Photodiode structures & materials

- a summary of the different types of photodiode structure and photodiode materials that are used for PN, PIN,avalanche and Schottky photodiodes..

Photodiode tutorial includes: Photodiode basics PIN / PN photodiode Avalanche photodiode Schottky photodiode Photodiode structures & materials Photodiode operation & theory See also:Diode types Phototransistor Although ordinary diodes exhibit photodiode properties, it is necessary to adopt the right photodiode structure and to use the right photodiode materials to ensure that the performance is optimised. A variety of different photodiode structures are used and these vary according to the type of photodiode in question. Avalanche photodiode structures are different to those used for PIN or PN photodiodes. The Schottky photodiode structure is again different. However all the photodiode structures are designed to optimise the light collection and conversion

PIN / PN photodiode structure

Although an ordinary p-n junction can be used as the basis of a photodiode, the p-i-n junction provides a far more satisfactory photodiode structure. In the photodiode fabrication process a thick intrinsic layer is inserted between the p-type and n-type layers. The middle layer may be either completely instrinsic, or very lightly doped to make it and n- layer. In some instances it

may be grown as an epitaxial layer onto the substrate, or alternatively it may be contained within the substrate itself.

PIN photodiode structure One of the main requirements of the photodiode is to ensure that the maximum amount of light reaches the intrinsic layer. One of the most efficient ways of achieving this is to place the electrical contacts at the side of the device as shown. This enables the maximum amount of light to reach the active area. It is found that as the substrate is heavily doped, there is very little loss of light due to the fact that this is not the active area. As light is mostly absorbed within a certain distance, the thickness of the intrinsic layer is normally made to match this. Any increase in thickness over this will tend to reduce the speed of operation - a vital factor in many applications, and it will not improve the efficiency greatly. It is also possible to have the light enter the photo diode from the side of the junction. By operating the photo diode in this fashion the intrinsic layer can be made much less to increase the speed of operation, although the efficiency is reduced. In some instances a heterojunction may be used. This form of structure has the additional flexibility that light can be received from the substrate and this has a larger energy gap which makes it transparent to light.

PIN photodiode heterojunction structure The heterojunction format for a PIN photodiode uses less standard technology often using materials such as the InGaAs and InP depicted in the diagram. Being a less standard process, it is more expensive to implement and as a result tends to be used for more specialist products.

PN / PIN photodiode materials

The materials used within a photodiode determine many of its critical properties. The wavelength of light to which it responds and the level of noise are both critical parameters that are dependent upon the material used in the photodiode. The wavelength sensitivity of the different materials occurs because only photons with sufficient energy to excite an electron across the bandgap of the material will produce significant energy to develop the current from the photodiode.

Wavelength sensitivity (nm) Germanium 800 - 1700 Indium gallium arsenide 800 - 2600 Lead sulphide ~1000 - 3500 Silicon 190 - 1100 Wavelength ranges for commonly used photodiode materials Material While the wavelength sensitivity of the material is very important, another parameter that can have a major impact on the performance of the photodiode is the level of noise that is produced. Because of their greater bandgap, silicon photodiodes generate less noise than germanium photodiodes. However it is also necessary to consider the wavelengths for which the photodiode is required and germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer than approximately 1000 nm.

Avalanche photodiode structure

The avalanche photodiode structure is relatively similar to that of the more commonly used PN photodiode structure or the structure of the PIN photodiode. However as the avalanche photodiode is operated under a high level of reverse bias a guard ring is placed around the perimeter of the diode junction. This prevents surface breakdown mechanisms.

Avalanche PIN photodiode structure

Avalanche photodiode materials

Like the standard PN or PIN photodiodes, the materials used have a major effect on determining the characteristics of the avalanche diode.

Material Germanium

Silicon Indium gallium arsenide

Properties Can be used for wavelengths in the region 800 - 1700 nm. Has a high level of multiplication noise. Can be used for wavelengths in the region between 190 1100 nm. Diodes exhibit a comparatively low level of multiplication noise when compared to those using other materials, and in particular germanium. Can be used for wavelengths to 1600 nm and has a lower level of multiplication noise than germanium. Commonly used avalanche photodiode materials

For optimum noise performance the large difference in the ionisation coefficients for electrons and holes is needed. Silicon provides a good noise performance with a ratio between the different coefficients of 50. Germanium and many group III-V compounds only have ratios of less than 2. While the noise performance of these materials is much inferior, they need to be used for longer wavelengths that require the smaller energy gap offered.

Photodiode Operation & Theory

- a summary of photodiode operation & theory - the way that PN & PIN photodiodes, avalanche photodiodes and Schottky photodiodes work.
Photodiode tutorial includes: Photodiode basics PIN / PN photodiode Avalanche photodiode Schottky photodiode Photodiode structures & materials Photodiode operation & theory See also:Diode types Phototransistor Although there are several different types of photodiode, they all utilise the same basic principles, although some are enhanced by other effects. different types of photodiode work in slightly different ways, the basis of operation of all photodiodes remains the same. Light energy can be considered in terms of photons or packets of light. When a photon of sufficient energy enters the depletion region of a semiconductor diode, it may strike an atom with sufficient energy to release the electron from the atomic structure. This creates a free

electron and a hole (i.e. an atom with a space for an electron). The electron is negatively charged, while the hole is positively charged. The electrons and holes may remain free, or other electrons may combine with holes to form complete atoms again in the crystal lattice. However it is possible that the electrons and holes may remain free and be pulled away from the depletion region by an external field. In this way the current through the diode will change and a photocurrent is produced.

PIN / PN photodiode Operation

The photodiode is operated under a moderate reverse bias. This keeps the depletion layer free of any carriers and normally no current will flow. However when a light photon enters the intrinsic region it can strike an atom in the crystal lattice and dislodge an electron. In this way a hole-electron pair is generated. The hole and electron will then migrate in opposite directions under the action of the electric field across the intrinsic region and a small current can be seen to flow. It is found that the size of the current is proportional to the amount of light entering the intrinsic region. The more light, the greater the numbers of hole electron pairs that are generated and the greater the current flowing. Operating diodes under reverse bias increases the sensitivity as it widens the depletion layer where the photo action occurs. In this way increasing the reverse bias has the effect of increasing the active area of the photodiode and strengthens what may be termed as the photocurrent. It is also possible to operate photodiodes under zero bias conditions in what is termed as a photovoltaic mode. In zero bias, light falling on the diode causes a current across the device, leading to forward bias which in turn induces "dark current" in the opposite direction to the photocurrent. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells. It is therefore possible to construct a solar cell using a large number of individual photodiodes. Also when photodiodes are used in a solar cell, the diodes are made larger so that there is a larger active area, and they are able to handle higher currents. For those used for data applications, speed is normally very important and the diode junctions are smaller to reduce the effects of capacitance. When not exposed to light the photo diode follows a normal V-I characteristic expected of a diode. In the reverse direction virtually no current flows, but in the forward direction it steadily increases, especially after the knee or turn on voltage is reached. This is modified in the presence of light. When used as a photo-diode it can be seen that the greatest effect is seen in the reverse direction. Here the largest changes are noticed, and the normal forward current does not mask the effects due to the light.

Avalanche diode operation

Light enters the un-doped region of the avalanche photodiode and causes the generation of hole-electron pairs. Under the action of the electric field the electrons migrate towards the

avalanche region. Here the electric field causes their velocity to increase to the extent that collisions with the crystal lattice create further hole electron pairs. In turn these electrons may collide with the crystal lattice to create even more hole electron pairs. In this way a single electron created by light in the un-doped region may result in many more being created. The avalanche photodiode has a number of differences when compared to the ordinary p-i-n diode. The avalanche process means that a single electron produced by light in the un-doped region is multiplied several times by the avalanche process. As a result the avalanche photo diode is far more sensitive. However it is found that it is not nearly as linear, and additionally the avalanche process means that the resultant signal is far noisier than one from a p-i-n diode. The structure of the avalanche diode is also more complicated. An n-type guard ring is required around the p-n junction to minimise the electric field around the edge of the junction. It is also found that the current gain is dependent not only on the bias applied, but also thermal fluctuations. As a result it is necessary to ensure the devices are placed on an adequate heat sink.

LED Light Emitting Diode Types Overview

- overview of the different types of LED, light emitting diode detailing their salient aspects and applications.
LED technology has now developed to the point where there are several different types of LED. These different types of LED are finding applications in a variety of areas, each type being particularly suitable for a given area. As a result, many new areas of LED development have been opened up in recent years, allowing for a considerable degree of growth, and making LEDs one of the fastest growing sectors in the electronic component industry.

LED types summary

There are a number of major types of LED which are available and being developed. These LED types are summaries below.

Traditional inorganic LEDs: This type of LED is the traditional form of diode that has been available since the 1960s. It is manufactured from inorganic materials. Some of the more widely used are compound semiconductors such as Aluminium gallium arsenide, Gallium arsenide phosphide, and many more. These LEDs are typified by the small LED lamps that are used as panel indicators, although there are very many formats for LEDs of this type. However even within the in-organic LED category, there are many different styles of LED:
o

Single colour 5 mm, etc - the very traditional LED package

o o o o o

Surface mount LEDs Bi-colour and multicolour LEDs - the types of LEDs contain several individual LEDs that are turned on by different voltages, etc. Flashing LEDs - with a small time integrated into the package Alphanumeric LED displays . . . . . more . . . .

All these different types of inorganic LED are used in very large quantities Read more ...

Organic LEDs: Organic LEDs are a development of the basic idea for the light emitting diode. This type of LED uses organic materials as the name indicates. The traditional types of LED utilise traditional inorganic semiconductors with varying dopant levels and they produce light from the defined PN junction - often this is a point of light. The organic type of LED display is based on organic materials which are manufactured in sheets and provide a diffuse area of light. Typically a very thin film of organic material is printed onto a substrate made of glass. A semiconductor circuit is then used to carry the electrical charges to the imprinted pixels, causing them to glow. Read more ... High brightness LEDs: High brightness LEDs, HBLEDs, are a type of inorganic LED that are starting to be used for lighting applications. This type of LED is essentially the same as the basic inorganic LED, but has a much greater light output. To generate the higher light output, this LED type requires to be able to handle much higher current levels and power dissipation. Often these LEDs are mounted such that they can be mounted onto a heatsink to remove the unwanted heat. In view of their greater efficiency, this type of LED is being seen as a replacement for incandescent and the various other forms of energy saving or energy efficient lights such as the Compact Fluorescent Lightbulbs, CFLs. The HBLEDs have a greater efficiency level and they also have a longer life, especially when being switched on and off many times. Coupled with their instantaneous transition to full light output, this type of LED is being seen as the way forwards for lighting applications. Read more ...

With LED technology improving all the time, the efficiency levels of all the different types of LEDs is bound to improve, and their use will increase. LEDs, or Light emitting diodes are very widely used in today's electronics equipment. In fact over 20 billion LEDs are manufactured each year and this number is rising. With new forms of light emitting diodes being developed that produce white light (white LEDs) and blue light (blue LEDs) they are likely to find even more uses, and the production of these diodes is likely to increase still further. LEDs are used in a wide variety of applications. One of their first applications was as small indicator lamps. They were also used in alphanumeric displays, although in this particular application they have now been superseded by other forms of display. With recent developments light emitting diodes are being used instead of incandescent lamps for illumination. In these and many other applications. LEDs are in widespread use and are expected to remain so for many years to come.

LED operation
The LED is a specialised form of PN junction that uses a compound junction. The semiconductor material used for the junction must be a compound semiconductor. The commonly used semiconductor materials including silicon and germanium are simple elements and junction made from these materials do not emit light. Instead compound semiconductors including gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide and indium phosphide are compound semiconductors and junctions made from these materials do emit light. These compound semiconductors are classified by the valence bands their constituents occupy. For gallium arsenide, gallium has a valency of three and arsenic a valency of five and this is what is termed a group III-V semiconductor and there are a number of other semiconductors that fit this category. It is also possible to have semiconductors that are formed from group III-V materials. The diode emits light when it is forward biased. When a voltage is applied across the junction to make it forward biased, current flows as in the case of any PN junction. Holes from the ptype region and electrons from the n-type region enter the junction and recombine like a normal diode to enable the current to flow. When this occurs energy is released, some of which is in the form of light photons. It is found that the majority of the light is produced from the area of the junction nearer to the P-type region. As a result the design of the diodes is made such that this area is kept as close to the surface of the device as possible to ensure that the minimum amount of light is absorbed in the structure. To produce light which can be seen the junction must be optimised and the correct materials must be chosen. Pure gallium arsenide releases energy in the infra read portion of the spectrum. To bring the light emission into the visible red end of the spectrum aluminium is added to the semiconductor to give aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). Phosphorus can also be added to give red light. For other colours other materials are used. For example galium phoshide gives green light and aluminium indium gallium phosphide is used for yellow and orange light. Most LEDs are based on gallium semiconductors.

Circuit design
In an electronics circuit an LED, light emitting diode behaves very much like any other diode. As they are often used to indicate the presence of a voltage at a particular point, often being used as a supply rail indicator. When used in this fashion there must be a current limiting resistor placed in the circuit. This should be calculated to give the required level of current. For many devices a current of around 20 mA is suitable, although it is often possible to run them at a lower current. If less current is drawn the device will obviously be dimmer. When calculating the amount of current drawn the voltage across the LED itself may need to be taken into consideration. The voltage across a LED in its forward biased condition is just over a volt, although the exact voltage is dependent upon the diode, and in particular its

colour. Typically a red one has a forward voltage of just under 2 volts, and around 2.5 volts for green or yellow.

Light emtting diode with current limit resistor Great care must be taken not to allow a reverse bias to be applied to the diode. Usually they only have a reverse breakdown of a very few volts. If breakdown occurs then the LED is destroyed. To prevent this happening, an ordinary silicon diode can be placed across the LED in the reverse direction to prevent any reverse bias being applied. Although LEDs will continue to be very widely used as small indicator lamps, the number of applications they can find is increasing as the technology improves. New very high luminance diodes are now available. These are even being used as a form of illumination, an application which they were previously not able to fulfil because of their low light output. New colours are being introduced. White and blue LEDs, which were previously very difficult to manufacture are now available. In view of the on-going technology development, and their convenience of use, these devices will remain in the electronics catalogues for many years to come.

LED History
- summary of light emitting diode, LED history, detailing how it was discovered and finally developed into a product that is now being widely used.
LED history dates back many more years than many people imagine. LED history dates back to the beginnings of radio and electronics. While LEDs have now been available since the 1960s, the LED history extends many years before this. The LED took many years to develop for a number of reasons - the first discoveries were well ahead of their time, other discoveries were lost. It was only when the technology was sufficiently mature that the LED could be fully developed and marketed. Even after the first devices appeared, LED history was not finished - new developments have been made and LEDs are addressing new markets, never really envisaged before.

Early LED history

The first recorded effects of the light emitting diode effect were noticed back at the beginning of the twentieth century. A British engineer named H J Round working for Marconi was undertaking some experiments using crystal detectors. At the time radio detectors were one of the major limiting factors within the early wireless of radio sets. The early detectors were often made by using a small piece of material - we would now know them as forms of semiconductor - and placing a small wire onto the surface. These were called "Cat's Whiskers" for obvious reasons. In trying to investigate the effects and improve their performance, Round had passed a current through some of his detectors. He noted that one of them emitted light when a current was passed through it. Although he did not understand the mechanism for the effect, he published his findings in 1907 in a magazine of the day named Electrical World.

LEDs investigated by Losov

The idea lay dormant for some years before it was observed again by a Russian engineer named Oleg Vladimirovich Losov. He was the son of a Russian Imperial Army Office - born into a noble family. This would have counted against him in the post revolution Russia era. Losov has attended a number of university lectures but never undertook any formal university education, but instead was a technical at the Leningrad Medical Institute. Losov made some major advances and is a key person in the LED history. He undertook a considerable amount of work investigating light emission from Cat's Whisker style detectors. He observed and investigated the light emission from zinc oxide and silicon carbide crystal rectifiers. As a result of his observations and investigations, Losov published a number of papers in the technical press of the day between 1924 and 1930. His first paper was entitled: "Luminous carborundum detector and detection crystals" which was published in a Russian journal. Soon he published his findings in other British and German. Losov detailed a variety of aspects of these diodes including the spectra of their light emission as well as many other aspects of their operation. In one article published in the Philosophical Magazine in 1928 he detailed the I-V characteristics of a carborundum diode along with the onset of light emission. This formed part of his work on investigating the nature of the diode emission - recognising it was not a thermal effect, but arising from the semiconductor action. In further work, Losov investigated the temperature relationships of the effect, cooling the semiconductors down to very low temperatures. He also modulated the LED to see the effects of frequency of any current applied to the diode. Losov went on to investigate further ideas associated with diode and what would alter be called semiconductor technology. Sadly though, he lived in Leningrad and he was killed during the siege of Leningrad during the Second World War. He had published a total of four patents between 1927 and 1942, but all this work was lost as records were destroyed in Leningrad.

Semiconductor technology advances

During the Second World War, radar was seen as a major enabler. Accordingly a large amount of development of practical devices was initiated. This utilised much of the materials science work that had been undertaken in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the work new point contact diodes were developed. These were able to provide better performance than thermionc valve / vacuum tube diodes. As a result of the research into semiconductor diodes, the idea for the light emitting diode re-surfaced in 1951. This time work was to be more successful, although it took some years to reach completion. One research team was lead by Kurt Lehovec. He applied for a patent in 1952 for Silicon carbide diodes that emitted light. However this was only the first phase of the work that was needed. Following the work by Kurt Lehovec, others also started to work on LED technology. The work took many years and involved a number of companies and researchers. Even Shockley became involved. Although LEDs did not become commercially available for a number of years, several people made some significant discoveries and improvements. Lehovac himself investigated introducing different impurities to change the colour of the light making blue, green/yellow, and pale yellow from different combinations. Also researchers working at RCA patented a green LED in 1958. All of these LED developments added more to LED technology, furthering the technology within the overall LED history.

Commercial LED history

The first commercially available LEDs started to appear in the late/mid 1960s. These LEDs early LEDs used a semiconductor made using gallium, arsenic and phosphorus - GaAsP. This produced a red light, and although the efficiency of the devices was low (typically around 1 10 mcd at 20mA) they started to be widely used as indicators on equipment. One of the first companies to manufacture LEDs on any scale was Monsanto. Monsanto was actually a company supplying the raw semiconductor materials. They had aimed at working with Hewlett Packard - then a test equipment company - with Monsanto supplying the semiconductor and Hewlett Packard manufacturing the diodes. However the relationship did not work out and Monsanto ended up developing the LEDs themselves. [The name of Monsanto is not seen today. The business was sold in 1979 to General Instrument.] With the original GaAsP devices being manufactured, the next development saw gallium phosphide devices developed. GaP devices were not widely used because the light they produced was at the far end of the red spectrum where the sensitivity of the human eye is low, and even though they produced a high output, the human perception was of a dim light.

High output LED lamps

As LEDs were developed, the light levels increased to the extent that they could be considered for applications outside simple indicator lamps. By 1987 the Hewlett Packard AlGaAs (aluminium gallium arsenide) diodes being produced were bright enough for the first applications within lighting. The first applications for these diodes was within the automotive industry where red LEDs were used for vehicle brake lights, and also for traffic lights. Here the use of LEDs was of particular interest because of their increased reliability over the incandescent lights that had been previously used. A year after the first AlGaAs LEDs were introduced another variant, AlInGaP (aluminium Indium Gallium Phosphide) were manufactured. These LEDs gave a significant improvement over the previous AlGaAs diodes by doubling the light output. Later, in 1993 HP started to use GaP (gallium phosphide) to provide high output green LEDs. Also further developments of this technology allowed the production of high output orange lamps. These were ideal for use as car direction indicators - again their reliability in being turned on and off as well as their efficiency proved to be a major improvement.

LED Characteristics & Colours

- summary of different LED characteristics - colour, voltage drop, intensity, etc arising from the different materials and fabrication technologies used.

There is a wide variety of different LEDs available on the market. The different LED characteristics include colours light / radiation wavelength, light intensity, and a variety of other LED characteristics. The different LED characteristics have been brought about by a variety of factors, in the manufacture of the LED. The semiconductor make-up is a factor, but fabrication technology and encapsulation also play major part of the determination of the LED characteristics.

LED colours
One of the major characteristics of an LED is its colour. Initially LED colours were very restricted. For the first years only red LEDs were available. However as semiconductor processes were improved and new research was undertaken to investigate new materials for LEDs, different colours became available. The diagram below shows some typical approximate curves for the voltages that may be expected for different LED colours.

Typical (approximate) LED voltage curves

LED voltage drops

The voltage drop across an LED is different to that of a normal silicon LED. Typically the LED voltage drop is between around 2 and 4 volts. The actual LED voltage that appears across the two terminals is dependent mainly upon the type of LED in question - the materials used. As would be expected the LED voltage curve broadly follows that which would be expected for the forward characteristic for a diode. However once the diode has turned on, the voltage is relatively flat for a variety of forward current levels. This means that in some cases designers have used them as very rough voltage stabilisers - zener diodes do not operate at voltages as low as LEDs. However their performance is obviously nowhere near as good.

Summary of LED characteristics

Wavelength Range (nm) Colour VF @ 20mA Material Aluminium nitride (AlN) Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Silicon carbide (SiC) Gallium phosphide (GaP) Aluminium gallium indium

< 400

Ultraviolet

3.1 - 4.4

400 - 450 450 - 500 500 - 570

Violet Blue Green

2.8 - 4.0 2.5 - 3.7 1.9 - 4.0

Wavelength Range (nm)

Colour

VF @ 20mA

Material

570 - 590

Yellow

590 - 610

Orange / amber

610 - 760

Red

> 760

Infrared

phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.1 - 2.2 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.0 - 2.1 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaUInP) Gallium phosphide (GaP) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium arsenide phosphide 1.6 - 2.0 (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide (GaAs) < 1.9 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

LED Specifications & Parameters

- summary of different LED specifications and LED parameters found in LED datasheets.
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 LED types LED technology LED history LED characteristics LED specifications & parameters LED configurations & packages LED structure & fabrication OLED basics OLED technology & operation PMOLED - Passive Matrix OLED AMOLED - Active Matrix OLED High Brightness, HBLED LED life expectancy When choosing LEDs for particular applications it is necessary to comprehend the different LED specifications or LED parameters. There is a variety of different LED specifications, each of which will have an effect on the choice of the particular LED used. With such a variety of different LEDs available, the LED specifications cane be matched to the requirements for the particular application rather than having to make do. Some of the major LED specifications are outlined in the paragraphs below.

LED colour
Obviously the colour is a major LED specification or LED parameter. LEDS tend to provide a single colour. The light emission extends over a relatively narrow light spectrum. The colour emitted by an LED is specified in terms of its peak wavelength (lpk) - i.e. the wavelength which has the peak light output. This is measured in nanometers (nm). The colour of the LED, i.e. the peak wavelength of the emission from the LED is a function mainly of the chip material and its fabrication. Typically process variations give peak wavelength variations of up to 10nm. When choosing colours within the LED specification, it is worth remembering that the human eye is most sensitive to hue or colour variations is around the yellow / orange area of the spectrum - around 560 to 600 nm. This may affect the choice of colour, or position of LEDs if this could be a problem.

LED light intensity value, Iv

The LED specification for light intensity is important. The light intensity is governed by a variety of factors including the LED chip itself (including the design, individual wafer, the materials, etc.) , the current level, encapsulation and other factors. The LED light intensity specification is not of crucial importance for most indicator applications, but with LEDs being used for lighting, this parameter is needed to be able to specify exactly what is needed in many situations. The light output from an LED is quantified in terms a single point, on-axis luminous intensity value (Iv). This is specified as millicandella, mcd. The lv measurement for LEDs cannot easily be compared with the values of mean spherical candle power, MSCP used for incandescent lamps. The luminous intensity value for an LED must be quoted for a given current. Many LEDs will operate at currents of around 20mA, but the light output of an LED increases with increasing current.

LED current / voltage specification

LEDs are current driven devices and the level of light is a function of the current - increasing the current increases the light output. It is necessary to ensure that the maximum current rating is not exceeded. This could give rise to excessive heat dissipation within the LED chip itself which could result in reduced light output and reduced operating lifetime. In operation, LEDs will have a given voltage drop across them which is dependent upon the material used. The voltage will also be slightly dependent upon the level of current, so the current will be stated for this. Most LEDs require an external series current limiting resistor. Some LEDs may include a series resistor and will state the overall operating voltage.

LED reverse voltage

LEDs are not tolerant to large reverse voltages. They should never be run above their stated maximum reverse voltage, which is normally quite small. If they are then permanent destruction of the device will almost certainly result. If there is any chance of a reverse voltage appearing across the LED, then it is always best to build in protection into the circuitry to prevent this. Normally simple diode circuits can be introduced and these will adequately protect any LED.

LED angle of view specification

In view of the way in which LEDs operate, the light is only emitted over a certain angle. While this LED specification may not be important for some applications, it is of great importance for others. The angle of view is normally defined in degrees - . For early devices, the angle of view was normally relatively small. More recent devices may have a much wider angle of view.

LED specification for operational life

The light intensity of a LED does diminish gradually with time. This means that a LED has an operational life. This LED specification is of particular importance when a LED or LEDs are to be used for lighting applications. It is not normally as crucial when the LED is used as an indicator - here a catastrophic failure is of greater importance. The LED specification for its operational life is generally defined in the following terms: L70% = Time to 70% of illumination (lumen maintenance) L50% = Time to 50% of illumination (lumen maintenance) The standards state that during these times, the LED should not exhibit any major shifts in chromaticity. The rationale behind these figures is that 70% lumen maintenance equates to a 30% reduction in light output. This is around the figure for the threshold for detecting gradual reductions in light output. Where light output is not critical, the 50% lumen maintenance figure may be more applicable. However for applications where lights may be placed side by side the 80% lumen maintenance figure should be considered. Figures for LED operational life may be of the order of 50 000 hours or more dependent upon the lumen maintenance figure used.

LED Packages & Configurations

- details about the different configurations and packages used for different types of LED including conventional, SMT, tricolour, bicolour, flashing LEDs.
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LED tutorial includes: LED types LED technology LED history LED characteristics LED specifications & parameters LED configurations & packages LED structure & fabrication OLED basics OLED technology & operation PMOLED - Passive Matrix OLED AMOLED - Active Matrix OLED High Brightness, HBLED LED life expectancy The standard inorganic styles of LEDs can come in many different varieties. These include different packages and configurations. The variety of packages and styles enables them to be used in many different applications and in many different ways. Also the different configurations of LEDs enable them to be used in many different ways - as indicators, as displays and as monitors.

LED configurations
There are a number of different formations or configurations that LEDs in which LEDs can be obtained:

Single colour: This is the standard format or configuration for an LED. It has two leads, one a cathode and the other an anode. The LED comes on and off according to when a current is passed through the diode. Bi-colour LEDs : This format for LEDs uses a pair of LEDs wired in an inverse parallel formation. This enables one LED to be illuminated at a time dependent upon the polarity of the voltage applied. LEDs do not withstand significant reverse voltages. Although the diodes in this configuration will experience a reverse bias, this is limited to the forward voltage of the other diode, and this is not sufficient to damage the reverse biased diode. Tri-colour LEDs : This LED configuration again uses two separate LEDs, but in a different configuration. Each LED has a different colour. There are two anode connections and a single cathode. It is therefore possible to turn each LED on separately, giving a choice of two colours - the third is provided by turning both LEDs on together and giving a third colour by addition. It is also possible to have different intensities of both LEDs to further vary the colour. Flashing LEDs: This form of LED is relatively easy to implement. The package contains not only the LED but also a simple IC that provides a timing function to enable the LED to flash.

Traditional LED packages

The traditional LED has been available since the early 1960s and has been produced in quantities of billions.

Typical LED package LEDs are available in a variety of package sizes. Possibly the most widely used is the 5mm diameter one, although a host of others are available ranging from 1.8mm, 3mm, 4mm, 8mm, and 20mm. There are also and rectangular LEDs available - almost any size to fir a wide variety of requirements.

Surface mount, SMT LED packages

Like all components, LEDs are used in vast quantities in LED SMT packages. They are available in the industry outline packages. However they have not been subject to quite the same level of miniaturisation as many components such as resistors and capacitors that are available in 0201, etc. This is partly because they need to be a certain size to see! The most common LED SMT sizes with dimensions are given below.

Package designator 1206 0805 0603 0402

Length (mm) 3.2 2.0 1.6 1.0

Width (mm) 1.5 1.25 0.8 0.5

Height (mm) 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.45

LED displays
Although liquid crystal and other forms of display have taken over many alphanumeric display applications, LED technology is still used in a number of applications. It has advantages that it does not need external light as in the case of an LCD. However they are less versatile and costs for customisation normally prohibit this type of use. It is often only possible to display numeric characters, and sometimes some limited graphics Nevertheless LED displays are used in many areas, particularly where power is not an issue. Alarm clocks, test instrumentation, and other forms of mains powered electronic apparatus use LED alphanumeric displays. The LED alphanumeric displays use a variety of approaches to display the characters:

Seven segment: This form of display can be used to create digiots between "0" and "9". An additional LED can also provide a decimal point, making this basic form of LED display applicable for a variety of basic numeric display applications. One example may be clock radios where power is not an issue. Star-burst: The starburst format for an LED display has the ability to illuminate fifteen lines and in this way it gives a considerable improvement in flexibility over that of the basic seven segment display. It can be programmed to create numeric characters as well as certain limited graphics. Dot matrix: The dot matrix display is the most flexible format. The LED dot matrix display is made up from a matrix of LEDs, each providing a dot. It can be obtained in a variety of formats although 5 rows and five columns, or 7 rows and five columns are common formats.

LED alphanumeric package styles