h e higher p r e s s u r e s ( 100 to 10,000 psi). Clemente and o t h e r s (75) d e s c r i b e a t r a n s d u c e r of this type which utilizes a barium titanate-lead zirconate element t o m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s ranging f r o m 3 p s i to 100 p s i in a shock driven facility. The t r a n s d u c e r is extremely s m a l l , being 0 . 5 in. long by only 0. 1 in. in diameter and has a rise t i m e of approximately 5 Ccsec. Goodchild, et al. ( 7 6 ) a l s o d i s c u s s piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r s of this type which have a resonant frequency on t h e ' o r d e r of 50 kHz with sensitivities around 50 picocoulombs/psi. The charge sensitivity of a t r a n s d u c e r of this type may be increased by using a "stack" of piezoe l e c t r i c elements ( 5 ) as shown in Fig. 2 2 instead of the single element device of Fig. 21. Each of the elements in the s t a c k is subjected t o the s a m e compressive f o r c e due t o t h e applied p r e s s u r e . When the elements a r e electrically connected in p a r a l l e l ( F i g . 22b), the charge outputs of the individual elements a r e added, and hence the output level is directly proportional to t h e number of elements in the stack. T h i s type is obviously m o r e expensive and m o r e difficult t o build than t h e single element t r a n s d u c e r , but it may be m o r e effectively used in the measurement of low p r e s s u r e s . Anofher compressive element t r a n s d u c e r configuration is shown in Fig. 23. This arrangement is s i m i l a r t o that of Fig. 2 1 with the exception that the s e n s o r pre-load is accomplished by a thin w a l l tube placed in tension over t h e element o r stack ( F i g . 23). T h i s type t r a n s d u c e r ( 5 ) is m o r e difficult to build
I

20

than t h e diaphragm -pre-load type ( F i g . 21); however, higher resonant frequencies a r e generally obtained. Commercial t r a n s d u c e r s of this type ( 4 and 74) with resonant frequencies on the o r d e r of 500 kHz a r e advert is ed. Piezoelement

0)

f f l , ffl

Disk Shape Piezoelectric Element

Elec t r i c a 1 Schematic

Diaphragm 0.250 0.218

Fig. 2 1 Compressive Diaphragm7

a.

P h y s i c a l Arrangement

b.

E l e c t r i c a l Schematic

Fig. 22 Piezoelectric "Stack" T r a n s d u c e r

21

The c o m p r e s s i v e element transducing technique shown in Fig. 24, unlike the devices ( F i g s . 21 and 23), discussed above, does not incorporate a pre-load of the piezoelectric element. Since no diaphragm is used, the element is protected f r o m the flow environment by an epoxy o r other insulating m a t e r i a l surrounding the c r y s t a l . This type construction can r e s u l t in low resonant frequencies, and e r r o r s caused by s i d e loading of the element may r e s u l t a s the protective m a t e r i a l is c o m p r e s s e d around t h e piezoelectric elements during the p r e s s u r e application. T h i s instrument is, however, s i m p l e and inexpensive to build and may be used in many applications, especially those in which only "time of a r r i v a l of t h e p r e s s u r e step" information is d e s i r e d . Levine ( 7 7 ) d i s c u s s e s a s e n s o r of this type used to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s ranging from 0 . 5 t o 1000 p s i in a shock tube wind tunnel. T h e device employs a barium titanate piezoelectric element which is encapsulated in a neoprene potting for protection. A compressive element t r a n s d u c e r utilizing a nylon disk cemented on top of the element (lead-metaniobate) instead of the potting technique mentioned above is described by Granath and Coulter ( 7 8 ) . The instrument is built in two s i z e s ( 0 . 5 - and 0. 25-in. d i a m e t e r s ) and is used to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s ranging from 0.2 to 30 p s i in shock tube t e s t s .

~iaphragml

Piezoelectric Element (or S t a c k )

Protective Mat er i a 1 EPOXY, e t c .

Pressure

II
Piezoelectric

/ Thin Wall

L o a d i n g Tube

'

Insulator

Connections Fig. 23 Tube Loaded Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

Connections Fig. 24 Compressive Element ( N o P r e - L o a d ) Transducer

The acceleration effects of a compressive-element-type t r a n s d u c e r can be minimized by the p r o p e r mechanical design, that is, the s e i s m i c m a s s (diaphragm and piezoelectric element) should be low. Howe v e r , in s o m e instances, this is not adequate and acceleration compensation is desirable. Such a technique is shown in Fig. 25. T h e t r a n s d u c e r is used at the AEDC for measurement of p r e s s u r e s from 0. 1 to 100 p s i in a shock tunnel. It consists of t h r e e lead zirconate titanate elements employed in a "stack" which is pre-loaded by the diaphragm ( F i g . 21). The t h r e e elements a r e electrically connected in p a r a l l e l with the polarity of the bottom element ( N o . 1) r e v e r s e d with r e s p e c t t o the top two elements ( N o s . 2 and 3) a s shown in Fig. 25b. Each of the elements witnesses the s a m e compressive s t r e s s when a p r e s s u r e is applied, but s i n c e the polarity of the bottom element ( N o . 1) is r e v e r s e d , it cancels the charge output caused by the p r e s s u r e of one of the other elements, and hence a ' r e s u l t a n t charge output (attributable to p r e s s u r e ) of only one element is realized. Since the acceleration compensating element is located at the bottom of the "stack, I ' the s e i s m i c m a s s e s a r e distributed s o that the output of the element is approximately equal to the outputs of the other two elements ( N o s . 2 and 3) for a given a c celeration level. With the polarity of the bottom element r e v e r s e d ( F i g . 25) f r o m that of the other two, it is evident that the charge outputs of the t h r e e elements (attributable t o acceleration) w i l l cancel. The compensated t r a n s d u c e r of Fig. 25 has an acceleration sensitivity of 0.001 p s i o r l e s s per g compared t o a value of 0.01 p s i p e r g f o r a t r a n s d u c e r of s i m i l a r construction ( F i g . 21) but without acceleration Compensation. If an acc ele ration - compens at ed t r a n s d u c e r of higher p r e s s u r e sensitivity is desired, m o r e than t h r e e elements may be used and a metal disk of the appropriate weight can be located directly on top of the compensating element such that the required s e i s m i c m a s s r a t i o for compensation is obtained. Commercial t r a n s d u c e r s ( 7 4 ) of this type with a quoted acceleration sensitivity of 0 . 0 0 1 p s i p e r g a r e available. Obviously, this acceleration-compensated piezoelectric p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r , with i t s flush-mounted configuration, is extremely useful in shock tunnel facilities when low p r e s s u r e s in the p r e s e n c e of vibrations a r e to be m e a s u r e d . A c o m p r e s s i v e element t r a n s d u c e r with a somewhat different acceleration compensation technique is discussed by MacArthur ( 7 9 ) and is shown in Fig. 26. The compensating disk is mounted on a s e p a r a t e support f r o m that of the p r e s s u r e sensing element and is not linked to the p r e s s u r e sensing diaphragm. With t h e outputs from the p r e s s u r e sensing and compensating element added, compensation is accomplished and an acceleration sensitivity of 0. 005 p s i p e r g is provided.' The t r a n s d u c e r is extremely s m a l l ( 0 . 125 in. in d i a m e t e r ) and contains within its s h e l l a field effect t r a n s i s t o r ( F E T ) amplifier (Section 3.2. 3 ) . T h i s t r a n s d u c e r is designed to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s from 0. 1 to 100 p s i in a shock tunnel. Another t r a n s d u c e r incorporating this s a m e acceleration compensation technique is described by Goodchild, et al. ( 7 6 )

22

O.lOO-in.-diam x 0.020-in.-thick

Zircona te T i t ana t e
Transducer S h e l l

Acceleration Compens a t i o n s Element

Transducer B a s e

E l e c t r i c a l Connec tor

a.

P h y s i c a l Arrangement

Elements

\+

1
7 Case

+I

-1

Charge

Acceleration Compensating Element

b.

E l e c t r i c a l Schematic

Fig. 25 A cc e l e r a t ion - Compens at ed C o m p r e s s i v e E l e m e n t T r a n s d u c e r

23

I n v a r Diaphragm 0.0025-in. T h i c k Epoxy Conap K26 o r E q u i v a l e n t Invar Rings Piezoceramic P r e s s u r e Element Acceleration Compensating Weight C o n d u c t i v e EPOXV H-s s o l K20 o r Equivalent Aluminum F i l l e d Epoxy Convar K23A o r E q u i v a l e n t

P i e z o c e r a m i c Element ( A c c e l e r a t i o n Compensation) Field Effect Transistor C h i p 2B3455 a n d S u p p o r t

\lo1'

Ohm R e s i s t o r

>
- 1/8-in.
I n n e r Case o u t e r Case
2 . 4 . 2 Beam-Type P i e z o e l e c t r i c P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

Diameter

40KR Resistor 2 Required

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.) Fig. 26 Cornell Compressive Element, Acceleration-Compensated Press u r e T r a n s d u c e r

If two rectangular length expander piezoelectric elements a r e cemented together a s shown in Fig. 27, a so-called "bimorph" ( 7 ) is formed. T h i s arrangement allows the c r y s t a l s to be employed a s a s i m p l e o r cantilever beam s o a s t o s e n s e the bending s t r e s s caused by a f o r c e applied like that in Fig. 27. T h i s piezoelectric s e n s o r p e r m i t s a much l a r g e r deflection than the compressive element f o r a given force; therefore, increased sensitivity is provided. However, this higher output -is obtained at the expense of mechanical stiffness, and hence the "bimorph" device normally has a lower resonant frequency than the c o m p r e s s i v e element type ( F i g . 2 1 ) .

Fig. 27 "Bimorph" Piezoelectric Element

Electrical Connections

24

A beam t r a n s d u c e r designed for the measurement of low p r e s s u r e s in a shock tunnel has been developed at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory and is described by Martin, et al. ( 8 0 and 81) and is shown in Fig. 28. The "bimorph" element is s e p a r a t e d f r o m the p r e s s u r e sensing diaphragm by an insulating d r i v e pin to provide a t e m p e r a t u r e b a r r i e r , thereby preventing spurious signals f r o m c r y s t a l heating. T h i s instrument is a l s o equipped with a "bimorph" element activated by an acceleration-compensating diaphragm which is not subjected to the p r e s s u r e to be m e a s u r e d . With t h e outputs from t h e s e two "bimorphs" added, acceleration compensation is accomplished. T h i s t r a n s d u c e r is 0. 5 in. in d i a m e t e r by 0.125 in. thick and is designed to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s in the range of 0. 0005 to 0 . 5 psi. Two other t r a n s d u c e r s of basically this s a m e construction, which were a l s o developed at Cornell, a r e discussed by MacArthur ( 7 9 ) . T h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e much s m a l l e r (0.125-in. and 0.25-in. d i a m e t e r s ) and a r e also equipped with a "built-in" F E T amplifier (Section 3. 2. 3). This outstanding feature allows both the p r e s s u r e s e n s o r and the signal conditioning to be located at the s a m e point, t h e r e f o r e eliminating t h e problems normally associated with the cabling between t h e t r a n s d u c e r and the signal conditioning. Both of t h e s e t r a n s d u c e r s incorporate internal acceleration compensation with the 0. 125-in. diameter model having an acceleration sensitivity of 0.005 p s i per g and the 0. 25-in. device 0.0004 p s i p e r g. The 0. 125-in. d i a m e t e r t r a n s d u c e r is designed t o m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e s ranging from 0 . 1 t o 100 psi, and t h e 0.250-in. d i a m e t e r model operates f r o m 0. 001 t o 3. 0 psi. Another piezoelectric beam-type t r a n s d u c e r is p r e sented by Lederman, et al. (82). This instrument a l s o incorporates an acceleration compensation beam p s i p e r g. P r e s s u r e s ranging which provides the t r a n s d u c e r with an acceleration sensitivity of 5 x f r o m 0 . 0 0 1 t o 0.5 p s i a r e reportedly measured.

Acc e 1 a t i on er

Hous i n g l
Mylar R i n g

AC PZ% Element
AC D r i v e P i n

'Y

P r e s s u r e Drive Pin
,

\Pressure

PZT Element

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of C o r n e l l A e r o n a u t i c a l L a b o r a t o r y ) Fig. 28 Cornell Beam-Type Piezoelectric P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r

2 . 4 . 3 Piezoelectric B a r Gage

Pressure

1
Piezoelectric

A schematic of the basic piezoelectric b a r gage ( 7 and 7 3 ) is given in Fig. 29. It c o n s i s t s of a piezoelectric element attached a t one end of an e l a s t i c rod. When a p r e s s u r e s t e p is applied a s shown ( F i g . 29), the piezoelectric element is axially s t r a i n e d and hence a charge output is provided. This axial s t r a i n is constant until the p r e s s u r e wave is reflected at the element-rod junction o r the end of the rod and r e t u r n s to t h e , element. When the reflected wave r e t u r n s to t h e c r y s t a l , the output is then a r e s u l t of this reflected wave as w e l l as the p r e s s u r e step, and hence t h e information obtained is meaningl e s s . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i m i t s the length of t i m e (dwell t i m e ) over which the t r a n s d u c e r can be successfully used. If the elastic mounting b a r is fabricated f r o m a m a t e r i a l with the s a m e acoustic impedance a s that for the piezoelectric element, theoretically, the p r e s s u r e pulse w i l l p a s s f r o m the c r y s t a l t o t h e b a r without reflections. Therefore, t h e usable t i m e (dwell t i m e ) of operation of the unit w i l l not be terminated until t h e wave is reflected at t h e free end of the bar and r e t u r n s t o the element. T h i s t r a n s d u c e r is often used to investigate the initial rise of shock tube p r e s s u r e s t e p s or other short-duration p r e s s u r e fluctuations.

E l a s t i c Rod

Connection Fig. 29 Piezoelectric B a r Gage Schematic

25

Edwards (83) d e s c r i b e s a bar gage which has a r i s e t i m e of approximately 15 p s e c and a dwell time of 300 p s e c . T h e instrument employs a quartz element mounted on an aluminum alloy rod. This t r a n s d u c e r was l a t e r modified (84) t o i n c r e a s e its "dwell time" by tapering the e l a s t i c rod and by placing it in a wax sheath, thereby attenuating the s t r e s s wave a s it t r a v e r s e s the rod. A gage of this s a m e type which utilizes a lead e l a s t i c rod and a barium titanate c r y s t a l is presented by Davies and Lippiatt (85). Another piezoelectric bar gage with a r i s e t i m e on the o r d e r of 1 p s e c is discussed in ( 8 6 ) . P r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s ranging f r o m 0.05 t o 300 p s i a r e accomplished by use of t h e s e instruments. 2 . 4 . 4 Summary of P e r f o r m a n c e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Piezoelectric T r a n s d u c e r s Although piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r s may be used for n e a r - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s , they a r e m o r e frequently employed for transient m e a s u r e m e n t s . The inherent high resonant frequency coupled with the flush-mounted configuration generally used makes these t r a n s d u c e r s especially applicable in observing f a s t - r i s e p r e s s u r e s t e p s associated with shock tunnel testing. T r a n s d u c e r r i s e times on the o r d e r of 1 to 5 p s e c a r e not uncommon, and measurement capabilities covering the regime from 0.0005 to 100,000 p s i a r e available. Some designs of piezoelectric p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s may operate in t e m p e r a t u r e environments f r o m -400 t o +500"F. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of many piezoelectric p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e listed in ( 4 ) .

2 . 5 Force-Balance-Type P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s Force-balance-type p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s (5 and 7) differ f r o m the o t h e r types of t r a n s d u c e r s p r e viously discussed in that they p o s s e s s a feedback loop which effects a comparison between the e l e c t r i c a l output quantity and the p r e s s u r e input quantity. When the p r e s s u r e sensing element (usually variable reluctance) t r i e s t o deflect in response to an applied p r e s s u r e , an e l e c t r i c a l output signal is generated and fed into a s e r v o s y s t e m which supplies the n e c e s s a r y force t o maintain mechanical equilibrium of the elastic s e n s o r . F i g u r e 30 shows such a force-balance-type t r a n s d u c e r available from Bell and Howell/CEC ( 8 7 ) . T h i s s y s t e m consists basically of two p a r t s : a t r a n s d u c e r and a servoamplifier. Known a s the P r e c i s i o n P r e s s u r e Balance, the t r a n s d u c e r contains a bellows for pressure-summing, a frictionless l e v e r and linkage mechanism to connect the bellows to an electromagnetic force coil, and a l i n e a r differential t r a n s f o r m e r . T h e s e components a r e housed in a cast-aluminum c a s e .
Force Balance P r e s s u r e Transducer

S y s t e m B l o c k Diagram R e a d o u t Equipment ( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of B e l l & H o w e l l C X ) .

Fig. 30 Force-Balance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r T h e servoamplifier a c t s upon the e r r o r signal f r o m the t r a n s d u c e r which is produced when the l i n e a r differential t r a n s f o r m e r s e n s e s an unbalance caused by p r e s s u r e applied to the bellows. In response to t h e e r r o r signal, the servoamplifier supplies a proportionate signal to the force coil of the t r a n s d u c e r . This c u r r e n t r e s u l t s in an electromagnetic counter-force t o the bellows precisely equal to the force a r i s i n g f r o m applied p r e s s u r e . The amount of c u r r e n t flowing through the force coil is proportional t o the magnitude of applied p r e s s u r e . T h e main advantage of t h e force-balance-type t r a n s d u c e r over conventional t r a n s d u c e r s is its a c curacy. A maximum s t a t i c e r r o r band of 0. 05 percent of full s c a l e output is common. This allows the force balance device t o be used a s a standard p r e s s u r e monitor for the calibration of many conventionaltype t r a n s d u c e r s . P r e s s u r e ranges from 1 . 5 to 10, 000 p s i a r e normally provided, and the operating t e m p e r a t u r e range is approximately 40 to 165F. The force-balance-type t r a n s d u c e r is normally limited to s t a t i c m e a s u r e m e n t s because of t h e r e l a tively low resonant frequency of t h e s e n s o r and a l s o because of the p r e s s u r e input port configuration. The s e i s m i c m a s s combined with the mechanical linkages of the t r a n s d u c e r r e s u l t in high acceleration sensitivity (approximately ten percent full s c a l e p e r g). The l a r g e s i z e and weight of the force balance t r a n s d u c e r s make it inconvenient for many applications. In s u m m a r y , the most effective a r e a of application for the force-balance-type t r a n s d u c e r is for extremely accurate m e a s u r e m e n t s of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s .

26

3.

MEASURING SYSTEMS

After a t r a n s d u c e r has been selected with appropriate c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e application at hand, t e e remaining elements of the m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m must be selected. T h e s e elements may be generally c a t e gorized a s being a part of the pneumatic s y s t e m o r a s signal conditioning equipment. Equal consideration must be given to the selection of compatible and appropriate equipment for these p a r t s of t h e m e a s uring s y s t e m as w a s given to the selection of the t r a n s d u c e r . Therefore, s o m e of the options which a r e available along with s o m e of t h e i r advantages and disadvantages w i l l be presented in the following sections.

3. 1 Pneumatic System

Obviously the p r e s s u r e to be measured must be transmitted to t h e t r a n s d u c e r . This must be done with no alteration of the m e a s u r e d quantity. Therefore, consideration must be given t o how the t r a n s ducer w i l l be mounted, how it w i l l be sealed against p r e s s u r e leaks, whether the appropriate t i m e response may be obtained, whether thermo-molecular effects a r e present, etc. Some of the m o r e prominent considerations involved in achieving the aforementioned w i l l be discussed herein.
3 . 1. 1 T r a n s d u c e r Installation

The majority of wind tunnel p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e associated with model m e a s u r e m e n t s , although numerous other measurements, such a s pitot p r e s s u r e , wall s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , stilling chamber p r e s s u r e , e t c . , a r e required; therefore, model installations w i l l be discussed p r i m a r i l y . In a continuous flow tunnel, t r a n s d u c e r location is not extremely important in most c a s e s since response t i m e s (Section 3. 1. 2) a r e not c r i t i c a l . (Two exceptions t o this a r e : 1) when slow response significantly affects t h e cost of running a test, and 2) when unsteady o r transient p r e s s u r e s must be measured. ) T h e r e f o r e . a t r a n s d u c e r may be conveniently located outside the tunnel in which measurement is required and connected t o the m e a s u r i n g point with p r e s s u r e tubing ( F i g . 31). T h i s p e r m i t s m o r e m e a s u r e m e n t s t o be made on s m a l l models than would be possible with t r a n s d u c e r s mounted internal t o the model. It a l s o p e r m i t s p r e s s u r e scanning equipment to be used which only r e q u i r e s one t r a n s d u c e r for s e v e r a l p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s (Section 3. 1. 3 ) . The u s e r may a l s o protect the t r a n s d u c e r f r o m environmental effects such a s t e m p e r a t u r e and vibration which may exist in the tunnel environs. T h e t r a n s d u c e r is easily accessible for r e p a i r , modification, calibration, e t c . , and t h e r e is little or no r e s t r i c t i o n on the s i z e of the t r a n s d u c e r . The basic problem which must be avoided in such an application is that of p r e s s u r e l e a k s . This can only be eliminated through c a r e in installation and with careful checkout of the system. Tunnel Wall

Flow

*
Pressure Orif ices

Model Support System

Pressure Transducers and Readout Instrumentation

n---il

P r e s s u r e Tubes

Fig. 3 1 Wind Tunnel Model P r e s s u r e Measurement When m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e required in short-duration facilities o r when unsteady o r transient data a r e required in continuous tunnels, t i m e response becomes p r i m a r y in importance. Response t i m e is dis cussed in Section 3. 1. 2. F o r the present discussion, it is sufficient to s a y that when rapid r e s p o n s e is required, the t r a n s d u c e r must be exposed directly to the media whose p r e s s u r e it is d e s i r e d t o m e a s u r e (flush mounted) or be connected t o the measurement point by very s h o r t tubing lengths ( F i g . 32). (Of course, the t r a n s d u c e r must also have appropriate t i m e - r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . ) This dictates in

27

most c a s e s that the t r a n s d u c e r be located inside the t e s t model. In many instances this means that t h e t r a n s d u c e r must be protected f r o m effects of t e m p e r a t u r e , vibrations, and particles in the flow media. T h e s e extraneous effects can produce t r a n s d u c e r failure, o r they can r e s u l t in interactions which cannot be distinguished f r o m p r e s s u r e when the data a r e observed. Various means have been devised for p r o tecting the t r a n s d u c e r . F o r t h e r m a l protection, water-cooled t r a n s d u c e r s are available f r o m many manufacturers (74 and 88) ( F i g . 33). Water cooling of the t e s t models o r t r a n s d u c e r packages is also effective. F o r transient applications requiring flush mounting of t r a n s d u c e r s , flexible silicone compounds may be applied t o the exposed t r a n s d u c e r p a r t s (generally the diaphragm) to delay the heat pulse until steady flow conditions have been reached and the p r e s s u r e has been m e a s u r e d ( 8 9 and 90) ( F i g . 34). Recessing of the t r a n s d u c e r and bleeding helium past the exposed diaphragm is a useful cooling technique when high frequency response is required in conjunction with long t e r m m e a s u r e m e n t s (89) ( F i g . 35). The effects of vibration are t o produce an unwanted oscillatory signal superimposed on the p r e s s u r e signal developed by the t r a n s d u c e r ; the t r a n s d u c e r and associated pneumatic tubing can a l s o be damaged a s a r e s u l t of vibrations. Some t r a n s d u c e r s have acceleration compensation a s an integral s y s t e m , (Sections 2. 2. 1, 2.4. 1 and 2. 4. 2); however, in s e v e r e shock environments this w i l l not prevent t r a n s d u c e r damage, but w i l l only compensate f o r the effects of vibration on the t r a n s d u c e r signal. T h e u s e of an a c c e l e r o m e t e r in an e l e c t r i c a l summing circuit can a l s o compensate f o r vibratory effects (Section 3 . 2 . 5 ) but likewise provides no protection for the t r a n s d u c e r . Shock mounting of the t r a n s d u c e r in conjunction with one of the above compensating s c h e m e s generally provides the optimum performance when in a vibrating environment. A typical shock-mounted installation is shown in Fig. 36. T h e principle of shock mounting is to make the resonant frequency of the mounted t r a n s d u c e r low relative to the disturbing frequency ( 8 9 ) . This d e c r e a s e s the transmissibility r a t i o (.91), and consequently the t r a n s d u c e r is subjected to lower accelerations. When shock mounting is impractical because of low t r a n s d u c e r m a s s o r s p a c e limitations, it may be possible to mount the t r a n s d u c e r in such an orientation relative to the direction of t h e disturbing vibration that the minimum effect is produced on t h e t r a n s d u c e r . In general, the most sensitive acceleration axis of a diaphragm t r a n s d u c e r is normal to t h e diaphragm; sensitivities along other axes a r e ordinarily much lower. Pressure
/

Pressure

i l l l l l l
Gasket--

111 1 1 1 1
Wall
.

I
Transducer Measuring

Transducer Electrical Leads

Reference

%
Or i f i c e

Connecting Tubing ansducer

Electrical Leads f erence essure Line

F l u s h Mount I n s t a l l a t i o n Fig. 32 T r a n s d u c e r Installation ( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y

Fig. 33 Water-cooled P r'ess: u r e Transducer

28

Transducer a Mode 1 W 11

S i l i c o n e Compound)

\Pressure Seal (Nylon, T e f l o n , Copper)

Fig. 34 F l u s h Mount P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r with T h e r m a l P r o t e c t i o n (Silicone Compound)

Kistler Quartz Pressure

Stainless S t e e l Sleeve

0.040- i n . Diam

( F i g u r e R e p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , JPL R e p o r t N o . 32-624)

Fig. 35 Helium-Bleed Technique

Wall

P r e s s u r e TransducerA

Pressure

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of Jet P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , JPL R e p o r t No. 32-624)

Fig. 36 Shock Mounted P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r

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T r a n s d u c e r s which must be flush mounted can be sealed in a variety of ways. Of course, sealing techniques vary widely, depending on t h e p r e s s u r e level, t e m p e r a t u r e , vibration, etc. Since most flushmount applications a r e for transient measurements, t h e r m a l protection is generally provided by a silicone compound which does not i n t e r f e r e with any s e a l d e s i r e d and anti-vibration mounts generally a r e designed to provide a p r e s s u r e seal along with t h e i r vibration isolation components ( 8 9 ) . F o r reasonably low p r e s s u r e s and s m a l l exposed t r a n s d u c e r a r e a s , e i t h e r epoxy cements o r silicone compounds may be used to mount the t r a n s d u c e r a s shown in Fig. 37. Some e x p e r i m e n t e r s recommend rigid mounting ( 9 0 and 92) while in s o m e applications where model s t r e s s e s may be transmitted to the t r a n s d u c e r c a s e with a rigid mount, soft mounting is s u p e r i o r . F o r higher p r e s s u r e s than cements a r e capable of withstanding, s e a l s s i m i l a r t o that shown in F i g s . 34 and 38 a r e employed ( 7 4 ) .

@f
1 4
Transducer

C o n n e c t o r and E l e c t r i ca 1 Leads

r S i l a s t i c Sealing Compound or Epoxy Cement

Tunnel P r e s s u r e

\Mode

1 W 11 a

Sealing Surface

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of K i s t l e r I n s t r u m e n t C o r p . ) Fig. 38 High P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Installation and Sealing Technique

Fig. 37 Low P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Installation and P r e s s u r e Sealing Technique

Flush-mounted t r a n s d u c e r s a r e extremely vulnerable t o impact damage f r o m high velocity particles in the flow media. Methods of protecting the t r a n s d u c e r f r o m p a r t i c l e impingment have been developed [ ( 9 0 and 9 2 ) and (Fig. 3911 ; however, in general, it may be said that protective devices degrade frequency response and response t i m e . In such c a s e s , a compromise is required between the minimum acceptable r e s p o n s e and the t r a n s d u c e r protection required.

3. 1. 2 T i m e Response of P r e s s u r e Measuring Systems

Response t i m e is defined a s the time for the p r e s s u r e measuring instrument t o r e a c h a given p e r centage of the applied p r e s s u r e (generally 99 percent) when a s t e p p r e s s u r e is applied to the s y s t e m . Various factors affect response t i m e : the t r a n s d u c e r mounting configuration, the volume of the m e a s uring t r a n s d u c e r , the geometry of the tubing connecting the measuring orifice and the t r a n s d u c e r , the p r e s s u r e levels o r flow regime, the t r a n s d u c e r natural frequency and damping, and, of course, the response of t h e recording instrumentation. The response t i m e of a p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m inc r e a s e s as the p r e s s u r e t o be m e a s u r e d d e c r e a s e s and thus becomes increasingly important in high speed, s h o r t duration, wind tunnels (93). The investigation of response t i m e problems is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to derive the optimum measuring and tubing s y s t e m s t o fully exploit the capabilities of wind tunnels, and in limiting c a s e s , to e n s u r e that the p r e s s u r e in the measuring t r a n s d u c e r r e a c h e s equilibrium with the orifice p r e s s u r e within the tunnel operating t i m e . T h e r e a r e many pieces of appratus for determining the response t i m e of a p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m . S e v e r a l a r e described in Section 4 of this r e p o r t . Sometimes it is d e s i r a b l e t o know the frequency domain r e s p o n s e of a measuring s y s t e m . Section 4 d e s c r i b e s techniques f o r determining this f r o m s t e p function calibrations as well a s directly using frequency domain c a l i b r a t o r s . 3. 1 . 2 . 1 Flush-Mounted T r a n s d u c e r Response In short-duration facilities t h e t r a n s d u c e r s must, at t i m e s , be flush mounted o r only slightly r e c e s s e d in o r d e r t o respond during the t e s t period. Of c o u r s e in a flush-mounted installation, response t i m e is determined by the t r a n s d u c e r ' s ch.aracteristics of resonant frequency, fn, and damping ratio, h, according to the equation tp 1/(2fn

6-z)

(1)

30

where tp is defined a s the t i m e to the f i r s t peak for an undamped t r a n s d u c e r ( F i g . 40). Most t r a n s d u c e r s whose resonant frequency is high enough for short-duration facilities a r e essentially undamped, and the s t a r t i n g shock of the tunnel excites the t r a n s d u c e r and it "rings" at i t s resonant frequency throughout the tunnel run t i m e ( F i g . 40). This ringing makes it difficult to reduce the p r e s s u r e data, and it is d e s i r a b l e to electronically filter this ringing to give a smooth data t r a c e a s in Fig. 41. With the addition of the filter ( e i t h e r low p a s s o r notch filters a r e generally used), the s y s t e m response is generally determined by the filter c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r a t h e r than the t r a n s d u c e r . At t i m e s a compromise must be made between the amount of ringing which can be tolerated on the p r e s s u r e signal and the minimum r i s e t i m e which can be tolerated since increasing the filtering also i n c r e a s e s the s y s t e m r i s e t i m e .
L

....

--pro

- 1 1 1 1

9 S t l E :

2
1-

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I

Fig. 39 T r a n s d u c e r Diaphragm Protection Devices

Fig. 40 Unfiltered P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Data T r a c e

31

Fig. 41 Filtered P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Data T r a c e The resonant frequency of a flush-mounted t r a n s d u c e r and its transient performance a r e easily determined in a shock tube (89 and 94) o r with fast-acting valves (95). Evaluation of the s y s t e m p e r formance with filters included can be performed with the s a m e pneumatic setup. T h e r e s p o n s e of t r a n s d u c e r s which a r e r e c e s s e d ( F i g . 42) o r covered with protective baffles (Section 3.1. 1) can a l s o be determined with the shock tube o r fast-acting valves, One of the p r i m a r y factors t o consider when r e c e s s i n g t r a n s d u c e r s is the organ pipe effect of the r e c e s s i n g cavity. The frequency of this cavity is given by (38): a f = 4Q where a = acoustic velocity of t h e medium being m e a s u r e d in f t / s e c (1100 f t / s e c f o r a i r and 3000 f t / s e c f o r helium at 25OC) and P = cavity length in ft T h i s frequency is oftentimes low enough t o be troublesome in a highly transient measurement ( t e s t t i m e s on the o r d e r of 1 x 1 0 - 3 s e c ) and cannot be filtered electronically without increasing the s y s t e m response t i m e intolerably.

Fig. 42 Recessed P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Mounting Technique

3. 1. 2. 2 Response of Systems Employing Tubulation

Installations which utilize tubulation to connect the measuring orifice to the t r a n s d u c e r a r e generally found in facilities where the t e s t t i m e s a r e m e a s u r e d in seconds o r minutes s i n c e response t i m e s of such s y s t e m s a r e long. T h e r e a r e notable exceptions; the p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m s used in hotshot tunnels utilize short tubes between t r a n s d u c e r and orifice, and t e s t t i m e s and response t i m e s a r e in the millisecond range (Figs. 43 and 44) ( 5 1 and 9 6 ) . In a s y s t e m which u s e s tubulations, it is n e c e s s a r y to know the response time in o r d e r to determine whether sufficient t e s t t i m e is available and to determine what tunnels testing procedures must be employed. In many quasi-continuous o r continuous facilities, pitch and pause operations a r e utilized, and response t i m e s must be deterrriined to e n s u r e p r e s s u r e stabilization at each pitch angle. Several r e p o r t s a r e available describing the t i m e response of p r e s s u r e

32

m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m s in the various flow r e g i m e s and with various tubing s y s t e m s (97, 98, 99, 100, 101, and 102). Some of t h e m o r e recent r e p o r t s incorporate computer p r o g r a m s which p e r m i t rapid computation of r e s p o n s e t i m e s which would be quite laborious i f done by hand calculation. A r e p o r t by Cain ( 103) provides a p r o g r a m which can be used with a variety of tubing s y s t e m s for any flow r e g i m e (viscous, transition, o r molecular) which may be encountered. The p r o g r a m is not written s o a s to p r o vide d f r e c t optimization of a tubing s y s t e m ; however, it readily lends itself t o p a r a m e t r i c studies which can be used t o optimize tubing geometries for given initial tunnel p r e s s u r e s and pitch angles, direction of pitching, and the required pause t i m e for pitch and pause operation. Pick (104) has developed a c o m puter p r o g r a m which is useful for the most common configuration of a p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m (two tubes of different d i a m e t e r s and lengths connecting an oricice to a constant volume t r a n s d u c e r ) . It should be noted that detailed design of p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m s depends t o a l a r g e extent on e x p e r i mental data for the response t i m e s because the theory cannot provide extremely a c c u r a t e predictions ( 9 3 ) .

a.

0.040-in. I . D . P o r t (Meniscus P o t t i n g )

b.

0.040-in. I . D . P o r t (Meniscus P o t t i n g )

C.

0.046-in. I . D . P o r t (Machined P o t t i n g )

0
d. 0.052-in. I . D . P o r t (Machined P o t t i n g )

Volume of' T r a n s d u c e r s 3 -4 a , b , e = 4 . 5 x 10 in.

c, d

1.6 x

in. 3

e.

0.067-in. I . D . P o r t (Meniscus P o t t i n g )

Fig. 4 3 Response Study Configurations of Low P r e s s u r e Variable Reluctance, T r a n s d u c e r

Fig. 44 Low P r e s s u r e Variable Reluctance T r a n s d u c e r Response T i m e ( T i m e Required t o Reach 95% of Final Value)

33

Some general r u l e s which should be observed in designing a p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m with minimum response t i m e a r e 1) the orifice diameter should be m o r e than one-half the model tubing diameter; 2) the model tubing should be made a s s h o r t a5 possible, incorporating the l a r g e s t feasible inside diame t e r ; and 3) the volume of t h e p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r should be minimized. It should a l s o be noted that in general the advantage of pumping the initial line p r e s s u r e to a value c l o s e t o the model-surface p r e s s u r e is quite s m a l l (105). The l a r g e number of p a r a m e t e r s which affect response t i m e in a s y s t e m using tubes (tube diameter and length, number of tubes, t r a n s d u c e r volume, viscosity, p r e s s u r e level, etc. ) makes it difficult t o provide a generalized approach for determining response time; however, an equation developed by Kendall (106), Bauer (107), Pick (1041, and Larcombe and P e t 0 (93) provides a fairly good approximation for a one-tube s y s t e m in p r e s s u r e ranges f r o m 0 . 0 1 psia to 1 atm:

where t = time, s e c d = tube diameter, c m 1.333 gc = conversion factor P2 = p r e s s u r e applied to tubing s y s t e m , m m Hg Po = initial p r e s s u r e in tubing system, m m Hg P = p r e s s u r e at t i m e t, microns

I =tube length, c m V = volume of tubing and measuring t r a n s d u c e r , c m 3

I.r=

viscosity, poises ( 1 . 8 x

for a i r )

T h i s expression was developed for the conditions that t h e flow is isothermal, that the Reynolds number based on tube radius is less than 1000 (Poiseuille flow). that no s l i p flow is involved, that the s y s t e m volume r e m a i n s constant, that p r e s s u r e s in the tubing a r e always in quasi steady-state, and that p r e s s u r e disturbances a r e propagated with infinite velocity ( i n f e r r i n g that the t i m e required for the flow t o become fully developed is small compared t o t h e response t i m e s under consideration). T h i s equation can be extended t o the c a s e of a compound tubing s y s t e m comprised of various tube d i a m e t e r s and lengths. This is done by considering an equivalent s y s t e m of length I, of constant diame t e r tubing d l where I,, is given by

where Ii and d i a r e the length and d i a m e t e r of the ith tube. Orifices a r e t r e a t e d a s another tube in the s y s t e m . Of course, the volume of the s y s t e m is altered with the addition of tubes, and the actual volume of the tube s y s t e m must be used in Eq. (3). T h i s theory predicts the c o r r e c t t r e n d s for the variation of response time, but e r r o r s a s l a r g e a s 100 percent may appear in the absolute values. The theory was developed on the assumption that t h e m e a s u r i n g instrument has a finite volume and that the complete tube volume can be considered t o be concentra.ted at the end of t h e tube adjacent t o the instrument; obviously, this assumption produces an e r r o r when the instrument volume approaches z e r o . F i g u r e 45 shows a plot of stabilization t i m e s a s a function of p r e s s u r e tube length and diameter, and s y s t e m volume for a s i m p l e one-tube s y s t e m . In continuous tunnels where extensive p r e s s u r e scanning equipment is used, automated s y s t e m s have been developed, e. g., VKFIAEDC, which detect p r e s s u r e stabilization by checking the differences between consecutive s a m p l e s from the s a m e orifice. When stabilization has been reached, the data a r e recorded and the s y s t e m s t e p s t o the next orifice. L a r g e t i m e savings a r e realized by such a s y s t e m . 3. 1. 3 Pneumatic Switching Continuous monitoring of l a r g e numbers of p r e s s u r e orifices required i n many wind tunnel installations p r e s e n t s two basic problems: 1) t r a n s d u c e r s and signal conditioning equipment become v e r y expensive when one unit of each is required for each measurement and 2) maintenance and calibration procedures become m o r e complex and t i m e consuming a s the number of m e a s u r e m e n t s i n c r e a s e s . Both of t h e s e problems may be alleviated through pneumatic switching. Pneumatic switching is an elementary concept; a number of tubes from various measurement locations a r e routed t o a common point and then applied individually t o a common t r a n s d u c e r and readout s y s t e m a s shown in Fig. 4 6 . Systems for achieving this switching function can v a r y f r o m very s i m p l e manually operated .valves to elaborate and

34

complex electromechanical devices which s c a n automatically at high r a t e s of speed. Several advantages are provided by pneumatic switching; they can be s u m m a r i z e d a s follows (108):

1.
2.

It enables a number of p r e s s u r e s to be scanned by one transducer, thus reducing the complexity and cost of the s y s t e m . It allows the t r a n s d u c e r s to be switched t o s e t r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e s o r t o a vacuum t o check calibration and z e r o s . By subjecting the t r a n s d u c e r to a vacuum ( o r to a selected p r e s s u r e ) between m e a s urements, the effects of h y s t e r e s i s in the measurement can be eliminated. It produces m o r e a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s when p r e s s u r e differences o r comparisons a r e required s i n c e only one t r a n s d u c e r calibration constant is involved in t h e data reduction.

3. 4.

To fully exploit t h e s e advantages the scanning switch must meet the following requirements:
1.
2.

Introduce the minimum possible e x t r a volume t o the pneumatic s y s t e m . Avoid leaks between the p r e s s u r e lines and atmospheric o r r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e s over i t s working range. Minimize any pumping of the p r e s s u r e lines during the switching operation. Be capable of r e m o t e control. Be capable of c a r r y i n g m o r e than one t r a n s d u c e r and preferably to accept m o r e than one type. Be reliable and r e q u i r e little maintenance.

3. 4.

5.
6.

t/av

Diameter of Tube, d , mm
Fig. 45 Stabilization T i m e ( t o One P e r c e n t ) of a P r e s s u r e System ( f r o m Ref. 106)

35

m +

3
0,

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c o m m e r c i a l switches available ( e . g . , f r o m Scanivalve, Inc., Box 20005, San Diego, California 92120, Giantiini-Voltex (Datex Division), 12140 E. Rivera Road, Whittier, California 90606, Solantron, United Kingdom). The J e t Propulsion Laboratory in Los Angeles, California, the National Physical Laboratory in Great Britain, and t h e Ballistic R e s e a r c h Laboratory in Maryland have designed t h e i r own switches (109, 110, and 111). Typical specifications of these switches a r e a s follows: Number of input ports Number of output ports Leak r a t e Scanning r a t e Input p r e s s u r e range
1 2 to 64 1 < O . 5 in. Hg per hour 6 to 40 ports per second 0 to 500 p s i

F i g u r e s 4 7 and 48 show details of the switch developed by the National Physical Laboratory. The two problems which a r e most frequently encountered with p r e s s u r e switches a r e leaks and d e gradation of response t i m e s . Leaks generally o c c u r a s a r e s u l t of wear and a r e accelerated by the p r e s e n c e of a b r a s i v e particles in the media being measured. Some switches utilize O-rings f o r s e a l s t o provide e a s y maintenance when leaks develop (108 and 109).

Fig. 47 12-Way P r e s s u r e Scanning Switch

36

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of National Physical Laboratory)

'Port

Connector

Fig. 48 Section Showing Standard T r a n s d u c e r Fitting Mounted in Rotor of P r e s s u r e Scanning Switch It must be recognized and accepted from the beginning that a longer t i m e w i l l be required to m e a s u r e a given number of p r e s s u r e s when utilizing a p r e s s u r e switch than utilizing a s y s t e m with one t r a n s d u c e r p e r measurement point. However, i f this basic compromise is made, then methods for reducing m e a s urement t i m e s t o a minimum can be pursued. Response t i m e of the tubing s y s t e m has been discussed previously in Section 3. 1. 2. 2; it r e m a i n s to optimize the additional time delays c r e a t e d by the p r e s s u r e switch. T o maximize the s c a n r a t e which can be achieved, the volume between the s c a n n e r p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r diaphragm and the s u r f a c e where the p r e s s u r e is being scanned must be minimized and any connecting passageways and orifices must be a s l a r g e a s possible. The volume in a typical switch developed by the National Physical Laboratory is 0 . 0 0 0 4 in.3. Response t i m e s for this switch relative to p r e s s u r e level a r e shown in Fig. 49. 1000

0
tl

k k

100

10

n "

10

20

30

40

50

60

Response T i m e , m i l l i s e c o n d s ( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y ) Fig. 49 Response T i m e of 48-Way Switch Measured to 9 9 . 5 P e r c e n t of the Applied P o r t P r e s s u r e

37

Now consider the total time, T , required to s c a n n ports from the initiation of a tunnel run (93). T h e t r a n s d u c e r w i l l be at r e s t on port 1 during the time, to, required for all the tube s y s t e m s to r e a c h equilibrium with the m e a s u r e d model p r e s s u r e s . P o r t s 2 to n r e m a i n to be scanned and each w i l l have a response time, tt, once the t r a n s d u c e r is r e g i s t e r e d with it. T h e r e w i l l be ( n - 1) t r a v e l s between ports, each taking t i m e ti, and n recordings, each taking t i m e t r . Thus, T = to

+ (n

- 1) tt

+ (n -

1) t i

+ ntr

F i g u r e 50 shows the p r e s s u r e - t i m e profile of the t r a n s d u c e r during a tunnel run. Pressure,

P

t
Port e al i n g R d y

Measured. Pressures, Pl

Time-

rport

b P o r t+

Port-m 4

Tunnel P r e s s u re Switch Interport Pressure

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y )

Resppnse of Tube, to

---1

Switch
R e s pon SE t+ T i m e , t-

tI n t e r p o r t

Time, ti

Fig. 50 P r e s s u r e - T i m e P r o f i l e of T r a n s d u c e r in Scanning Switch with S i m i l a r Tube Systems Connected to Tunnel T h i s Space Connected t o S w i t c h Case and

0-Ring S e a l s

Transducer Diaphragm Model O r i f i c e

$\

-T . , I
Added Volume T r a n s d u c e r Body Mounted i n R o t o r

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of National Physical Laboratory)

T r a v e l 1i n g Volume of T r a n s d u c e r

Fig. 51 Method of Attaching Added Volume t o Switch P o r t and Tube System T h e total time, T, required t o s c a n n ports can be reduced i f n is l a r g e by placing volumes immediately in front of the switch p o r t s ( F i g . 51) to isolate the switch f r o m t h e effect of t h e tubing r e s i s t a n c e (93). If the added volumes a r e made 1000 t i m e s t h e traveling volume of the t r a n s d u c e r , then the e r r o r attributable to sampling by the t r a n s d u c e r w i l l be approximately 0. 1 percent a f t e r the response t i m e of t h e switch in isolation as defined in Fig. 49. T h e addition of a volume t o the tube s y s t e m inc r e a s e s t h e time, to, f o r the p r e s s u r e in the tube t o r e a c h equilibrium with the m e a s u r e d p r e s s u r e , but the time, tt. required t o s a m p l e this p r e s s u r e with the scanning switch is d e c r e a s e d because of the i s o lation f r o m flow r e s i s t a n c e effects in the tube. The p r e s s u r e - t i m e profile of the t r a n s d u c e r for tube s y s t e m s with volumes attached to the switch is shown in Fig. 52, which can be compared with Fig. 50 f o r s i m i l a r tube s y s t e m s connected directly to the switch.

38

m
c,
c,

P r e Ps u r e I s Measured Pressure,

1P rt - o-

-1

t r -m

Switch In t e r p o r t Pressure

Tunnel Start

Response of Tubevolume I

IiI
k 0 k
0

t Ln e , t-

L-

Interport Time, t i

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y
of N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y )

Fig. 5 2 P r e s s u r e - T i m e P r o f i l e of T r a n s d u c e r in Scanning Switch with S i m i l a r Tubes Systems plus Volumes Connected to Tunnel F o r a s y s t e m with volumes, Eq. (5) is modified t o Tv to,

+ (n -

1) ttv

+ (n -

1) t i

+ nt,

(6)

where suffix v indicates t h e addition of volumes t o the tube s y s t e m s , and t i m e ttv is the s a m e a s the response time of the switch in isolation. Thus, by setting T = Tv w e can find a value of n beyond which the total t i m e w i l l be reduced by the addition of t h e volumes; for s m a l l e r numbers of tubes the time w i l l be increased. It is important to take advantage of the added volumes for l a r g e values of n for both intermittent tunnels ( t o i n c r e a s e the numb e r of readings that can be made in a given operating t i m e ) and for continuous tunnels ( t o d e c r e a s e the operating time for a given number of readings and hence t o economize). In o r d e r t o minimize t i m e delays, s o m e s y s t e m s employ automated stepping c i r c u i t r y which s a m p l e s the p r e s s u r e indicated by the scanner t r a n s d u c e r to determine when stabilization o c c u r s and then signals the s c a n n e r to s t e p to t h e next position. I t is, in general, standard p r a c t i c e t o apply calibration p r e s s u r e s on appropriate s c a n n e r p o r t s t o p e r m i t calibration of the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r during each s c a n cycle ( 1 1 2 ) .

3. 1. 4 Thermo-Molecular Effects
When p r e s s u r e s a r e m e a s u r e d under r a r e f i e d flow conditions, t h e r e a r e s o m e t h e r m a l effects which can s e r i o u s l y affect measurement accuracy. T h e s e effects a r e variously classified a s "thermal t r a n spiration, "thermal diffusion, "thermal creep, ' I o r m o r e generally, "thermo-molecular p r e s s u r e " (113, 114, and 115). When a t e m p e r a t u r e gradient exists along a sensing tube a n d / o r when t h e r e is heat t r a n s f e r at a sensing orifice, the "thermo-molecular" phenomena may introduce sizable e r r o r s . F o r an infinitely s m a l l orifice in a s u r f a c e subject to heat flux, the theoretical relationship between the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d by the orifice, ( p i ) d + and the t r u e normal force p e r Lnit a r e a , (pw), is ( 1 1 6 )

where t h e variables q, y, LY, and T w a r e the heat flux to the surface, the r a t i o of specific heats, the t h e r m a l accommodation coefficient, and the s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , respectively. The t h e r m a l accommodation coefficient is defined a s Tg
LY=

Tg

-t

T --Tw g

39

where T g = t e m p e r a t u r e of the gas molecules and T w = t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e model s u r f a c e in which the orifice is located. T h e s u p e r s c r i p t s - and -+ r e f e r t o gas molecules incident t o the model and molecules reflected from the model s u r f a c e s , respectively. Experimental data have shown that the p r e s s u r e indicated by a finite s i z e d orifice pi, for four g a s e s , H2, He, N2, and A r , may be r e p r e s e n t e d by pi
P,

( pI. ) - 0 d (Pi)d + 0 .

0. 3148(M1/8/Knw, i, d ) 1 / 2 + 0 . 01478(M1/8/Knw, i, dl2

1. 0

0. 3148(M1/8/Knw, i, d ) l /

(8)
0 . 01478(M118/Kn,,

i, dI2

In o r d e r t o c o r r e l a t e t h e data for the various g a s e s , it is n e c e s s a r y to include the molecular weight, M. Kn,, i, d is the Knudsen number based upon the wall t e m p e r a t u r e , indicated p r e s s u r e , pi, and t h e orifice d i a m e t e r , d. Equation ( 7 ) is used to determine (pi)d o. The experimental and theoretical r e s u l t s a r e combined into a single s e m i - e m p i r i c a l nomograph in Fig. 53.
P /P... .

i (Y
Fig. 53.

i)/pl(~~w)1/2 (Y

1)

Nomograph for Thermo-Molecular P r e s s u r e Correction at Orifices

T h e thermo-molecular effect in c i r c u l a r tubes has been investigated using the s a m e four g a s e s and with tubes of various lengths and d i a m e t e r s ( 116). The r e s u l t s for t h e s e g a s e s and tubes a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by the following equation:

The s u b s c r i p t s 1 and 2 r e f e r to the conditions at the ends of the tube, e. g . , the subscript 1 would refer t o the end of the tube where t h e p r e s s u r e is known. Equation (9)is plotted in Fig. 54 to facilitate t h e r m o molecular c o r r e c t i o n s in tubes.

Fig. 54 Curves f o r Thermo-Molecular P r e s s u r e Corrections in Tubes

40

3. 2 Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning is a widely used and loosely defined expression which has a wide variety of i n t e r pretations; however, in the following discussions, signal conditioning w i l l be defined a s those p r o c e s s e s which t r a n s f o r m the e l e c t r i c a l signal from a p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r into a form acceptable to its data r e cording instrumentation. Circuits required for excitation, zeroing, ranging, calibration, noise s u p p r e s sion, filtering, impedance matching, and amplification a r e among those included in this definition. This equipment is of necessity quite d i v e r s e in nature since t h e r e is such a wide variety of t r a n s d u c e r s (Section 2) and data r e c o r d e r s (Section 3. 2. 7) in u s e and s i n c e a variety of functions is required of the signal conditioners. This makes it impractical to attempt to d e s c r i b e in detail all the signal conditioning instrumentation presently in use. Therefore, it w i l l be the purpose of this section to d i s c u s s in s o m e what general t e r m s the basic approaches used for conditioning signals from the most widely used types of t r a n s d u c e r s .
3. 2. 1 Variable Resistance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r Signal Conditioning

Probably the most widely used p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r in wind tunnel m e a s u r e m e n t s is the s t r a i n - g a g e t r a n s d u c e r . The potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r a l s o falls into this category of variable r e s i s t a n c e devices. P r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s that employ the s t r a i n gage a s the basic sensing element constitute w e l l over half of all of the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s used. The output signal f r o m both of t h e s e types of variable r e s i s t a n c e t r a n s d u c e r s is a function of the externally supplied power o r excitation a s well a s the p r e s s u r e being measured. In this r e g a r d , they can be looked upon a s proportional voltage dividers where the proportions a r e determined by the p r e s s u r e input (117). The excitation s o u r c e is generally a DC voltage ( o r c u r r e n t ) although this is not n e c e s s a r i l y the c a s e ; it can be AC. C a r r i e r - t y p e conditioning s y s t e m s for variable r e s i s t a n c e s e n s o r s have been used very effectively for a number of y e a r s , utilizing c a r r i e r frequencies from a s low a s 6 0 H z to a s high a s 20 kHz. Because of the general s u p e r i o r i t y of DC signal conditioning for strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s ducers, the present u s e of c a r r i e r s y s t e m s is generally limited to conditioning signals from variable reluctance and l i n e a r variable differential t r a n s f o r m e r t r a n s d u c e r s . Therefore, the c a r r i e r s y s t e m w i l l be discussed in Section 3. 2. 2; s o m e of the advantages and disadvantages of the s y s t e m will be mentioned here. Advantaees :
1.
2.

Does not r e q u i r e a low level DC amplifier Has good noise rejection at frequencies outside the band p a s s of the AC amplifier Has good DC stability; however, not a s good a s the better DC amplifier now available

3.

Disadvantages :
1.

P o o r noise rejection at frequencies near the c a r r i e r frequency P o o r e r accuracy than a high quality DC s y s t e m . A c a r r i e r s y s t e m can generally be expected to give approximately one percent accuracy. Lower frequency response than wide band DC s y s t e m ; generally approximately onefifth of the c a r r i e r frequency.

2.

3.

Two problems stand out in conditioning signals from strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s . In. the first place, the s t r a i n information is represented by a r e s i s t a n c e change that is quite s m a l l compared with the unstrained r e s i s t a n c e . Secondly, the s t r a i n sensitivity of the gages is not n e c e s s a r i l y the only significant r e s i s t a n c e variation function. The t h e r m a l coefficient of r e s i s t a n c e can c a u s e changes a s l a r g e o r l a r g e r than the s t r a i n changes. The most commonly employed circuit to minimize t h e s e effects is the simple Wheatstone bridge. The bridge circuit accomplishes the p r i m a r y goal of getting a data z e r o f o r the r e s t o r initial condition of all active elements, and it discriminates against equal r e s i s t a n c e changes by all o r by adjacent elements.

3. 2. 1. 1 Bridge Equations
Figure 55 is a schematic of a full-bridge t r a n s d u c e r in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The analysis and equations which follow a r e a s u m m a r y of the Wheatstone bridge circuit a s applicable t o strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s (118). The t r a n s f e r function is most conveniently expressed a s an output-toinput ratio. Thus, f o r constant voltage ex'citation. the equations w i l l be expressed in output volts p e r input volt. The general equation for the circuit in Fig. 55 is

eo-

A R ( 1 + A)H V - 4[R t 0.5AR(l

AU

(10)

41

where A = fraction of activity for partially active legs, can take on values from 0 to 1. H = number of active halves of bridge ( r e f e r r e d to the input leads, either 1 or 2) Equation (10) may be used to analyze any possible bridge configuration. F o r convenience, it is rewritten below for two common t r a n s d u c e r configurations. For a single-active-leg bridge with positive AR r e s i s tance change, H = l , A = O
e0 AR _v 4(R + 0 . 5 4 R )

!11)

F o r a fully active t r a n s d u c e r , H.2,A.l eo _ --AR V R

(12)

In the above equation, a positive AR indicates an i n c r e a s e in r e s i s t a n c e with applied load, whereas a negative 6 R indicates a d e c r e a s e in r e s i s t a n c e with applied load. F o r approximate calculations, t h e AR t e r m in the denominator may be neglected, thereby simplifying the equations. It should be noted that, for the fully active t r a n s d u c e r , the denominator OR t e r m disappears. In other than fully active t r a n s d u c e r s ( A # l ) , the denominator AR t e r m c a u s e s a non-linear variation of e l e c t r i c a l output with the p r e s s u r e input.

For constant excitation voltage, closed o r loaded output circuit applications, the t r a n s d u c e r can be considered a voltage generator with a s o u r c e r e s i s t a n c e a s shown in Fig. 56.
For a voltage measurement device, (13) F o r a c u r r e n t measuring device,

.L= 0
V

e /V

Ro

+ Ry

(14)

3. 2. 1. 2 Balancing Circuits One of the considerations that leads to the selection of the bridge circuit for operation of strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s is the d e s i r e for a z e r o signal output for z e r o p r e s s u r e input. P r a c t i c a l considerations prevent obtaining a bridge that is exactly balanced in the r e s t condition. T h e r e is not only the normal gage to gage r e s i s t a n c e tolerance, but the mounting p r o c e s s itself can introduce initial s t r a i n s that a r e unequal in the various gages. T h e r e a r e also residual signal outputs resulting from ambient p r e s s u r e which a r e different f r o m the original z e r o o r p r e s s u r e to which the t r a n s d u c e r was exposed during manufacture (i. e . , t a r e loads a r e applied to the t r a n s d u c e r ) . A balance network is used to null these residual signal outputs. F i g u r e 57 shows the most common circuit for balancing the simple bridge. This circuit modifies the voltage on one s i d e of the bridge by shunting the bridge elements s o that the voltage at the midpoint is equal to the voltage at the midpoint of the opposite s i d e . T o minimize the loading effect on the active a r m s that a r e being shunted while retaining adequate balance resolution, fixed r e s i s t o r s can be added. A single limiting r e s i s t o r is connected in s e r i e s with the potentiometer wiper. In designing balance resolution of the balance the type of potentiometer the balance network may networks, the variables of resolution and range must be considered. The network is a function of the number of t u r n s of the balance potentiometer and winding (i. e . , wire wound, film, etc). For most applications, the range of be accurately approximated by e0 -= V
f

R -(if 4R4

R4 >> R)

Shunt balance networks a l s o have the effect of reducing the sensitivity of the bridge. This loading effect r e s u l t s from the balance network desensitizing the s i d e of the bridge which it shunts. Thus, the AR/R obtained from this s i d e of the bridge is l e s s than without the balance network. When L R is s m a l l relative to R5 + R, the shunting effect is defined by

42

where R5 is the effective shunt c r e a t e d by the balance network a c r o s s the active bridge a r m , R5 is exp r e s s e d mathematic?lly a s foliows: R1R2 + R2R4 t R4R1 R1R2 t R2R4 t R4R1 or R5 = R1 R2 depending on which bridge a r m is considered. When R I = R2. R5 = R2 + 2R4 o r R 1 t 2R4.

- = unshunted LIR
R

unit r e s i s t a n c e change of the bridge

(F)=

shunted unit r e s i s t a n c e change of the bridge

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) F i g . 55 F u l l Bridge T r a n s d u c e r

Transducer ( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) F i g . 56 Closed Output Circuit

---_Where:
R1

R2 R3 and R4

= = = =

t o p p o r t i o n of p o t e n t i o m e t e r , b o t t o m p o r t i o n of p o t e n t i o m e t e r , t o t a l potentiometer resistance, wiper r e s i s t o r .

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) Transducer F i g . 57 P a r a l l e l Balance Network F o r a fully active t r a n s d u c e r with the balance potentiometer centered, the relative output is R5+ 0 . 5 R A = where A = output relative to the output without the balance network The attenuation of the t r a n s d u c e r output attributable to the shunting effect of the balance network is R5 + R

where
B = d e c r e a s e in output f r o m the output without t h e balance network

To minimize this loading effect, the r e s i s t a n c e of the balance network should be made a s high a s possible. This w i l l a l s o d e c r e a s e the c u r r e n t drawn through the balance network. F o r maximum a c curacy, the t r a n s d u c e r should be calibrated with the s a m e type balance network used in t h e actual m e a suring system.
Voltage bucking balance networks a r e shown in Figs. 58 and 59. This type of balance network adds a s e r i e s balancing voltage e2 t o t h e t r a n s d u c e r z e r o output voltage e l to produce the net output voltage eo of the circuit (119): eo = e l

e2

(19)

43

By varying the balance network potentiometer, e2 can be made equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity t o el, producing a balanced condition of z e r o output. The balance network of Fig. 58 u s e s the s a m e excitation s o u r c e a s the t r a n s d u c e r . T h i s network produces a loading effect on the t r a n s d u c e r output a s in the c a s e of the shunt balance network of Fig. 57. T h e loading effect and balance range can be essentially independent of each other. The balance network of Fig. 59 is s i m i l a r in principle t o that shown in,Fig. 58, but r e q u i r e s a s e p a r a t e excitation voltage s o u r c e . This network does not produce a loading effect on the t r a n s d u c e r output. However, the balance is dependent on the stability of the two s e p a r a t e power supplies. F o r the shunt balance network of Fig. 57 and the voltage bucking network of Fig. 58, the balance is not affected on a f i r s t o r d e r b a s i s by the voltage stability. It may, however, have second o r d e r effects caused by i n t e r nal heating and related effects. The balance network is a full-bridge, half active, with fixed r e s i s t o r s , R7, in the excitation leads (120). In the network shown, all four bridge r e s i s t o r s a r e equal in value when the potentiometer is in the c e n t e r position.

R6 v2

+
60

R6

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) Fig. 58 Voltage-Bucking Balance Network

1
( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) Fig. 59 Voltage-Bucking Balance Network

F o r the circuit shown in Fig. 59 (and t o a good approximation for Fig. 58), e2 v1

= * - AR6
2R6 With r e s p e c t to the excita-

where V 1 is the voltage a c r o s s the balance network bridge input t e r m i n a l s . tion voltage ( V z ) , the output of the balance network is:
e2 - = *

&6
2( 2R7 i- R6)

v2

(21)

The maximum balance range is obtained when OR6 is maximum, which is R6 in the circuit shown:

* ,

(22)

It can be s e e n that the balance range is independent of the r e s i s t a n c e of the t r a n s d u c e r , R . However, the balance network does i n c r e a s e the effective output r e s i s t a n c e of the t r a n s d u c e r . The output r e s i s t ance of the c i r c u i t s of Figs. 58 and 59 is:

44

With the balance potentiometer in the center position (m6 = 0 ) . the i n c r e a s e in output r e s i s t a n c e is R6. This i n c r e a s e in r e s i s t a n c e changes t o 3R6/4 a s &36 i n c r e a s e s to its maximum value of R6. The output r e s i s t a n c e is, t h e r e f o r e , a function of initial t r a n s d u c e r balance. This factor may be of significance i f the t r a n s d u c e r is used in a low impedance circuit such a s a galvanometer. 3. 2. 1. 3 Shunt Calibration

A common method used to provide an e l e c t r i c a l calibration of a strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s y s t e m is t o shunt a r e s i s t o r a c r o s s one a r m of the t r a n s d u c e r . This technique produces an output which simulates applying a p r e s s u r e t o the t r a n s d u c e r . The relationship between the calibration r e s i s t o r and t h e p r e s s u r e is previously determined in a laboratory calibration. This is accomplished by applying p r e s s u r e to the t r a n s d u c e r t o determine its output v e r s u s p r e s s u r e curve. With t h e p r e s s u r e removed, t h e shunt r e s i s t o r is then applied and t h e output is r e a d . The simulated p r e s s u r e is determined by c o r r e l a t i n g this output with the output v e r s u s p r e s s u r e data ( 1 2 1 ) .
Single shunt calibration is shown in Fig. 60. Application of the shunt r e s i s t o r , Re, d e c r e a s e s the r e s i s t a n c e of the l e g shunted, producing a negative AR. This unbalances the bridge, simulating a p r e s s u r e applied t o the t r a n s d u c e r . With no line r e s i s t a n c e , all R L ' S equal zero, the output produced by R, is defined by
0 _ -

R R t 0.5 R + O . 5 R a) c c (

Certain factors not readily apparent f r o m Eq. ( 2 4 ) affect the accuracy obtainable with the use of shunt calibration in t h e field. The m a j o r factors a r e t r a n s m i s s i o n line r e s i s t a n c e , p a r a l l e l z e r o balance network, and t e m p e r a t u r e effect. In a four-wire system, line r e s i s t a n c e produces an e r r o r in the shuntto-load correlation. T h e s e e r r o r s a r e defined in ( 1 2 1 ) . The use of a six-wire s y s t e m a s shown in Fig. 6 0 virtually eliminates t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n line r e s i s t a n c e e r r o r , thereby retaining the shunt-to-load correlation essentially independent of line r e s i s t a n c e . Thus, for most applications using the s i x - w i r e system, this e r r o r can be ignored.

Where :

RC = e x t e r n a l s h u n t c a l i b r a t i o n r e s i s t o r ,

Ra

transducer input c i r c u i t r e s i s t o r s , Rp = t r a n s d u c e r i n p u t pad r e s i s t o r , RL = t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r e s i s t a n c e .

=

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) Fig. 6 1 Shunt Calibration with P a r a l l e l Balance Network

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of S t a t h a m I n s t r u m e n t s , I n c . ) Fig. 6 0 Single Shunt Calibration

The u s e of shunt calibration with a parallel balance network is shown in Fig. 61. The balance network is on the opposite s i d e of the bridge from the calibration r e s i s t o r . It has negligible effect on the output because of the calibration r e s i s t o r . However, the balance network does d e c r e a s e the output resulting f r o m applied p r e s s u r e . Therefore, the s h u n t - t o - p r e s s u r e correlation is affected by the p r e s e n c e of the balance network. If this e r r o r is not tolerable in the m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m , it can be avoided by determining the s h u n t - t o - p r e s s u r e correlation with the balance network in the s y s t e m . The use of a balance network on the s a m e s i d e of the bridge a s t h e calibration r e s i s t o r w i l l c a u s e an e r r o r which v a r i e s with the poSition of the wiper of the balance potentiometer (i. e . , initial unbalance of the t r a n s d u c e r ) . This e r r o r is not controllable and cannot easily be calibrated out as in the previous c a s e . Therefore, the shunt r e s i s t o r should be used on the opposite s i d e of the bridge f r o m the balance network. T h e output attributable to p r e s s u r e and the output attributable t o shunt calibration may have t h e r m a l coefficients which differ. Thus, the s h u n t - t o - p r e s s u r e correlation may v a r y f r o m the initially established r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e value. When shunt calibration is used over a t e m p e r a t u r e interval, t h e shunt-topressure.correlation should be established by calibration over that t e m p e r a t u r e interval. Double-shunt calibration is essentially the s a m e as the single-shunt technique ( F i g . 60) with the addition of a second shunt resistance, Re, a c r o s s the diagonally opposite l e g of t h e bridge. Double-shunt

45

calibration is also expressed by Eq. ( 2 4 ) , except that t h e output w i l l b e doubled. T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r e s i s t a n c e e r r o r d e s e r v e s the s a m e consideration, but it r e q u i r e s an eight -wire s y s t e m to eliminate the e r r o r . Double-shunt calibration is less sensitive t o parallel balance networks than single-shunt c a l i b r a tion. T h i s r e s u l t s f r o m the fact tha.t the balance network reduces the output caused by p r e s s u r e and the output caused by one of t h e calibration r e s i s t o r s by approximately the s a m e amount. However, the e r r o r remaining is a function of t h e position of the balance potentiometer and r e p r e s e n t s an uncontrolled e r r o r as discussed above. Consequently, parallel balance networks a r e not recommended for use with general purpose double-shunt s y s t e m s . They may be used i f the e r r o r is within the s y s t e m tolerances or i f a calibration is performed with the balance potentiometer in the position required for s y s t e m balance,
3. 2. 1 . 4 Power Supply Considerations

In the typical schematic representation of the strain-gage bridge circuit, it is common t o show the power supply isolated f r o m all other circuit commons and the A C power line. It is a fairly common practice, however, t o employ a. single voltage regulated power supply with a fairly high c u r r e n t capacity t o excite a l a r g e number of independent bridges. This s a v e s a good portion of the cost involved in exciting t h e bridges, s i n c e one l a r g e capacity power supply is cheaper than a number of individual supplies having a relatively low c u r r e n t capacity (117). T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l considerations that should be carefully weighed before making t h e decision to u s e a common power supply. T h e most important considerations a r e t h e problems of isolation and shielding. Power supplies a r e available that offer very low c o u p l h g to the shield environment and to power o r e a r t h ground. A s a m a t t e r of fact, they come very close t o approximating the ideal battery as a s o u r c e . If a second bridge circuit is connected t o the supply, however, this isolation has been compromised, and any local anomalies o r s t r a y coupling in any one t r a n s d u c e r immediately become common to all. It is generally n e c e s s a r y to establish one s i d e of the supply a s s y s t e m ground in o r d e r t o keep s y s t e m noise under control. Shielding for noise rejection becomes m o r e difficult in the common power supply c a s e . The isolation problem is even m o r e significant. Looking at Fig. 62, which shows a p a i r of bridges connected t o a common supply, it is obvious that t h e signal leads cannot be made common o r bridge halves w i l l be paralleled. This r e s u l t s in c r o s s coupling of data between channels in addition t o d e c r e a c ing t h e output of each bridge. The decision to use common power, then, dictates that both s i d e s of each bridge be isolated at the output. In all probability, single-ended amplifiers cannot be used even i f they are isolated and single ended, because the single ended amplifier w i l l likely have its input and output grounds i n common. Thus, t h e low s i d e s a r e coupled through t h e amplifiers t o t h e readout o r r e c o r d e r , which will bring the low s i d e inputs t o a common point. T h i s means that differential input amplifiers must be used. Looking at t h e cost of differential amplifiers shows that t h e r e is little, i f any, overall s y s t e m cost savings realized by a common power supply. T h e most frequently encountered use of common power supply s y s t e m s is the c a s e where the individual outputs a r e routed t o a low level, t i m e s h a r i n g multiplexer (Section 3. 2. 6 ) . Differential inputs a r e n o r mally used (at l e a s t both s i d e s a r e switched a s w e l l a s t h e shield), and the bridge outputs a r e left open before and a f t e r t h e i r dwell on line. Since only one bridge is connected t o a load at a time, they never can become common. Another problem a r i s e s in attempting t o standardize the individual outputs. With individual power supplies, the voltage applied t o each bridge can be s e t s o that t h e outputs of all bridges a r e s o m e standard level and can be interpreted d i r e c t l y in t e r m s of engineering units. With a common power supply, t h e only way t o control the excitation t o individual bridges is t o install a v a r i able r e s i s t o r in s e r i e s with the excitation to the bridge. T h i s seriously degrades t h e load regulation of the power supply a s s e e n by the bridge. If t h e bridges a r e used in an environment subject t o l a r g e t e m p e r a t u r e changes, and thus l a r g e r e s i s t a n c e changes in the s e r i e s r e s i s t o r s , then this is a bad circuit to use.

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of ENDEVCO, I n c . ) Fig. 6 2 Common Power Supply Connection

In addition, t h e ability t o remotely s e n s e the supply s o that the voltage is held constant a t the bridge r a t h e r than at t h e supply is lost. If the individual bridges a r e located very f a r f r o m t h e power supply, a patch panel can be installed n e a r the bridges and the s e n s e leads connected at that point. The voltage d r o p in the power buss is then negated, but not in t h e individual bridge leads.

46

Technically, t h e r e a r e few valid arguments f o r going t o common power supplies, but economically, common power supplies can offer s o m e s t r o n g arguments in c e r t a i n specialized installations. Another power supply consideration is t h e question of whether t o u s e constant voltage o r constant c u r r e n t supplies. In general, constant c u r r e n t is p r e f e r r e d for t r a n s d u c e r s utilizing semiconductor strain-gage s e n s o r s . The r e a s o n s for this a r e given in the following section. 3.2.1.5 Signal Conditioning for Semiconductor Strain-Gage T r a n s d u c e r s

Semiconductor s t r a i n gages have c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , notably t h e i r high gage factor, which make them v e r y attractive for u s e in p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s . However, t h e s e advantages a r e accompanied by s o m e features which r e q u i r e signal conditioning c i r c u i t r y quite different f r o m that employed f o r conventional m e t a l foil o r wire strain-gaged t r a n s d u c e r s . The semiconductor gages typically have a very high positive t h e r m a l coefficient of r e s i s t i v i t y compared t o wire o r foil gages. The bridge r e s i s t a n c e is a l s o likely to vary o v e r a considerably wider range than the r e s i s t a n c e of an equivalent m e t a l gage bridge. In semiconductor gages, AR/E ( E = unit s t r a i n ) is constant with t e m p e r a t u r e ; therefore, the gage factor (AR/RE ) d e c r e a s e s significantly with increasing t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s dependence of s t r a i n sensitivity on bridge r e s i s t a n c e change v e r s u s t e m p e r a t u r e can be eliminated by supplying a constant c u r r e n t excitation t o the bridge. The constant c u r r e n t w i l l c a u s e the applied voltage t o the bridge t o vary in direct proportion to bridge resistance. Thus, a s t h e gage factor d e c r e a s e s , excitation i n c r e a s e s because of the natural positive t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient of the gage. The r e s u l t is virtually constant sensitivity with changing t e m p e r a t u r e (Fig. 63) (122). Another factor which can affect signal conditioning choices is the considerably higher A R that t h e s e m i conductor gages exhibit. This can r e s u l t in bridge-induced nonlinearities being much m o r e significant, especially when l e s s than four-active-arm bridges a r e used. It a l s o suggests that const ant c u m ent excitation might be m o r e d e s i r a b l e than constant voltage as a means of reducing this nonlinearity. When p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s that employ semiconductor gages are bought, the odds a r e they w i l l i n c o r porate impedance compensating networks inside the t r a n s d u c e r housing. What appears t o be a s i m p l e foura r m bridge when looked at f r o m the output connector, could very w e l l be 8, 10. o r 1 2 elements connected to optimize t h e t h e r m a l behavior of the transducer. Transducers a r e designed t o be employed with e i t h e r constant c u r r e n t o r constant voltage, and it is imperative that the p r o p e r excitation s o u r c e be used. Constant Current I
400
D

Temper a t u r e , OF

\
( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton C o r p . ) Fig. 63 T r a n s d u c e r Sensitivity v s T e m p e r a t u r e for Semiconductor Strain Gages with Constant Current and Constant Voltage Excitation

3. 2. 1. 6 Potentiometric T r a n s d u c e r Signal Conditioning Although strain-gage p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e certainly the most common of the variable r e s i s t a n c e type, quite a few of the potentiometric type a r e used. Signal conditioning equipment for potentiometric t r a n s d u c e r s is essentially the s a m e a s that for strain-gage bridges except that it must accommodate v e r y high r e s i s t a n c e changes in the active legs and can t o l e r a t e little o r no output loading (117). Potentiometers a r e generally built a s a c c u r a t e voltage dividers and not a s accurate variable r e s i s t o r s . Typically, a potentiometer is l i n e a r t o within 0. 2 percent o r better a s a voltage divider but has a total r e s i s t a n c e tolerance of 5 percent o r s o and might have a r e s i s t a n c e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient that r e s u l t s in a change in r e s i s t a n c e of s e v e r a l percent over its rated t e m p e r a t u r e range. T o the extent possible then, the potentiometers should be operated only a s voltage dividers. The usual bridge completion for a potentiometer is another potentiometer. The balance pot in the signal conditioner can be used for this function without any e x t r a components ( F i g . 64). With a potentio m e t r i c t r a n s d u c e r , t h e r e is relatively little confidence in the initial position of the potentiometer wiper during calibration. The s y s t e m calibration s c h e m e should t h e r e f o r e be a substitution method r a t h e r

47

than a shunt o r insertion method. E i t h e r r e s i s t a n c e substitution o r voltage substitution can be used at t h e convenience of the instrumentation engineer.

.
I
h

I I

Fig. 64 Potentiometer Signal Conditioning

3 . 2 . 2 Signal Conditioning f o r Variable Reluctance and L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

T h e two t r a n s d u c e r types covered by this section differ somewhat in t h e generation of t h e i r output signals, but the resulting signals and the signal conditioning they r e q u i r e is sufficiently s i m i l a r to w a r r a n t a common treatment. F i g u r e 65 shows a schematic representation of the two types.
rI

Excitation

-3

. 111 t

+JCTransducer
M i
I , * I

I
I
Variable Reluctance Sensor
t

Signal

r- -

--1

Excita

Linear V a r i a b l e D i f f e r e n t i a l Transformer

Tranc

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of ENDEVCO, I n c . ) Fig. 6 5 L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r and Variable Reluctance Sensor Like the t r a n s d u c e r s of the previous section, variable reluctance and differential t r a n s f o r m e r p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e passive devices. That is, they depend upon an externally supplied excitation s o u r c e t o provide an output signal. Unlike t h e i r r e s i s t i v e counterparts, however, t h e s e s e n s o r s r e l y on v a r i a ' tion of t h e i r reactive p r o p e r t i e s a s a transduction principle and consequently w i l l operate only f r o m an AC voltage ( or c u r r e n t 1. T h e i r conditioning s y s t e m s a r e very much like the AC s y s t e m s used for s t r a i n gages ( 117). A block diagram of a typical c a r r i e r amplifier-demodulation s y s t e m which is generally used f o r conditioning variable reluctance and differential t r a n s f o r m e r p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s is shown in Fig. 66. The amplifier operation is a s follows: The t r a n s d u c e r is excited with a regulated AC voltage which is in t u r n amplitude modulated by t h e transducing device. T h e balancing network is used t o null r e s i s t i v e and reactive components of t h e t r a n s d u c e r unbalance. The r e s i s t i v e component a l s o provides a convenient means of adjusting t h e amplifier zero. A bandpass filter removes unwanted noise and harmonic signals and p a s s e s only the c a r r i e r and i t s sidebands. The t r a n s d u c e r signal is amplified by t h e AC amplifier, synchronously demodulated. and filtered. In Fig. 66 typical signals a r e shown at various points in the amplifier f o r an input f r o m a p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r . S e v e r a l Components of the s y s t e m can be omitted. For example, i f t h e t r a n s d u c e r signal is of sufficient magnitude, then the AC amplifier is not needed. Or, i f t h e t r a n s d u c e r is initially balanced, then the zeroing networks can be eliminated. Also, non-synchronous detection ( s i m p l e rectification) can be employed i f bipolar signals are not t o be conditioned and i f linearity, noise, and frequency response a r e not of p r i m e importance. Nonsynchronous demodulation rectifies any signal coming into it, r e g a r d l e s s of frequency o r phase relationship t o the c a r r i e r . Therefore, the demodulator output does not indicate a difference in a positive or negative p r e s s u r e . Also, noise signals a r e not rejected but a r e demodulated along with the

48

E n v e l o p e of C a r r i e r S i g n a l

Demodulated

Time+

/
Balancing Network

,\ I I I
I I

T i m e 4 BandDass Filier Centered

,
Filter

I-

PhaseSensitive Demod u l a t o r

AC Power

Frequency

Fig. 6 6 C a r r i e r Amplifier t r a n s d u c e r signal. A synchronous demodulator, on the other hand, is not controlled by the incoming signal but by a r e f e r e n c e signal which is synchronized with the c a r r i e r . Thus, when the p r e s s u r e r e v e r s e s on a t r a n s d u c e r and i t s signal phase shifts by 180 deg, the demodulator output a l s o r e v e r s e s . Noise signals reaching t h e demodulator a r e passed, partially rejected, o r completely rejected, depending on their phase relative t o the r e f e r e n c e signal. F i g u r e 6 7 i l l u s t r a t e s the function of both types of demodulators. Because the signals f r o m VR and LVDT t r a n s d u c e r s a r e not generally in phase or 180 deg out of phase with the carrier, t h e carrier r e f e r e n c e signal t o the synchronous demodulation must be adj u s table. Variable reluctance t r a n s d u c e r s a r e usually t h r e e - t e r m i n a l devices and a r e essentially the magnetic equivalent of a two-active-element r e s i s t a n c e bridge. The impedance of the two reactive elements w i l l v a r y in a complementary manner as in the c a s e of the two-arm strain-gage bridge. Therefore, t h e most convenient method of operating the variable reluctance s e n s o r is in a bridge circuit. Since excitation of the bridge w i l l always be f r o m an AC s o u r c e , an additional simplification is possible. T h e r e f e r e n c e portion of the bridge can actually be the driving t r a n s f o r m e r using c e n t e r t a p as t h e r e f e r e n c e midpoint. Differential t r a n s f o r m e r devices a r e essentially what their name implies. They a r e constructed a s a loosely coupled t r a n s f o r m e r having one p r i m a r y and two secondary windings. A mechanical input t o t h e device c a u s e s changes in t h e magnetic coupling to the individual secondary windings. T h e s e changes are essentially complementary in nature s o that an i n c r e a s e in the output voltage of one secondary is accompanied by a corresponding d e c r e a s e in the other. The secondary windings a r e connected in s e r i e s opposition s o that the outputs tend t o cancel for a s y m m e t r i c flux distribution (usually midrange of the mechanical input). The output voltage on either s i d e of this null point should be a l i n e a r function of the magnitude of mechanical input and w i l l shift i t s phase relative t o the input by 180 deg a s it goes through null. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of 180-deg phase change about null is what provides a center z e r o data output. Ideally, t h e output would be exactly in phase o r exactly 180 deg out of phase with the excitation. However, such is not t h e case. T r a n s d u c e r s of either type w i l l be found t o have s o m e excitation frequency at which they w i l l exhibit essentially z e r o phase shift of the c a r r i e r . F o r excitation frequencies above o r below this z e r o phase frequency, the output signal w i l l either lead o r l a g the excitation by an amount that is a function of how f a r f r o m i t s optimum frequency it is being operated. Normally, t r a n s d u c e r s have been designed t o optimize at the c a r r i e r frequency used. Other selection c r i t e r i a can occasionally dictate a t r a n s d u c e r that w i l l have a r a t h e r high c a r r i e r phase shift at t h e frequency being used, and the signal conditioner w i l l then have t o accommodate this added factor. The g e n e r a l assumptions on relative frequency response that w e r e made when discussing AC excitation of

49

s t r a i n gages apply equally well h e r e . However, it may be slightly m o r e difficult to r e a c h an information bandwidth of one fifth of c a r r i e r frequency because of t h e higher demodulator noise. T h e s e magnetic devices have a tendency t o be harmonic g e n e r a t o r s which contribute t o noise in the output signal. When it is impractical, because of t r a n s d u c e r selection c r i t e r i a or for information frequency response considerations, t o operate the t r a n s d u c e r n e a r its optimum frequency, it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o a l t e r that phase shift in the c a r r i e r amplifier. It is not practical t o shift the phase of the modulated c a r r i e r by passive electronic means s i n c e such c i r c u i t s do not shift t h e phase of all frequencies in the range of i n t e r e s t by t h e s a m e amount, and a circuit-induced distortion w i l l r e s u l t . The r e f e r e n c e signal, on the other hand, may be easily shifted s i n c e no frequency components except the c a r r i e r exist.

Carrier Signal from T r a n s d u c e r Positive Pressure

Simple Rectification

Synchronous Demodulation

Nr e sasur e P eg tiv

*+

+ Avg. -

Avg.

Avg.

Reference Signal f o r Synchronous Demodulators Fig. 6 7 Operation of Simple Rectifier and Synchronous Demodulators

The phase shift c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of variable reluctance and differential t r a n s f o r m e r devices a r e , unfortunately, not a s i m p l e m a t t e r of c a r r i e r frequency. They w i l l be found to vary a s a function of input p a r a m e t e r a s well, s o that r e f e r e n c e phase correction must be optimized over t h e input range. The inevitable r e s u l t is that the phase shift w i l l be something other than z e r o n e a r null. Since output z e r o w i l l r e s u l t f r o m a balanced condition of the in-phase component, a s m a l l amount of signal that is e i t h e r 90-deg leading o r 90-deg lagging the r e f e r e n c e w i l l be present. This r e s i d u a l signal ( q u a d r a t u r e voltage) w i l l degrade the signal-to-noise r a t i o n e a r null i f left alone. The standard practice is to u s e t h e balancing c i r c u i t r y t o inject a quadrature component at the input of the c a r r i e r amplifier that is equal i n magnitude and opposite in phase t o the quadrature component present in the t r a n s d u c e r output signal.

A s previously mentioned, under c e r t a i n conditions, nonsynchronous s y s t e m s work quite well with t h e s e types of t r a n s d u c e r s and a r e considerably less complicated. The s i m p l e s t such technique utilizes a s i x - w i r e differential t r a n s f o r m e r with the secondary windings brought out s e p a r a t e l y . The secondary outputs a r e s e p a r a t e l y rectified and then summed at DC. Naturally all components of a secondary output (whether noise o r information) a r e considered signal s o that the noise rejection with this s y s t e m is essentially nil.
T h e most convenient s o u r c e of AC for the c a r r i e r is t h e 60-Hz power line. A common filament t r a n s f o r m e r w i l l suffice t o d r o p t h e 115-volt line down to an acceptable level f o r exciting the t r a n s d u c e r . Operation in this manner should be limited t o constant t e m p e r a t u r e u s e of the t r a n s d u c e r s , however, s i n c e the t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient of sensitivity w i l l greatly suffer. The input inductance of the typical differential t r a n s f o r m e r w i l l be v e r y low at 6 0 Hz, with the r e s u l t that input c u r r e n t w i l l depend almost entirely on the DC r e s i s t a n c e of t h e input. This can be compensated by exciting the unit f r o m a constant c u r r e n t s o u r c e ( o r at l e a s t a v e r y high r e s i s t a n c e s o u r c e ) s o that p r i m a r y r e s i s t a n c e changes a r e effectively swamped out. This, however, w i l l not completely compensate f o r the t e m p e r a t u r e variation in the output. T h e p r i m a r y t o secondary coupling of the device w i l l be quite high. With any practical load (especially t r u e with the individually rectified outputs), the net output under load w i l l be highly t e m p e r a t u r e dependent.
3. 2. 3 Signal Conditioning f o r Piezoelectric T r a n s d u c e r s

P r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s based upon the principle of piezoelectricity offer many important advantages f o r dynamic testing. They r e q u i r e no outside s o u r c e of excitation, they r e m o v e relatively little energy f r o m thp s y s t e m they a r e measuring, they are generally quite s m a l l and light weight, have excellent high frequency response, and have an unusually wide dynamic range. However, many of t h e s e advantages become problems in the signal conditioning (117).

50

Since they a r e self-generating devices, with a low mechanical energy advantage, very little e l e c t r i c a l energy is available t o the signal conditioner. Another way of saying this is that t h e t r a n s d u c e r p r e s e n t s a v e r y high s o u r c e impedance t o the conditioner, and further, it w i l l be essentially purely capacitive. The phase and amplitude c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l then be a d i r e c t function of the load on the device. T h e i r excellent high frequency response does not come without compromise either. . T h e frequency response c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is generally one of an undamped, single-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m with a resonance somewhere in the range f r o m 30 t o 150 kHz. A broadband amplifier is required t o utilize high frequency response, and additionally, the amplifier response c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should r e j e c t signals at t h e t r a n s d u c e r natural frequency. The wide dynamic range r e q u i r e s that e l e c t r i c a l noise be kept t o an absolute minimum, in a s y s t e m which is already noise prone. T h e r e a r e two basic techniques being employed today t o condition piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r outputs. These a r e 1) high impedance voltage amplifiers
2)

charge amplifiers

A third category ( r e m o t e electronics) is sufficiently different in p r a c t i c e t o warrant s e p a r a t e treatment, although in theory it is simply a m a t t e r of locating the amplifier in or adjacent t o the t r a n s d u c e r . In utilizing voltage a m p l i f i e r s f o r conditioning piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r outputs, t h e amplifier input impedance must be v e r y high compared with the s o u r c e impedance t o minimize t h e effect of t h e amplifier on the phase and amplitude c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s y s t e m . T h i s is entirely p r a c t i c a l for an amplifier using input devices such a s e l e c t r o m e t e r s and insulated gate, field-effect t r a n s i s t o r s . But, because of the reactive nature of the source, an equally significant portion of the load is the interconnecting cable itself. F i g u r e 68 shows the equivalent circuit of a typical piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r with output amplifier. The voltage s o u r c e E, and capacitance CT r e p r e s e n t the t r a n s d u c e r , and the cable has been r e p r e s e n t e d by a single shunt capacitor C c . ( T h i s is a satisfactory representation for the low frequency, s h o r t length case, but a c l o s e r approximation of the actual t r a n s m i s s i o n line is n e c e s s a r y f o r high f r e q u e n c i e s , o r long lines. ) The amplifier input is r e p r e s e n t e d by a parallel capacitor ( C A ) and r e s i s t a n c e (RA).

I
I

==cc
I
I

==
> #

I
I

I I

I -

I I

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of ENDEVCO, I n c . ) Fig. 68 Voltage Amplifier Equivalent

Typical values of t r a n s d u c e r capacitance can be a s low as 300 pF. The coaxial cable used f o r the interconnection w i l l be on the o r d e r of 30 p F / f t . It obviously does not take much cable t o substantially lower the available voltage, even if an ideal amplifier input is assumed (CA = 0, RA = ). A second factor that must be considered in using voltage amplifiers for piezoelectric devices is the s y s t e m low frequency response that w i l l r e s u l t in any given,installation. F r o m a basic knowledge of the signal generating mechanism of a piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r , it must be conceded that steady-state response cannot be obtained with a practical voltage amplifier. The actual low frequency cutoff may not be s o readily apparent, however. R e f e r r i n g back to Fig. 68, it can be s e e n that the amplifier input r e s i s t a n c e in combination with the total shunt capacitance f o r m s a high pass, f i r s t o r d e r filter with a t i m e constant 7 = RA(CT + CC + CA). Substituting typical values for the circuit constants (RA = 1000 M R , CT = 300 pF, C c = 300 pF, and CA = 20 pF). we find that the response in this instance would be down 3 db a t approximately 0.25 Hz. F o r lower s o u r c e capacitances (less cable o r very low capacitance t r a n s d u c e r s ) or lower amplifier input r e s i s t a n c e s , this frequency can approach data frequencies and become a m a t t e r of s o m e concern. In recent y e a r s , t h e trend has been away from voltage amplifiers and m o r e toward t h e s o called "charge amplifiers" in o r d e r t o avoid the cable capacitance effects on s y s t e m gain and frequency response. A charge amplifier is essentially an operational amplifier with capacitive feedback. T h e t r a n s d u c e r is connected t o the summing junction. A simplified representation is shown in Fig. 69. Because of the

51

r - - - -cl? 1 - I
I + h
I

. (
a, k

r
I
I I
I

I I

I
a I I

L
Transducer Amplifier ( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of ENDEVCO, I n c . ) Fig. 69 Charge Amplifier

n a t u r e of the operational amplifier with feedback, the amplifier input is maintained at approximately z e r o voltage. Thus, the charge produced by a p r e s s u r e input is immediately drained off. Since the amplifier input impedance is effectively infinite, all the charge initially on the t r a n s d u c e r is t r a n s f e r r e d t o the feedback capacitor.

Eo

--

1 - cF

/ i dt =

-j
cF

dQs -dt

= dt

Q 2
CF

(25)

T h i s shows that the amplifier output, Eo, is independent of the t r a n s d u c e r and cable capacitance. practice, however, cable length is a consideration at high frequencies a s shown in Fig. 70.
1

In

8 910
k

9 E: U U
k

2 4
8

a , 6

2
.rl

10

+ m

12 14 16 4 18 20 1000 2000
3000 4000 5000

7000

10,000

Frequency, Hz ( T h i s F i g u r e Was Adapted from Model 2 6 2 0 A m p l i f i e r Data S h e e t , I ENDEVCO, Corp. , P a s a d e n a , C a l i f . ) Fig. 70 Effect of Source Capacitance on High Frequency Response for a Typical Charge Amplifier

With either the high impedance voltage amplifier or t h e charge amplifier, the most important func.tion of the signal conditioning s y s t e m is accomplished, that is, t o satisfy the interface demands of the t r a n s d u c e r . The additional functions of ranging and standardizing can be provided with relative e a s e by gain changes in the amplifiers, giving a greatly extended dynamic range capability. T h e r e is also a r a t h e r high probability that filtering of the resultant signal w i l l have t o be provided on both the low and high ends of the information band. Piezoelectric devices a r e often prone t o exhibit high sensitivity to t h e r m a l t r a n s i e n t s . This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , r e f e r r e d t o a s a pyroelectric effect, generally exists only at v e r y low frequencies ( o r a s t r a n s i e n t s with long t i m e constants) s o that it is possible t o get a r a t h e r high o r d e r of rejection without affecting information through the u s e of high p a s s filters just below the minimum required frequency response. A s noted e a r l i e r , voltage amplifiers with moderate to low input impedances already exhibit this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . It is only n e c e s s a r y to be able t o

52

control the cutoff point t o put it t o good use. In a charge amplifier, the addition of a r e s i s t o r in p a r a l l e l with the feedback capacitor w i l l have t h e effect of decreasing closed-loop gain at low frequencies. F o r general broadband noise rejection above the maximum data frequency, low p a s s filters on t h e amplifier output are generally satisfactory. Occasionally with charge amplifiers, however, high amplitude, s h o r t duration input t r a n s i e n t s w i l l overload the amplifier and obscure valuable data during recovery. It is then d e s i r a b l e t o filter before the amplifier input. One way that this can be accomplished is by adding series r e s i s t a n c e at the amplifier input. The resulting high frequency breakpoint w i l l be at
f=-

2sRC'

where R is the s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e and C is the total s o u r c e capacitance.

With s y s t e m s involving very high input capacitances (usually a r e s u l t of very long lines). neither the voltage amplifier nor the charge amplifier offers a v e r y satisfactory solution t o the conditioning problem. The signal-to-noise r a t i o suffers with t h e voltage amplifier because of d e c r e a s e d available signal a t t r i b utable t o capacitive loading. In a charge amplifier, effective input noise is a d i r e c t function of input capacitance, and although t h e available signal is independent of capacitance, the signal-to-noise r a t i o suffers because of the increased noise level. The obvious answer is to move the signal conditioning t o t h e other end of t h e line. Since this is not always possible, a reasonable compromise would s e e m t o be t o move part of the conditioning t o the r e m o t e point. T h e r e have recently been introduced a number of s y s t e m s that employ voltage) that a r e i n s e r t e d in the normal data leads c l o s e t o the t r a n s d u c e r . a r e a l s o providing piezoelectric devices with the unloading amplifier a s an d u c e r housing (74). Other than t h e obvious considerations of t h e operating t o offer a satisfactory solution t o the accommodation of long data lines. A in Fig. 71. CouDler amplifiers ( e i t h e r c h a r g e o r T r a n s d u c e r manufacturers integral p a r t of the t r a n s environment, this appears typical such s y s t e m is shown

Transducer

Constant Current SUPP 1Y

L------J Remote or
I n t e g r a l Amplifier Fig. 71 Line D r i v e r Circuit

Two practical problems exist f r o m a circuit standpoint, however, that may be of concern t o the instrumentation engineer. The f i r s t is the d e c r e a s e d dynamic range capability of s u c h a s y s t e m s i n c e input amplifier gain can no longer be changed in o r d e r t o accomplish range change. The second is a r e s t r i c t e d high frequency response signal amplitude capability because of t h e limited current: capability of the r e m o t e amplifier. By the t i m e t h e s e two limitations have been overcome, 9 0 percent of what would constitute the signal conditioning equipment is at t h e r e m o t e location, and it would be just a s well t o put the amplifier t h e r e . 3. 2.4 Signal Conditioning f o r Variable Capacitance T r a n s d u c e r s Variable capacitance p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s , though not used a s extensively as strain-gage, piezoelectric, o r reluctance-type t r a n s d u c e r s , s t i l l find a wide variety of applications that a r e important in wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measurements. T h e i r diversity is shown by t h e fact that they can be used f o r extremely low, s e m i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s (56, 123, 124, 125, and 126), for rapid response m e a s u r e m e n t s in shock tubes (70 and 127), o r in free-flight t e l e m e t r y applications (60, 61, and 128). T h i s diversity of application r e q u i r e s a s i m i l a r diversity of signal conditioning instrumentation. In general, the capacitance t r a n s d u c e r s which a r e commercially available are designed t o operate with a particular type of signal conditioning equipment, and ordinarily t h e t r a n s d u c e r and adjunct instrumentation a r e purchased a s a unit and neither works well with other equipment. T h e variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r is, of course, a passive device and must have excitation p r o vided. For high accuracy, an AC bridge may be employed in either a balanced o r unbalanced mode. Manual balance o r s e r v o balance may be chosen i f a balanced bridge s c h e m e is employed. F i g u r e 72 shows a manually balanced bridge circuit; the additional features required t o convert this circuit t o a s e r v o type a r e obvious. Excitation voltages a s high a s 200 volts at frequencies ranging f r o m 400 Hz t o 2.5 kHz a r e common with this circuit. Accuracies of 0.05 percent of full s c a l e are typical and p r e s s u r e s a s low a s 2 x 10-7 p s i may be resolved with a 1-psi t r a n s d u c e r (129).

53

When t h e p r e s s u r e s e n s o r is used in an unbalanced bridge circuit, it does not include a s e r v o loop and, therefore, is able to provide m o r e rapid response, s m a l l e r s i z e and weight, and g r e a t e r output. It can be used in conjunction with t h e n o r m a l strain-gage c a r r i e r amplifier s y s t e m s ; typical output sensitivity is 0. 25 volt p e r volt at maximum p r e s s u r e . Excitation

Transducer

'YVV Null De t e c t o r R
Fig. 72 Variable Capacitance P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r in Bridge Circuit

For rapid response m e a s u r e m e n t s (on the o r d e r of 15 cc sec), c i r c u i t r y may be employed which utilizes t h e capacitance of the t r a n s d u c e r along with an inductance which is contained in the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r t o f o r m a tuned r a d i o frequency circuit (130). This circuit is link coupled by means of a low impedance cable t o an oscillator-detector which consists of an R F oscillator coupled to a diode detector circuit. The s m a l l changes of t r a n s d u c e r capacitance produce relatively l a r g e impedance changes in the diode detector circuit, and t h e detector c i r c u i t ' s output is proportional t o the p r e s s u r e applied t o t h e t r a n s d u c e r . The detector output is coupled through a cathode follower and filter network t o provide a low impedance DC output signal.
Wind tunnel m e a s u r e m e n t s which r e q u i r e telemetering of data f r o m a "free-flying" model generally employ variable capacitance t r a n s d u c e r s because of t h e i r compatibility with s i m p l e transmitting c i r c u i t s (60, 61, and 128) which utilize t h e t r a n s d u c e r along with an inductor t o f o r m a tank circuit a s shown in Fig. 73. Tkie reception s y s t e m employs c o m m e r c i a l high frequency r e c e i v e r s which provide an output voltage proportional t o frequency deviation. A block diagram of a complete measuring s y s t e m is shown in Fig. 74. P r e s s u r e s as low a s 0.0005 psid have been m e a s u r e d using t h e s e techniques. Other signal-conditioning techniques which have found limited usage a r e polarization techniques ( 5 and 70) and the use of a t h r e e - t e r m i n a l parallel-T circuit (127). Both of t h e s e techniques are p r i m a r i l y f o r s h o r t duration, rapid response measurements.

4 CellsI

T
15

X/4 Stub Antenna O u t s i d e Tunnel Window

Transmitter I n s i d e Model

Tunnel T e s t S e c t i o n Preamplifier Signal Strength

DC Amplifier

C* - T r a n s d u c e r

5.4 v o l t s T o t a l RM625 or RM675

Note:

R i n Ohms C i n PF

7 H
F-M Receiver

Recording Oscillograph

Fig. 73 Clapp Oscillator

Fig. 74 Single-Channel T e l e m e t r y System

54

3. 2. 5 Compensation for Acceleration Effects

T r a n s d u c e r s employed for p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s in wind tunnel environments a r e often subject t o vibrations which a c c r u e a s a r e s u l t of various tunnel operations. At t i m e s data recording can be delayed until the vibrations have damped t o a level sufficiently low not to affect t h e t r a n s d u c e r s , but in many instances sufficient t e s t t i m e is not available o r t h e s o u r c e of vibration is continuous. In such c a s e s , the accuracy of the m e a s u r e m e n t s can be degraded beyond tolerable l i m i t s unless s o m e c o r r e c t i v e m e a s u r e is taken. One such method is t o u s e an electronic filter whose bandpass c o v e r s the range of i n t e r e s t f r o m a data standpoint but which r e j e c t s o r attenuates satisfactorily in the frequency region of the troublesome vibrations. Another remedy f o r troubles of this type is t o u s e t r a n s d u c e r s which can be shock mounted (Section 3. 1. 1) (isolated f r o m the vibration) o r which a r e provided with internal compensation for acceleration (Section 2) ( 5 1 and 74). When neither of the aforementioned is feasible, compensation of vibratory effects may be provided by mounting an a c c e l e r o m e t e r in such a way a s t o s e n s e the vibration and then electrically summing the signal from the a c c e l e r o m e t e r and the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r . When properly summed, the acceleration signal produced in t h e p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r is 180 deg out of phase f r o m the a c c e l e r o m e t e r signal, and by adjusting t h e amplitude of the a c c e l e r o m e t e r signal, cancellation of the acceleration effect is achieved. A block diagram of such a s y s t e m is shown in Fig. 75. It is fairly obvious that in a s y s t e m employing s e v e r a l t r a n s d u c e r s subject t o the s a m e acceleration effects that the output f r o m one a c c e l e r o m e t e r may be used t o compensate all the t r a n s d u c e r s .

Fig. 75 Block Diagram of System for Compensation of Acceleration Effects in P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r s

3. 2. 6 Multiplexing Systems

At t i m e s , in applications requiring the measurement of l a r g e numbers of p r e s s u r e s , it may be advantageous t o employ e l e c t r i c a l s c a n n e r s o r "multiplexers" r a t h e r than p r e s s u r e s c a n n e r s . In general, it may be s a i d that the e l e c t r i c a l s c a n n e r is e a s i e r t o u s e than the p r e s s u r e s c a n n e r and, of course, the pneumatic s y s t e m is somewhat s i m p l e r . P r e s s u r e s c a n n e r s are somewhat notorious for t h e i r p r e s s u r e leakage problems and they a r e limited in both the p r e s s u r e ranges which they cover and t h e i r maximum speed of operation; whereas none of the foregoing problems is significant in the multiplexer system. Cost considerations between the two s y s t e m s vary and must be t r e a t e d individually. A typical multiplexing s y s t e m is made up of groups of electronic switches, amplifiers and analogto-digital (A-to-D) c o n v e r t e r s which allow many analog signals t o be processed into a single digital output (131). The digital information obtained is usually processed in a digital computer and has various mathematical operations performed on it. Shown in Fig. 76 is a block d i a g r a m of a typical system. The analog input signal is brought into a differential low level multiplexer which switches the individual channels into a preamplifier. T h e s e differential inputs a r e often subgrouped a s shown. The singleended output of t h e amplifier is multiplexed into a s a m p l e and hold by the high level multiplexer. The output of the s a m p l e and hold is connected t o an A-to-D converter, which converts the analog signal into a parallel digital word which can be further multiplexed in a digital multiplexer. The output of t h e digital multiplexer is then connected t o the computer. The total number of channels for $he s y s t e m described is given by L x M x N, where L is t h e number of analog inputs in one group, M is the number of Prouus of low level inuuts. and N is t h e number of A-to-D c o n v e r t e r s which are interfaced.

'

55

Conditioner

- E- t
- U

Low Level Multiplexer Preamplifier

+
r--7

Data Storage High Leve Mult plexer

L

Readout System

----I

L,,I
- I

I---+

I I I

---+ L

r--1
I---

I--I I

p\ ->\

Fig. 76 Block Diagram of Multiplexing System The low level multiplexing s y s t e m is the most difficult t o achieve, because noise, c r o s s talk, and common mode rejection limit the accuracy of the low level signals. One approach uses a s e p a r a t e differential amplifier p e r channel and has the advantage of high input impedance. However, the i n c r e a s e in cost of the system, due t o s e p a r a t e amplifiers, is often prohibitive for a l a r g e number of channels. Another approach uses a t r a n s f o r m e r coupling method t o convert the differential signal into a singleended AC modulated signal. This approach has lower cost p e r channel because of the reduction in the total number of amplifiers; however, the input coupling arrangement c r e a t e s a low input impedance. High level multiplexing s y s t e m s a r e considerably e a s i e r t o achieve than the low level type, particul a r l y with the advent of the field effect t r a n s i s t o r . The simplest, fastest, and most accurate multiplexer of all is the digital multiplexer, which is achieved completely with digital logic circuits. The analog input signal defines the overall performance required of the s y s t e m in t e r m s of throughput r a t e . Shannons sampling theorem (131) s t a t e s that a signal must be sampled at a r a t e at l e a s t twice the maximum frequency component in o r d e r t o faithfully reproduce it. The high speed r e s t r i c t i o n on the s y s t e m is given at the digital output of the digital multiplexer by the maximum r a t e at which the information can be processed.

56

When many channels of a multiplexer a r e connected together, performance p a r a m e t e r s , such a s settling time, c r o s s talk, and noise a r e affected. In the c a s e of settling t i m e and c r o s s talk, the p e r formance is degraded proportional t o the number of channels connected together because of added capacitance. Noise, on the other hand, is increased when submultiplexing is used. Instrumentation s y s t e m s a r e manufactured today with a c c u r a c i e s of 0.01 percent and throughput r a t e s of 100 kHz, which r e q u i r e c i r c u i t s capable of settling a 10-v s t e p input t o 1 mv within 5 t o l o p s e c . Although accuracy-speed performances of this level can be achieved in the electronic s y s t e m , it is t o no avail i f the implementation of the s y s t e m into the overall instrumentation problem is not carefully thought out. F a c t o r s that must be considered t o achieve an effective overall instrumentation performance are: Input Impedance v e r s u s Source Resistance Common Mode E r r o r s v e r s u s Frequency and Source Unbalance Systems Speeds Noise v e r s u s Bandwidth 3 . 2 . 7 Data Recorders A wide variety of instrumentation is available for recording the outputs f r o m p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s . Since the output f r o m the t r a n s d u c e r and its adjunct signal-conditioning equipment is generally a voltage which is proportional t o the p r e s s u r e applied t o the t r a n s d u c e r , the recording instrumentation is basically a voltmeter. Many factors can influence the selection of the readout o r recording instrumentation; s o m e of t h e s e c r i t e r i a a r e ( 1) number of simultaneous channels required, ( 2 ) t h e dynamic measurement range o r resolution, ( 3 ) precision required, ( 4 ) response t i m e or frequency response, (5) whether o r not signal (data) s t o r a g e is required, ( 6 ) whether the signals are t o be recorded in digital o r analog form, and, of course, (7)the cost p e r channel. The number of data channels required is determined by the number of p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s required and whether multiplexer o r p r e s s u r e switches a r e used. This in t u r n is determined l a r g e l y by the t e s t o r measurement t i m e available in the wind tunnel. The dynarnic measurement range is the r a t i o of the maximum p r e s s u r e that must be recorded relative to the s m a l l e s t increment of p r e s s u r e which must be resolved. P r e c i s i o n indicates how closely data may be compared between t e s t s o r recordings o r how well the s y s t e m w i l l repeat a measurement. The required response t i m e is determined by t h e t e s t o r measurement t i m e available and can v a r y f r o m minutes in the c a s e of t r a n s d u c e r s with long tubulations between t r a n s d u c e r and m e a s u r i n g orifice (Section 3.1.2.2) t o t i m e s s o s h o r t as t o be m e a s u r e d in microseconds in high performance shock tubes whose run duration is less than a millisecond. The ultimate use of the data generally determines whether o r not the data is stored, and t h i s along with the quantity of data recorded generally determine whether an analog o r digital recording device is used. In most wind tunnel applications it is n e c e s s a r y to s t o r e the data in s o m e form, and i f a substantial quantity of data is involved, A-to-D conversion techniques can be employed t o provide s i m p l e methods of data s t o r a g e a s w e l l a s putting the data in a format which is intrinsically m o r e adaptable and flexible for manipulation by digital computers. Advances in A -to-D conversion techniques have made A-to-D s y s t e m s the ultimate f o r data recording with no other s y s t e m providing a challenge t o t h e i r accuracy, resolution, speed, and low cost for a l a r g e number of inputs. The speed of this type s y s t e m is rapid enough t o use with the highest frequency t r a n s d u c e r s developed t o date. Table I1 shows a comparison of typical pertinent features of various recording s y s t e m s which have fairly widespread use in wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measurements. The servobalance r e c o r d e r s a r e the most accurate analog r e c o r d e r s available today, offering excursions of up t o 16 in. The servobalance s y s t e m in the feedback loop of the recording pen p e r m i t s a c c u r a c i e s of 0. 25 percent without drift o r degradation from line voltage and ambient t e m p e r a t u r e variations. The bandwidth of t h e s e s y s t e m s is about 10 Hz for low amplitude excursions and 1 Hz f o r wide amplitude o r full-scale excursions. Servobalance r e c o r d e r s a r e usually made in a p r e s s u r e v e r s u s t i m e s t r i p c h a r t f o r m which enables p r e s s u r e t o be plotted as a function of time. Two pen versions of t h e s e r e c o r d e r s a r e available offering two p r e s s u r e s v e r s u s t i m e recordings on the s a m e chart. Mechanical oscillographs u s e a galvanometer t o move an a r m through an angular deflection in p r o portion t o the input signal. The angular motion is converted mechanically t o rectangular coordinates t o simplify viewing and analysis. Because of the relatively high m a s s and i n e r t i a and low natural f r e quency of the galvanometers, a s t a g e of power amplification is usually required t o s e c u r e higher effective sensitivities. Recording light-beam oscillographs, because of the low m a s s of the galvanometer s y s t e m and t h e noninterference of the light beams, enable simultaneous recording of up t o fifty data channels on a 12-in. chart. Data up t o 1 kHz can be recorded with an 8-in. peak-to-peak amplitude and an 800:l dynamic range, and data up t o 13 kHz with 1-in. amplitude can be recorded.

57

TABLE I1 ANALOG RECORDING COMPARTSON

Dynamic Range Change)

I

16 in.

2 in.

B0/1

Precision of Amplitude Measurement Bandwidth Full-scale Reduced Amplitude Cost per Single Channel or Lowest Initial P r i c e Cost per Additional Data Channel (Not Time Shared) Maximum Channels per System (Not Time Shared) Notes

0. 25%

db (-30%)

0.01

70

0.01 %

DC to 1 Hz
~

30 Hz

DCkHz to 80 DC to 160 kHz

300 H Z

40

DC to 10Hz

DC to
100 Hz

to

MHz

Samples per Second

100,000 Samples Per Second

I
1

$1,000

$4,000

$2,000

$15, 000

$1, 700

$12,000

$12,000

$12,000

$40,000

$80

$200

$1,000 $1,000

$135

$15,000

$1,700

$800

$800

(In Lots of 25 Channels)

(In Lots of 50 Channels)

50

56

56

25-100

50-100

Time Shared Common with Multipojr Systems

Traces Traces Cannot May Cross Cross

The recording oscilloscope is an instrument which overcomes t h e basic electromechanical problems of the galvanometer by writing on photosensitive direct print paper with an electron beam in a cathode r a y tube. This enables the data bandwidth t o be extended t o 100 kHz with 3-in. peak-to-peak deflection and 1 MHz with 0.4-in. deflection of the beam. T h e limiting factor i n t h e latter c a s e is m o r e t h e sensitivity of t h e emulsion r a t h e r than the performance of the data electronics. An oscilloscope and c a m e r a provide t h e s a m e basic capabilities of the recording oscilloscope with t h e exception that the data t r a c e must be c o m p r e s s e d onto a piece of film m e a s u r i n g somewhere in t h e r a n g e of 3-112 by 4-112 in. One o r two channels may be recorded simultaneously. F o r a few data channels of t r a n s i e n t p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s requiring the frequency response of a scope-type i n s t r u ment, the oscilloscope - c a m e r a combination provides the most economic a1 recording s y s t e m . Magnetic tape is a slightly different f o r m of recording in that t h e r e is nothing visible t o the human s e n s e s on t h e recording medium. In a s e n s e , tape is an a c c u r a t e analog m e m o r y s y s t e m which s t o r e s data in t h e "live" f o r m enabling subsequent r e - c r e a t i o n of the t e s t f o r various types of analysis, s i m u l a tion and testing. Two basic types of analog recording a r e used with magnetic tape - Direct and FM. Direct recording offers a v e r y wide data bandwidth o r frequency r e s p o n s e and r a t h e r poor amplitude stability. The d i r e c t technique is most often used for t h e recording of information that is in the frequency domain where the relative amplitude inaccuracy is unimportant. Frequency modulation is t h e most widely used data instrumentation technique in that it is capable of recording wide band, DC t o 80 kHz, data with f 5 - p e r c e n t precision.

58

Conventional tape recording channel capabilities are 14 channels on 1-in. tape, although s p e c i a l s y s t e m s have been built with a s many as 56 data channels on wider tape. Analog-to-digital s y s t e m s fall into two m a j o r categories: (1) low speed s y s t e m s f o r m e a s u r i n g slowly varying o r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s such a s a r e found in continuous tunnels, and ( 2 ) high speed s y s t e m s used f o r t h e measurement of dynamic p r e s s u r e s o r highly transient, s h o r t duration p r e s s u r e pulses s u c h as a r e found in shock tunnels.
4.

CALIBRATION TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT

Most instruments used for measuring p r e s s u r e in modern wind tunnels r e q u i r e calibration. That is, a known p r e s s u r e o r p r e s s u r e s must be applied t o the transducing device in o r d e r t o determine the sensitivity of the p r e s s u r e measuring system. Whether t h e calibration p r e s s u r e s applied a r e static, dynamic, or both w i l l depend on the intended u s e of the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m . Most s t a t i c calibration standards simply m e a s u r e an unknown p r e s s u r e with a high degree of accuracy and reliability. Therefore, they a r e used t o determine the value of the p r e s s u r e applied t o the t r a n s d u c e r being c a l i brated but do not apply the p r e s s u r e . Methods of applying s t a t i c calibration p r e s s u r e s are numerous and r a t h e r obvious, and w i l l not be discussed except f o r a special case in Section 4. 1. 1. Application techniques for dynamic p r e s s u r e s a r e not s o obvious, and the sections covering t h e m will emphasize the application r a t h e r than t h e standard.

4. 1 Static Calibrations

It is quite common practice in calibrating wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m s t o u s e another p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m which has been carefully calibrated a s a calibration standard. This is usually done because of the tedium involved in using m o r e ideal p r e s s u r e standards. The ideal standard for making s t a t i c p r e s s u r e calibrations would be completely insensitive t o environmental changes, and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would be s t a b l e and calculable ( f r o m basic quantities such a s m a s s and length) t o a high degree of accuracy. No such instrument exists; however, s o m e a r e available which have predictable o r c o r r e c t a b l e sensitivities t o environmental changes. Notable among them a r e t h e McLeod gage, t h e liquid manometer, and a i r and oil deadweight t e s t e r s (piston gages). Bourdon tubes and other pneumatic-mechanical gages r e q u i r e a calibration against another standard, but a r e considered suitable f o r calibration of p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s . The p r e s s u r e ranges of t h e calibration standards to be discussed a r e shown graphically i n Fig. 77. T h e s e ranges a r e not intended t o be exact but t o show only the g e n e r a l range of applicability. The t e r m bourdon tube gage a s mentioned e a r l i e r includes not only bourdon tubes but a l s o bellows, diaphragms, and other pneumatic-mechanical gages. The McLeod gage is the only one of t h e five which is s t r i c t l y an absolute p r e s s u r e device. Liquid manometers, bourdon tube gages, and air deadweight t e s t e r s can be used a s absolute, differential, and gage p r e s s u r e instruments, depending on the r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e applied. The oil deadweight t e s t e r could conceivably be used the s a m e way; however, t h e authors do not know of them being s o used. They a r e generally gage p r e s s u r e instruments.

McLeod Gage

L i q u i d Manometer Bourdon Tube Gage

A i r Deadweight Tester
O i l Deadweight T e s t e r

I I

Fig. 77 P r e s s u r e Range of Some Calibration Standards

59

The e r r o r of t h e s e calibration s t a n d a r d s is shown graphically in Fig. 78. T h e values indicated a r e minimum e r r o r s given by various manufacturers and l a b o r a t o r i e s and somewhat l a r g e r e r r o r s can be expected unless g r e a t c a r e is taken in using the instruments. The ranges of e r r o r do not n e c e s s a r i l y coincide with t h e p r e s s u r e r a n g e s of Fig. 77. Frequently a manufacturer or laboratory w i l l not quote e r r o r s o v e r the full range of the instrument. T h e r e a d e r is probably familiar with t h e principle of operation of, t h e s e calibration instruments or s t a n d a r d s ; however, a brief explanation of each will be given f o r completeness.

Ref. McLeod Gages (CVC Model GM-100A) McLeod Gages (CVC Model GM-110) L i g h t F l u i d Manometers ( 0 . 0 0 1 - i n . Accuracy) Mercury Manometers (0.01-mm Accuracy) Mercury Manometers ( 0 . 0 0 1 - i n . Accuracy) Bourdon Tube Gages P n e u m a t i c Deadweight T e s t e r s O i l Deadweight T e s t e r s 132 132 129 129 129 129 129 129

c,

a
k

a , U

100T

a l

a
rn
1

c
.I4

f
k

0
10
rl

Fig. 78 Minimum Error of Some P r e s s u r e Calibration Standards 4.1.1 McLeod Gage

T h e McLeod gage (133) takes a known volume of gas at the unknown initial p r e s s u r e and c o m p r e s s e s it t o a much s m a l l e r volume and higher p r e s s u r e ; both are measurable. With t h e values of the final p r e s s u r e , the volumes, and Boyle's Law, the unknown p r e s s u r e can be computed:

'unknown

= - Vfinal 'initial

'final

A simplified diagram of a McLeod gage is shown in Fig. 79. M e r c u r y is generally used t o c o m p r e s s t h e s a m p l e of t h e gas and a l s o t o m e a s u r e the final p r e s s u r e .
With the nomenclature of t h e s y s t e m shown i n Fig. 79, the p r e s s u r e , p1, t o be m e a s u r e d is (133): (pl + h)bh = p l V where p1 and h are in m m Hg PI, mmHg = (28)

V - bh

bh2

(29)

T h e most common s o u r c e of e r r o r , other than those associated with the physical p a r a m e t e r s of the McLeod-gage, is condensible vapors in the s y s t e m . T h e most probable condensible is water vapor, which has a vapor p r e s s u r e of approximately 17 mmHg at room t e m p e r a t u r e . During operation of the McLeod gage a s t h e s a m p l e is being compressed, any water vapor present will be condensed, i f the

60

vapor p r e s s u r e is exceeded; thus, the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d w i l l be lower than the actual p r e s s u r e . T h i s problem can be avoided by heating t h e gage t o r a i s e the vapor p r e s s u r e above the final p r e s s u r e in the gage, or placing a d r y e r in the vacuum line between t h e gage and s y s t e m . Desiccant-type d r y e r s help alleviate the problem, but a cold t r a p at cryogenic t e m p e r a t u r e is a m o r e reliable solution.

T h e s e t u b e s have t h e same i n s i d e diameter t o avoid e r r o r s c a u s e d by c a p i l l a r y effects.-

S c a l e G r a d u a t e d to-/ Read p , U s u a l l y i n . m m Hg o r IJ. Hg

- onnected C
B e f o r e Sample Is S e a l e d Off and Compressed

t o Mercury R e s er v o i r

_.cfil

A f t e r Sample Is S e a l e d Off P r e s s u r e Is Ready f o r Reading

Fig. 79 McLeod Gage

p2

U-Tube Type

Well Type

Fig. 80 Commonly Used Liquid Manometer Types A novel device which d e s e r v e s comment h e r e is a c a l i b r a t o r which is the "inverse" of the McLeod gage. The calibrator, making u s e of Boyle's law, t r a n s f e r s known m a s s increments of the working gas into an initially evacuated v e s s e l of known volume to produce the known p r e s s u r e s t e p s . P r e s s u r e s t e p s of 10-3, 10-2, 10-1, or 1 mmHg can be produced by the version of the device described in (134 and 135). It works well at low p r e s s u r e s where other instruments may be either inaccurate or tedious t o use, or both. Accuracies on the o r d e r of one percent are attainable with this c a l i b r a t o r even at the 10e3-mmHg p r e s s u r e step. 4. 1. 2 Liquid Manometer T h e liquid manometer works on the principle that a given p r e s s u r e w i l l support a column of liquid of a c e r t a i n height: P2

P1 =

(30)

where g is the r a t i o of,acceleration t o local acceleration due t o gravity. A s shown in Fig. 80, the manometer can take on two basic f o r m s : t h e U-tube and the well type. A s previously stated, t h e manometer m e a s u r e s absolute, differential, o r gage p r e s s u r e , depending on the r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e applied. T h e r e are s e v e r a l factors which affect the accuracy in addition t o t h e obvious d i r e c t effects of

61

the accuracy of the column height and density. The specific weight pg is a function of both t e m p e r a t u r e and local acceleration of gravity. Capillary effect e r r o r s e n t e r directly into the p r e s s u r e e r r o r and add t o o r s u b t r a c t f r o m t h e p r e s s u r e indicated by the column height. Capillary e r r o r s are generally thought of a s wholly a function of t h e liquid s u r f a c e tension and the tube diameter. Contaminants on the tube walls and in t h e liquid can a l s o contribute to t h e s e e r r o r s . T e m p e r a t u r e effects on t h e column height m e a s u r i n g apparatus must a l s o be considered. Vertical alignment of the manometer is important a s well a s compressibility effects on t h e liquid density. Commercially available precision liquid manome t e r s have features t o compensate o r t o c o r r e c t for the significant e r r o r s f r o m various s o u r c e s . Reference ( 129) contains a good general compilation of commercially available liquid manometers and a discussion of s o u r c e s of manometer e r r o r s and the a c c u r a c i e s obtainable. Accuracy beyond the accepted maximum can be obtained using the procedures and apparatus described in (136). Light oil (specific gravity c 1) in combination with an optical s y s t e m t o detect t h e meniscus and a precision lead s c r e w arrangement to m e a s u r e t h e liquid column height have been used t o attain a c c u r a c i e s of approximately 1 /A Hg (136). 4.1.3 Bourdon Tube Gages

A s mentioned previously, the t e r m bourdon tube is used to include bourdon tubes a s well a s other pneumatic-mechanical devices. Bourdon tubes, bellows, diaphragms, o r other p r e s s u r e sensitive mechanisms a r e used to deflect a pointer. Two representative configurations a r e shown in Fig. 81.

Scale

Scale7

r
I
I

I
P o i n t er

L
b. Bellows

a.

Bourdon Tube

Fig. 81 Bourdon Tube Gages

Many of the better quality gages have sufficient mechanical amplification t o allow the pointer t o make s e v e r a l revolutions around the face of the instrument, thus increasing the resolution o r readability. Reference ( 129) d e s c r i b e s s e v e r a l commercially available bourdon tube gages suitable for calibration of wind tunnel p r e s s u r e measuring s y s t e m s .

4. 1 . 4 Deadweight T e s t e r s
Deadweight t e s t e r s o r piston gages u s e a known force and a r e a t o produce a known p r e s s u r e . The f o r c e is applied by placing weights on the v e r t i c a l piston-cylinder, thus the terminology "deadweight t e s t e r . ' I Both air ( o r other g a s e s ) and oil a r e used a s the working medium. The general arrangement of a deadweight t e s t e r is shown in Fig. 82. A i r t e s t e r s a r e available with an enclosure t o allow control of the r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e . The piston is rotated o r oscillated during operation t o reduce the e r r o r s Enclosure t o Control Reference Pressure 7 T-Weights ( R o t a t e d or O s c i l l a t e d t o Reduce e c t of F r i c t i o n )

P r e s s u r e t o ':Lift" P i s t o n is A p p l i e d t o P r e s s u r e System t o be C a l i b r a t e d Fig. 82 General Configuration of Deadweight T e s t e r ( A i r o r Oil)

62

caused by piston-cylinder friction. The m a s s of the weight, the local acceleration of gravity, and the effective piston diameter (usually the mean between the piston and cylinder d i a m e t e r s ) must be known t o determine t h e p r e s s u r e . In addition t o friction, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l other factors which cause e r r o r s in deadweight t e s t e r s : s o m e are unique t o low, s o m e t o high p r e s s u r e s , and s o m e t o both. Buoyancy of t h e weights and piston, and the head of the fluid when the t e s t e r and instrument being calibrated a r e not at the s a m e level are of importance at low p r e s s u r e s . Piston-cylinder distortions attributable t o p r e s s u r e and solidification of t h e oil must be considered at high p r e s s u r e s . Reference ( 1 2 9 ) should be consulted for details and manufacturers of deadweight t e s t e r s . 4. 2 Dynamic Calibrations 4. 2. 1 T i m e Domain Calibrators T i m e domain c a l i b r a t o r s a r e generally used for one o r m o r e of t h e t h r e e following purposes:
1. T o m e a s u r e the r i s e t i m e t o a s t e p function of t r a n s d u c e r o r t r a n s d u c e r plus connecting tubing and other installation volumes.

2. 3.

T o obtain time domain data on t r a n s d u c e r s or t r a n s d u c e r /acoustic mounting combinations which can be analyzed t o produce frequency response data (Section 4 . 2. 3). T o obtain t r a n s d u c e r calibrations when the s t a t i c and dynamic sensitivities are not equal or when the transducer-signal conditioning-recording s y s t e m does not respond t o s t a t i c loads, e. g. , piezoelectric t r a n s d u c e r s a n d / o r AC-coupled signal conditioning-recording equipment.

rise time.

T i m e domain p r e s s u r e calibrations almost exclusively produce s t e p functions with s o m e finite They a r e generally of two types:

. 1. Shock tubes which make u s e of a shock wave propagating through a fluid or reflecting f r o m a s u r f a c e t o produce a s t e p r i s e in p r e s s u r e . The rise t i m e of such a s t e p function is generally negligible a s compared t o the rise t i m e of even the fastest response t r a n s d u c e r . However, the duration of the s t e p is limited f r o m a few milliseconds t o s e v e r a l tens of milliseconds.
2.

F a s t opening devices, either valves o r r u p t u r e diaphragms, which apply a new p r e s s u r e t o s o m e initial condition on the t r a n s d u c e r . The fastest of t h e s e devices have r i s e t i m e s on t h e o r d e r of a few hundred microseconds. The duration of the s t e p easily can be made infinite.

The accuracy of t h e s t e p s i z e for both types of c a l i b r a t o r s can .be known and is limited mostly by t h e amount of c a r e the experimenter d e s i r e s t o e x e r c i s e in measuring initial conditions. T h e r e a r e two other t i m e domain c a l i b r a t o r s which warrant attention but do not produce s t e p functions. They produce time-varying pulses. T h e s e devices a r e generally used in conjunction with a r e f e r e n c e t r a n s d u c e r which is assumed t o m e a s u r e t h e t r u e p r e s s u r e pulse. T h e s e devices a r e : 1. Explosive devices which make use of t h e p r e s s u r e r i s e f r o m t h e burning of an explosive c h a r g e in a confined chamber. and
2.

Drop t e s t c a l i b r a t o r s which d r o p a weight on a plunger in a cylinder which is connected t o a hydraulic system. The impact of the weight on the plunger produces a pulse in a hydraulic system. The t r a n s d u c e r t o be dynamically calibrated and a r e f e r e n c e t r a n s d u c e r a r e connected to the hydraulic s y s t e m .

A s u m m a r y of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o m e of t h e s e devices is given in Table 111, and a brief description is given in t h e following subsections.
4.2. 1.1 Shock Tubes A brief explanation of a shock tube and i t s operation will be given h e r e f o r those r e a d e r s who a r e not familiar with them. A s i m p l e shock tube a s would be used t o calibrate p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s and t r a n s d u c e r installations would have two chambers with different p r e s s u r e s s e p a r a t e d by a diaphragm ( F i g . 83). The chamber containing the high p r e s s u r e of the two might be simply t h e r o o m in which t h e shock tube is located. When the diaphragm is ruptured, either by a plunger or by o v e r p r e s s u r e , a shock wave propagates down t h e driven tube a s indicated by the line between regions @ and @ on t h e wave diagram of Fig. 83. A t r a n s d u c e r located on the wall of t h e driven tube would s e e a p r e s s u r e rise of p2 - p1 = Ap2, a s the shock wave passed. One mounted on the end wall would s e e a somewhat higher p r e s s u r e , p5 - p i = Ap5, a s the shock wave reflected f r o m the tube end wall. T h e s e p r e s s u r e s for a i r in the driven tube can be computed from the following equations (143).

63

T h e equations a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o an ideal gas with a y = 1.4. Data for imperfect a i r a t Ms = 1 t o 10 a r e given in (146). A s is obvious f r o m Eqs. (31) and (32), all that is required to determine the Ap's in a i r is p1 and Ms. The t e r m p1 can be m e a s u r e d with any one of many precision manometers, and Ms can be determined f r o m the shock velocity, U, and speed of sound, al. in the 1 region. ,

T h e shock velocity (U,) can be computed f r o m t h e t i m e required for the shock wave t o t r a v e l between two points a known distance a p a r t . Thin-film h e a t - t r a n s f e r gages a r e probably the best shock detectors f o r an instrumentation shock tube, although f a s t - r i s e - t i m e p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s may a l s o be used. T h e thin-film gages a r e fast-response s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e t r a n s d u c e r s and thus w i l l s e n s e a t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e caused by the i n c r e a s e d h e a t - t r a n s f e r r a t e behind t h e shock wave. They can be constructed by painting o r depositing a platinum o r other metallic film on an insulation s u c h a s glass o r quartz (147 and 148). The t i m e m e a s u r e m e n t s can be made with a high speed counter o r by comparing t h e t i m e with a precision t i m e - m a r k generator by displaying both on an oscilloscope. Considerable comparison accuracy can be had by using an oscilloscope with a r a s t e r t r a c e display, such a s a Tektronix Model 5358 with the r a s t e r modification.

Driver

D r i v e n Tube Diaphragm

Transducer Loc a t i o n s

Fig. 83 Shock Tube and Wave Diagram

64

Length Driver 1 7 ft 12 f t Driven Tube 15 ft Inside Dimensions

1. 375 s q in.

Gas Driver Air He Air He o r N2 He or Air Driven Tube Air

Air

Maximum Driver Pressure 6OOpsi >600 p s i

1 atm

Ap

Range
10 t o 410 p s i

Ref.

Facility

137

JPL
NBS Lockheed Georgia BRL VKF/AEDC

2
3
4

8 ft
15 ft
6 ft -8 ft
~

3 s q in. 3-in. ID 2-in. ID 2.5-in. ID

6 to 138 1000 p s i

--1 ft 2 ft
~~

Air Air

--32 1050
1 to 100

--139

1400 p s i -100 p s i

Air

---

Rise Time

I
I

Range Ap
< l om m H g >10 m m Hg

I I
Ref. 140
141

Facility

Poppet-Valve, Solenoid Operated Poppet-Valve, Solenoid Operated

~~

3 msec 1 msec 0.5 m s e c

NPL RAE

5 to
100 m m Hg

I T P o p p e t -Valve, T
9

Drop-Weight Operated

120psec -1 m s e c 25 p s e c for 23,500 p s i

--1 mm Hg t o 25 p s i 50,000 p s i

142

NOL Lockheed Georgia . NBS

Poppet-Valve, Drop-Weight Operated Poppet-Valve, Liqdid T e s t Medium

---

I 1
10

I
I

1 I
143
139

12

Solenoid Valve (Make and Model Unknown) Solenoid Valve (Hoke No. B90A320R. 2-Way) Solenoid Valve (Make and Model Unknown) B u r s t Diaphragm B u r s t Diaphragm Burst Diaphragm (Liquid Medium) B u r s t Diaphragm

---

I 1
13
14

Max. 2000 psi

-20 m s e c

Max' 2ooo 'psi

2 to 2000 p s i u p to 1 psi u p to 200 p s i 60 psi

1 ___ 1
138

BRL VKF NBS LockheedGeorgia

-1 m s e c

15 16

<O. 5 m s e c
0 . 2 5 msec 0.013 m s e c

--144 145 51

JPL
NOL VKFlAEDC

17

18

--NON -STEP FUNCTION DEVICE

Approximate Shape Pulse Duration
10 m s e c

---

Range Up t o
50,000

Ref. 139

Facility BRL

19

Drop Test Calibrator (Hydraulic)

65

F i g u r e 84 is a nomograph (137) which can be used to s e t the initial condition t o obtain d e s i r e d Ap's f o r a i r - t o - a i r operation, i. e . , a i r a s the gas for both c h a m b e r s . Using helium a s a d r i v e r gas w i l l give higher shock wave speeds and thus higher p r e s s u r e on the s i d e and end walls of the driven tube.

olumn G Ap5

Column F

Column E Ap2 - 200

Column D Column C Column B Column A

- 160

P1

10

4
-0.16
-0.2

-1 0 0 0
800
600

p4

- 100 - 90 4 -0.5 T0.4

20

0.3

400

80
Oa5

50 60 70 80

200

- 0.7 - 0.6

0 . 6 -100

- 90.

-0.6 0.7 - 0.8 0.9

200
-0.1

300

40

400

- 30

L500

20

100 80 60

40

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of Jet P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , JPL R e p o r t N o . 2 0 - 8 7 ) Fig. 84 Nomographs Relating Chambey P r e s s u r e s . Shock Strengths, and P r e s s u r e Steps The duration of t h e p r e s s u r e s t e p is a function of many factors, e. g . , d r i v e r length, driven tube length, and shock s t r e n g t h ( p l / p z ) . F i g u r e s 85 and 86 (137) a r e helpful in determining p r e s s u r e s t e p duration. T h e p r e s s u r e s t e p duration on the end wall can be extended considerably by operating the shock tube in a tailored condition. When tailored, t h e reflected shock wave is transmitted through the contact surface and not reflected back t o the end wall. This happens when a 3 = a2 and y3 = y2. For H e / a i r , both at 300K, this is achieved f o r Ms 3.6 and f o r H 2 / a i r , Ms 6. The r i s e t i m e of the p r e s s u r e s t e p generated by a shock tube is << l u s e c f o r the operating condition usually used. However, the apparent rise t i m e t o a t r a n s d u c e r mounted in the s i d e wall is equal to T r a n s d u c e r Diameter Shock Velocity

At =

( 34)

I t can be readily s e e n that for low Ms and p r a c t i c a l t r a n s d u c e r d i a m e t e r s the r i s e t i m e may be s e v e r a l microseconds.

66

-1

1 x/L1

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of Jet P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , JPL R e p o r t N o . 2 0 - 8 7 ) Fig. 85 Time-Distance Plot of Waves in Any Shock Tube for 5 = 0.65 Both plastics and metals a r e used for diaphragms. A s previously mentioned, they a r e ruptured either by o v e r p r e s s u r e o r by a plunger o r knife. The AEDC/VKF 2-1/2-in. -ID shock tube (NO.5, Table 111) u s e s the o v e r p r e s s u r e technique on multiple thicknesses of DuPont Mylar@ polyester. T h i s particular diaphragm arrangement has a r,upture p r e s s u r e of approximately 20 psid (Ap a c r o s s diaphragm) p e r 0.001-in. thickness of Mylar@. , F o r m o r e complete information on theory and use of shock tubes, the r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d to (149), (150), and (151). ,
,

4. 2. 1. 2 F a s t Opening Devices

A number of fast opening devices have been reported in the l i t e r a t u r e (51 and 138 through 145). By s o m e scheme, all apply a new p r e s s u r e level t o t h e initial s t a t i c p r e s s u r e on the t r a n s d u c e r . The fastest of t h e s e devices u s e s either a burst diaphragm o r a fast opening valve 'constructed for minimum volume between the diaphragm o r valve and the transducer. The s l o w e r ones use commercailly available s o l e noid valves. I Typical poppet-valve c a l i b r a t o r s a r e shown in Figs. 87 (140) and 88 (142). Others a r e described i n (140), (141), (142), and (143). A l l use either a solenoid or a d r o p weight t o open the valve. It can be s e e n in the figures that the devices produce a s t e p by venting the volume to which the t r a n s d u c e r is connected to a much l a r g e r volume at a different p r e s s u r e . The p r e s s u r e in the l a r g e r volume is the final p r e s s u r e on the t r a n s d u c e r .

67

18
I

S i d e Gage

16
0.65, 1 \

End Gage 4 xb1 -0.65, 2

-0.45, 3 0.65, 3

14

12

al

10

II]
rl A

4 *I4
U

&

,.45, i 0
4

1
0

1
2
, L1 6 8

*-I
12

10

(ft)

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of Jet F V o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , JPL R e p o r t N o . 20-87) Fig. 86 Chamber Lengths v s C o n s t a n t - P r e s s u r e Intervals At Solenoid valve c a l i b r a t o r s are basically the s a m e a s the poppet-valve devices but u s e a c o m m e r c i a l valve. Thus, the operation is not a s fast, and t h e volume is usually l a r g e r a s compared to t h e poppetvalve, and thus the s t e p is generally s l o w e r t o rise t o its final value. Typical solenoid valve c a l i b r a t o r schematics a r e shown in Fig. 89. T h e burst-diaphragm devices apply a s t e p p r e s s u r e in the s a m e manner a s t h e poppet-valve and solenoid valve devices but r u p t u r e a diaphragm r a t h e r than open a valve. The lower p r e s s u r e devices usually u s e a tightly s t r e t c h e d thin rubber diaphragm which w i l l r u p t u r e by its p r e s t r e s s when punctured r a t h e r than by the p r e s s u r e differential a c r o s s it, a s i n the c a s e of the higher p r e s s u r e devices. T h e higher p r e s s u r e devices u s e an acetate, M y l a r @ , or thin m e t a l diaphragm. Typical burst-diaphragm devices are shown in Figs. 90 (51) and 9 1 (145). The NOL device shown in Fig. 91 u s e s oil between t h e diaphragm and the transducer, which explains its fast rise t i m e a s compared t o pneumatic devices as indicated in Table 111, item 17. 4. 2. 1. 3 Drop T e s t Calibrator The d r o p test c a l i b r a t o r ( F i g . 92) reported by BRL (139) is s o named because a weight is dropped on a piston in a hydraulic.unit, thus producing a pulse p r e s s u r e input to t r a n s d u c e r s connected t o the unit. Even though the c a l i b r a t o r does not produce a s t e p p r e s s u r e input, it is very useful for comparing

68
0-20 mmHg W and T D i a l Gage

E2

inch

Scale 1:l-5

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , NPL Aero R e p o r t No. 1213) Fig. 87 P r e s s u r e P u l s e Generator (Sectioned View)

Conax C o n n e c t o r P o r t "C" (To Amb i e n t P r e s s u r e Supply and Monitor P r e s s u r e Gage S u p p o r t Block and Housing Push-Pull Valve P o p p e t Valve P o r t A (To High P r e s s u r e S u p p l y ) Valve Spring P i t o t P r e s s u r e Gage Undergoing C a l i b r a t i o n Gage L o c k i n g Nut

(To C a l i b r a t i o n P r e s s u r e Monitor)
Main P r e s s u r e R e s e r v o i r Impact Weight Guide

Impact Weight

System S u p p o r t S t a n d Impact P l a t e Assembly

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y O f U. Naval Ordnance L a b o r a t o r y , NOLTR 63-143)

s.

Fig. 88 NPL Semi-Dynamic P r e s s u r e Calibrator

69

Pressure Solenoid Valve System Solenoid Valve System Transducer t o be Calibrated

a n d Connec t i n g Line) Vacuum

I
I
d L

t
'!-Transducer To Be Calibrated Vacuum Pump

t?
b.

Pressure Gage

Press u re Regu 1 a tor

P r e s s u r e Supply

a.

Increasing Pressure Step

Decreasing Pressure Step

Fig. 89 Typical Solenoid Valve C a l i b r a t o r S c h e m a t i c s

Carrier Amplifier

Oscilloscope

Vacuum T u b i n g

P r e s s u r e Transducer

Chamber

(From A r n o l d E n g i n e e r i n g Development C e n t e r AEDC-TDR-63-135) F i g . 9 0 Low P r e s s u r e Step-Function G e n e r a t o r

IO

one o r m o r e t r a n s d u c e r s with a r e f e r e n c e t r a n s d u c e r of known dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Its outstanding advantage is the relative e a s e and safety with which pulses of up t o 50,000 p s i can be p r o duced a s compared with shock tubes and valve c a l i b r a t o r s . F i g u r e 9 3 shows a typical oscillog r a m of the output signals f r o m two p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s exposed to a p r e s s u r e pulse from this c a l i b r a t o r . The t r a n s d u c e r s are gaged -diaphragm strain-gage t r a n s d u c e r s . One is flush mounted, the other is r e c e s s e d , and the void is filled with silicon potting compound. The comparison is t o evaluate the effect of r e c e s s i n g and filling t h e void with potting.

Puncturing Knife

Vent

por7

/
Weight Winch

Diaphragm

Port

( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of U. S. Naval Ordnance L a b o r a t o r y , NOLTR 62-218) Fig. 9 1 Calibrating Block

Guide Tube

4. 2. 2 Frequency Domain Calibrators Frequency domain c a l i b r a t o r s a r e used t o dynamically calibrate p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s when the amplitude and phase c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s a function of frequency a r e desired. For the most easily interpretable data, the c a l i b r a tion should produce a pure sinusoidal p r e s s u r e variation of known amplitude and phase a t t h e inlet of the device t o be calibrated. Unfortunately, most of the commonly used c a l i b r a t o r s generally produce badly distorted wavef o r m s , especially a t high frequencies and high peak-to-peak p r e s s u r e s . If the peak-to-peak p r e s s u r e is m o r e than a few p e r cent of the ambient p r e s s u r e , then distortion is almost unavoidable because of the inherent nonlinearity of the p r o c e s s . Futherm o r e , with a few exceptions ( e . g . , reciprocity c a l i b r a t o r s , elec t r o s t a t i c actuators, and c e r t a i n pistonphones) all the commonly used frequency domain c a l i b r a t o r s require a reference transducer . with known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to determine the input p r e s s u r e t o the t r a n s d u c e r being calibrated. In other words, the c a l i b r a t o r only furnishes a mechanism to

Vent

i b r a t o r Head

Transducers

V
( F i g u r e Reproduced t h r o u g h C o u r t e s y of B a l l i s t i c s R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , Memorandum R e p o r t No. 1843) Fig. 9 2 Drop T e s t Calibrator

71

t r a n s f e r the calibration from one transducer t o another. A representative l i s t of calibrators and calibration techniques in common use a r e listed in Table IV. A brief discussion of these follows. The various frequency domain calibrators are divided into four major categories: ( 1) resonant cavities, ( 2 ) nonresonant cavities, (3) valve calibrators, and (4) microphone calibrators. Some of the calibrators,might easily fall into m o r e than one category, but for convenience they w i l l only be placed in what s e e m s to be the most appropriate one.

Flush-Mounted Transducer (296 psi/cm) Recessed Transducer with S i l i c o n Potting ( 3 7 5 psi/cm)

Fig. 93 Transducer Signals from Drop T e s t Calibrator TABLE IV FREQUENCY DOMAIN CALIBRATORS
~ ~~ ~~~

Type Rotating-Valve Generator Tuned Cavity Tuned Cavity (Hydraulic) Pistonphone

Mean

Pressure Dynamic

Wave Form

Frequency Range

Ref. No.

- S i r e n Driven
Piston Driven

I I
500 p s i

10 t o 15 p s i

10 q I Square - - Hz L F

I
1 atm

30 p s i

Sawtooth Sinusoid Sinusoid

50 to 1000 Hz
l o to 1000 Hz

flOO p s i

Motor Driven

Princeton Sinusoidal P r e s s u r e Generator Pistonphone Horn Driven Horn Driven Circular Resonant Chamber Excited with Rotating J e t Pistonphone - Nonresonant Cam-Type Pulsator Rotating Disk (Slotted)
~ ~~~~

I I

250 p s i

I 1

f 1 0 in. H20 Peak-to- Peak 130 to 10 p s i Peak-to-Peak 1 to 3 psi

to 70 Hz
10 kHz

I
1

Sinusoid

1 I 1

143 143 152 153 154

Motor Driven

Sinusoid
Sinusoid Sinusoid Sinusoid

to 200 Hz
10 kHz

I I

to
psi

125

140 db

1 atm 5,000 p s i

100 kHz
up to 700 Hz

2.5 p s i

155 155 156 157

4o psi

up to 2, 000 Hz
Sinusoid Square Sinusoid Sinusoid up to 5 kHz

f 3 psi
1 atm 1 in. Hg

--10 kHz 85 Hz 5to

20to

Horn Driven Pistonphone - Model Airplane Engine

1 1

atm

atm

I 1

140 t o 150db
170 to 180 db

IAEDC IAEDC

72

4. 2. 2. 1 Resonant Cavities

A resonant cavity consists of a closed volume t o which the t r a n s d u c e r s a r e flush mounted o r connected and s o m e means of exciting the cavity in one of its resonant modes, usually its lowest frequency one. A s mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e s e devices produce practically pure sinusoidal p r e s s u r e variations only under s p e c i a l conditions, i. e., low peak-to-peak p r e s s u r e s and low frequencies, and tend to produce sawtooth wave f o r m s at l a r g e amplitudes and high frequencies.
Resonant cavities can be driven o r excited by a number of s c h e m e s . Among the m o r e popular ones a r e t h e s i r e n driven ( F i g . 94a) and the piston driven ( F i g . ,94b). A m o r e novel s c h e m e is a rotating gas jet shown in Fig. 94c. The f i r s t two operate in a half-wave r e s o n a t o r mode. Thus, t h e s i r e n speed and the piston frequency must be matched t o the r e s o n a t o r length and the speed-of-sound of the gas filling the resonator. Since the wave form of t h e s e c a l i b r a t o r s is not a pure sinusoid under many conditions of i n t e r e s t , it may be n e c e s s a r y t o r e s o r t to a F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m analysis ( s i m i l a r t o that in Section 4 . 2 . 3) t o a r r i v e at the d e s i r e d amplitude and phase data on the t r a n s d u c e r being calibrated. A l s o , f o r the calibration t o be valid, the r e f e r e n c e and t e s t t r a n s d u c e r s must be exposed t o the s a m e p r e s s u r e signal. Trouble may be encountered i f t h e t r a n s d u c e r exposure a r e a s at t h e end of the r e s o n a t o r a r e not equal in a r e a and shape a n d / o r i f t h e a r e a s a r e not s y m m e t r i c a l to the r e s o n a t o r p r e s s u r e field. Mounting s y m m e t r y , however, does not guarantee equal p r e s s u r e s because the p r e s s u r e distribution in the r e s o n a t o r may not be s y m m e t r i c a l . Interchanging t r a n s d u c e r positions w i l l indicate such a problem i f it does exist. Compressed Air

I
Transducer -Reference Transducer
-Test

Rotating P e r f o r a t e d Disk a. S i r e n Driven

f
P i s tuosn i Motion S n o dal

F r e e P i s t o n f o r Double Piston Configuration

Tb.

-Test Transducer +Reference Transducer

Resonant C a v i t y

(Horn D r i v e r , P i e z o e l e c t r i c S t a c k , E l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y D r i v e n Diaphragm C r a n k s h a f t o r Cam D r i v e r ) P i s t o n Driven

f
*

Resonant C a v i t y

Pressure Transducer

(0.032-in.-diam

Hole)

' in

f Compressed
Air

c.

R o t a t i n g A i r J e t D r i v e n (Cutaway View) Fig. 9 4 Resonant Cavity Excitation Schemes

73

T h e novel r e s o n a t o r of Fig. 94c (155) consists of a rotating jet of g a s a t 62.5 psia which excites t h e cavity in t h e t r a n s v e r s e mode producing a nearly sinusoidal peak-to-peak p r e s s u r e of 2 . 5 p s i at frequencies l e s s than 700 Hz. A cavity of different radius is required for each d i s c r e t e frequency d e s i r e d . Longitudinal resonance is s u p p r e s s e d by the s h o r t length of the cavity. 4. 2. 2. 2 Non-Resonant Cavities Nonresonant cavities o p e r a t e on t h e principle of modulating t h e flow through a chamber o r compressing a fixed m a s s of gas. A s indicated in Figs. 95a, b, and c, the flow modulation can e i t h e r be a t the inlet o r at the outlet. F o r the cavities in F i g s . 95a and b, the c i r c u l a r perforations will produce n e a r sinusoid p r e s s u r e s while a slotted disk w i l l produce a s q u a r e wave (157). A sinusoidal c a m in Fig. 95c produces a n e a r sinusoid wave shape. The piston-driven cavity, shown in Fig. 95d, is capable of good wave shapes when the peak-to-peak p r e s s u r e is only a few percent o r l e s s of the chamber s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . This will usually be the c a s e with all the different d r i v e r s c h e m e s except c r a n k shaft and c a m mechanisms with l a r g e s t r o k e s . If t h e change-in-volume t i m e history is known ( e i t h e r inherently from t h e physical arrangement o r m e a s u r e d ) , then the p r e s s u r e wave f o r m and amplitude can be calculated, thus giving an absolute calibration. In general, however, a r e f e r e n c e t r a n s d u c e r of known response is required for nonresonant cavities just a s with the resonant cavities. Here, as with the resonant cavities, c a r e must be exercised t o make s u r e both t r a n s d u c e r s a r e exposed to the s a m e p r e s s u r e . The upper frequency l i m i t s a r e determined by the onset of wave motion in the cavities. Small cavities w i l l thus produce higher f r e quency l i m i t s a s w i l l an anechoic configuration
4. 2. 2. 3 Valve C a l i b r a t o r s A relatively s i m p l e low frequency s q u a r e wave c a l i b r a t o r (143) can be built a s shown in Fig. 96. T h e high frequency limit is s e t by e i t h e r the practical upper limit of the shaft speed o r resonances in the valve passages. The rotating valve could be replaced with a two-way solenoid valve controlled by a low frequency oscillator. It would s e e m that one of the solenoid valve s t e p function c a l i b r a t o r s ( F i g . 89) periodically actuated would s e r v e the purpose.

r Test
Compressed Gas

Transducer

Lr

Outlet Cavity

Rot a t i n g Perforated Disk a.

Ref. Transducer

P e r f o r a t e d Disk, I n l e t Modulator

Compressed Gas 1

-A

T e s t Transducer

rl-m-

Outlet

Ref. Transducer
b.

Rotating Perforated Disk

P e r f o r a t e d D i s k , O u t l e t Modulator

/
Compressed Ref

, T e s t Transducer -

Rot a t i n g Cam

Transducer Cavity

c.

S i n u s o i d a l Cam, O u t l e t M o d u l a t o r

4. 2. 2. 4 Reciprocity Calibrator T h e reciprocity calibration technique is based on measuring the product of t h e s e n s i tivities of two microphones and then m e a s uring the r a t i o of the two sensitivities. T h i s can be accomplished with t h r e e microphones, two of which must be r e v e r s i b l e ; the other, the one being calibrated, need not be r e v e r s ible (158). T h e product (S1S2) and the r a t i o of the sensitivities a r e m e a s u r e d using

,Sinusoidal t P i s t o n Motion c (Horn D r i v e r , Piezoelectric Stack. Electrostatically D r i v e n Diaphragm, Crank S h a f t or Cam Driver)
d.

P i s ton

Transducer Cavi t y

(2)

the apparatus shown in Fig. 97. Microphone 1 must be r e v e r s i b l e ; i. e . , it can act a s a r e c e i v e r o r a s a t r a n s m i t t e r . It is used a s a

P i s t o n Driven

Fig. 95 Nonresonant Cavity Excitation Schemes

74

t r a n s m i t t e r to produce the sinusoidal p r e s s u r e variation i n t h e coupling cavity of known volume (VI, r a t i o of specific heats ( 7 ) . and ambient p r e s s u r e (pa). Microphone 2 is the one t o be calibrated. It is shown in (159) that

The value of the constant K depends on t h e s y s t e m of units being used. F o r the cgs s y s t e m , K = lo7. By replacing Microphone 1 with a third one which is r e v e r s i b l e and alternately measuring the output signal from Microphones 1 and 2 using Microphone 3 a s a t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e r a t i o of the sensitivities can be obtained.

Then both sensitivities can be derived, although S2 is the one of p r i m a r y interest.

Accumulator Volume ( > > V a l v e , C o n n e c t i n g L i n e s , and T r a n s d u c e r Volume) P r e s s u r e Source

Manometer

S h a f t P o s i t i o n , deg T r a n s duc er

90

180

270

360

Fig. 96 Rotating Valve Square Wave Generator Electrical Insulator P o l a r i z i n g Voltage Supply

(High I n p u t Impedance )

C >> C a p a c i t a n c e o f Microphone No. 1

Fig. 9 7 Schematic for Reciprocity Calibration of Capacitance Microphones The frequency of applicability is limited at the high end of the s p e c t r u m by onset of wave motion in the chamber. The limit can be extended by the u s e of helium o r hydrogen r a t h e r than a i r . One manuf a c t u r e r (159) of a reciprocity c a l i b r a t o r s t a t e s an upper frequency limit of 6 0 kHz for a 0. 3-cm3 coupler filled with hydrogen. T h e accuracy of the reciprocity calibration is very good. One experimenter (160) r e p o r t s f l db a c a l i b r a t o r s t a t e s fO. 05 db ( - 0 . 6 percent) when g r e a t care is taken.

( - 1 2 percent) and a manufacturer (159) of

75

Information on the p r e s s u r e range of the reciprocity c a l i b r a t o r s is lacking in the l i t e r a t u r e . Howe v e r , it is obvious when t h e principle of operation is considered that the peak-to-peak p r e s s u r e can only be a s m a l l percentage of the ambient p r e s s u r e in the coupler. 4. 2. 2. 5 E l e c t r o s t a t i c Actuator Metal diaphragm microphones can be calibrated t o an accuracy of around 2 db ( - 25 percent) with an electrostatic actuator (158). T h e actuator is a slotted plate which fits close to the microphone diaphragm. A sinusoidal potential is applied between the diaphragm and the plate. Thus, a spatially uniform e l e c t r o s t a t i c f o r c e is applied t o t h e diaphragm in lieu of a uniform " p r e s s u r e " force. The poor accuracy r e s u l t s f r o m the acoustic coupling between the actuator plate and the diaphragm. T h i s coupling effect is reduced by the slots, but the s l o t s in turn complicate the calculation of the electrostatic force on the diaphragm. T h e electrostatic actuator c a l i b r a t o r has the advantage of working well at high frequencies where acoustic c a l i b r a t o r s a r e troubled with wave motion in the coupler.
4. 2. 3 Frequency Domain Data f r o m T i m e Domain Calibrations

Because of the difficulty in performing frequency domain calibrations, it is s o m e t i m e s d e s i r a b l e to physically calibrate in the t i m e domain and analyze the data t o produce a frequency domain calibration (amplitude and phase data). T h e r e a r e at l e a s t two ways this can be accomplished: ( 1) by the use of F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s of t h e t i m e domain data, this gives both amplitude and phase data and ( 2 ) by the u s e of an analog s p e c t r u m analyzer which, in general, only produces amplitude data ( 161). It is convenient t o u s e a s t e p function a s the t i m e domain input p r e s s u r e function because it can be easily produced with a shock tube t o such a degree of refinement that it is not n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e it with a r e f e r e n c e t r a n s ducer. I t can be assumed f o r most situations t o be a perfect step. T h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m method involves taking the r a t i o of the t r a n s f o r m of the p r e s s u r e s y s t e m output voltage funct.ion. e(t), t o the t r a n s f o r m of t h e input p r e s s u r e function p(t).

T h e t e r m H(w) is complex and t h e r e f o r e contains both amplitude and phase information. T h e t r a n s f o r m s are most conveniently taken on a digital computer. Therefore, the output voltage function must be digitized by s o m e method. Because of the difficulty of integrating over infinite l i m i t s with a digital computer, a s q u a r e wave output function is synthesized f r o m the actual s t e p response function. This is done by superimposing a negative of the s t e p response on itself after the transient has died out. This is shown in Fig. 98. The synthesis is justified on the assumption that the p r e s s u r e s y s t e m is l i n e a r . Using the s q u a r e wave function of period TD, the frequency domain response o r t r a n s f e r function is

T h e denominator of the above expression is the F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m of a s q u a r e wave of period TD. The t r a n s f e r function is computed only at the points where the denominator of the above equation maximizes, i. e., a t odd integer multipliers of the fundamental s q u a r e wave frequency 2 7 r / T ~ . By adjusting the period of the synthesized wave, TD. within the limits imposed by the durations of the transient and t h e steadys t a t e portions of the s t e p response, the analysis is not limited t o a single fundamental frequency plus i t s odd harmonics. E r r o r s associated with the digital F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m method are described in (162). T h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s can a l s o be calculated with an electronic analog computer (163).

O r i g i n a l Input Function, p ( t ) O r i g i n a l Output Function, e ( t ) N e g a t i v e of O r i g i n a l I n p u t F u n c t i o n , p ( t )

4

4
AP
I

N e g a t i v e of O r i g i n a l O u t p u t F u n c t i o n , e ( t )

Time

TD

Fig. 9 8 Synthesized Square Wave Function

76

T h e s p e c t r u m analyzer method is probably most valuable f o r locating resonant frequencies in a p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m . The output function is r e c o r d e d on magnetic t a p e o r other suitable r e c o r d / r e p r o d u c e s y s t e m and then played back repetitively through a s p e c t r u m analyzer. RE FE RENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
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U. S. Standard Atmosphere. 1962.

U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C . , December

A m e s R e s e a r c h Staff. "Equations, Tables, and C h a r t s for Compressible Flow. 'I A m e s Aeronautical Laboratory, Moffett Field, California, Report No. 1135. Edenfield, E . E . , Jr. "Contoured Nozzle Design for Hotshot Wind Tunnels. 'I M a s t e r ' s Thesis, University of T e n n e s s e e Space Institute, Tullahoma, Tennessee, March 1967. Harvey, Glenn F. (Editor) "Transducer Compendium. I ' Instrument Society of A m e r i c a . IFI/Plenum, New York-Washington, 1969. (Second Edition) Neubert, Hermann K. P. Instrument T r a n s d u c e r s . Dummer, G. W. A. Variable R e s i s t o r s . Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1963.

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Norton, H a r r y N. Handbook of T r a n s d u c e r s for Electronic Measuring S y s t e m s . Prentice-Hall, I n c . , Englewood Cliffs, New J e r s e y , 1969. Haringy, J . A. 1957. "Design of Corrugated Diaphragms. 'I T r a n s . Am. Soc. of Mech. E n g r s . , Vol. 79, B r i t i s h Aerospace R e s e a r c h Council,

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Griffith, A. A. "The Theory of P r e s s u r e Capsules. R & M No. 1136, 1928. Pfeifler, A. ments.

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Goitein, K. "A Dimensional Analysis Approach t o Bourdon Tube Design. P r a c t i c e , Vol. 6, 1952. Giacobbe, J. B. and Bounds, A. M. J. Metals, Vol. 4, 1952. P e r r y , C. C. and L i s s n e r , H. R. 1955.

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"

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'I

Ledford, R. L. and Smotherman, W. E. "Miniature T r a n s d u c e r s for P r e s s u r e and Heat T r a n s f e r Rate Measurements in Hypervelocity Wind Tunnels. ' I F o u r t h Annual Instrument Society of A m e r i c a Measurement and Control Instrumentation Division Symposium, Tampa, Florida, April 1964. Schaevitz, H. "The L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r . 'I Society f o r Experimental S t r e s s Analysis, Vol. IV, No. 46, 1946. "Notes on L i n e a r Variable Differential T r a n s f o r m e r . J e r s e y , Bulletin AA-lA, 1955. Schaevitz Engineering, P e k s a u k e n , New
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