2

nd
Semester B.Sc. - MATHEMATICS
Techniques of Integration
Did You Know?

2 2 2
( ) 2 a b a b ab + = + +

2 2 2
( ) 2 a b a b ab = +

2 2
( )( ) a b a b a b + =

2
a a =
log1 0 =
sin0 0 cos
2

| |
= =
|
\


1 3
sin ; sin ;
6 2 3 2

| | | |
= =
| |
\ \

sin 1 cos0
2
| |
= =
|
\

tan0 0 cot
2
| |
= =
|
\

tan 1 cot
4 4
| | | |
= =
| |
\ \

sec0 1;sec 2;
3
| |
= =
|
\

tan 3 cot
3 6
| | | |
= =
| |
\ \


1
cot
3 3
| |
=
|
\

sin 0;cos ( 1)
n
n n = =

2 2
sin 1 cos x x =

2 2
cos 1 sin x x =

2 2
tan sec 1 x x =

2
1 cos2
sin
2
x
x

=

2
1 cos2
cos
2
x
x
+
=
2 sin cos sin( ) sin( ) A B A B A B = + +

2 cos cos cos( ) cos( ) A B A B A B = + +

( ) d ku k du =
(sin ) cos d x x dx =
(cos ) sin d x x dx =
( )
x x
d e e dx =

2
( ) 2 d t t dt =
( ) d ax b adx + =
( ) ( ) f x dx F x C = +

if ( ) ( ) F x f x =

1
1
n
n
u
u du C
n
+
= +
+

where 1 n
du u C = +

1
2 dx x C
x
= +

sin cos x dx x C = +

1
sin cos ax dx ax C
a
= +

cos sin x dx x C = +

1
cos sin ax dx ax C
a
= +

tan sec x dx n x C = +

sec sec tan x dx n x x C = + +

2
cosec cot x dx x C = +

2
sec tan x dx x C = +

1
ax ax
e dx e C
a
= +

x x
e dx e C = +

/
( )
( )
( )
f x
dx n f x C
f x
= +

/
( )
2 ( )
( )
f x
dx f x C
f x
= +

Remember
Integration by Parts: If u and v are functions of x, then udv uv v du =

.
According to order of hierarchy of the letters in the word ILATE, we can select which is to be the 1
st

function and the 2
nd
function; where
I stands for Inverse, A stands for Algebraic, T stands for Trigonometric and E stands for
Exponential.

Reductions Formulae:

1
2
sin cos 1
cos cos
n
n n
x x n
x dx x dx C
n n

| |
= + +
|
\



1
2
cos sin 1
sin sin
n
n n
x x n
x dx x dx C
n n

| |
= + +
|
\



1
n ax
n ax n ax
x e n
x e dx x e dx C
a a

= +

; where 0 a .

Trigonometric Integrals (Product of powers of sines & cosines):
sin cos
m n
x x dx

where m & n are non-negative integers.
If m is odd, then write m as 2 1 k + & use
2 2
sin 1 cos x x = to get
( ) ( )
2 1 2 2
sin sin sin sin 1 cos sin
k k
m k
x x x x x x
+
= = = . Combine sin x dx as (cos ) d x .
If m is even and n is odd, then write n as 2 1 k + & use
2 2
cos 1 sin x x = to get
( ) ( )
2 1 2 2
cos cos cos cos 1 sin cos
k k
n k
x x x x x x
+
= = = . Combine cos x dx as (sin ) d x .
If m and n both are even, then use
2
1 cos 2
sin
2
x
x

= &
2
1 cos2
cos
2
x
x
+
= to reduce the
integrand to one in lower powers of cos 2x .

Integrals of Powers of tan x and cot x :
To integrate higher powers of tan x and cot x , use
2 2
tan sec 1 x x = &
2 2
1 tan sec x x + = and
integrate by parts if necessary (to reduce the higher powers to lower powers).

Two functions ( ) f x and ( ) g x are said to be orthogonal on an interval a x b if
( ) ( ) 0
b
a
f x g x dx =

Reductions Formulae:

1 2
1
tan tan tan
1
n n n
x dx x x dx C
n

= +

1
( ) ( ) ( )
n n n
nx dx x nx n nx dx C

= +



1 1
2
sin cos 1
sin cos sin cos
n m
n m n m
x x n
x x dx x x dx C
m n m n
+

= + +
+ +

; n m .
or

1 1
2
sin cos 1
sin cos sin cos
n m
n m n m
x x m
x x dx x x dx C
m n m n
+

= + +
+ +

; n m .


1
2
tan
dx ax b
C
b x ax b b

= +

1 dx ax b b
n C
x ax b b ax b b
+
= +
+ + +

1
2
( )
( )
2 1
n
n
ax b ax b b
x ax b dx C
n n a
+
+ +
(
+ = +
(
+ +

2
2
ax b ax b a dx
dx C
x x x ax b
+ +
= + +
+



2 2
2 2
1 dx a a x
n C
a x
x a x
+ +
= +
+

2 2 2 2
2 2
a x a a x
dx a x a n C
x x
+
= +

2
2 2 2 2 1
sin
2 2
x a x
a x dx a x C
a

| |
= + +
|
\

Numerical Integration:

Trapezoidal Rule: If ( ) f x is continuous function over the interval [ , ] a b , then
[ ]
0 1 2 1
( ) 2 2 ...... 2
2
n n
b
a
x
f x dx y y y y y

= + + + + +

; where ys are the values of ( ) f x at the

partition points
0
x a = ,
1
x a x = + ,
2
2 x a x = + ,,
1
( 1)
n
x a n x

= + ,
n
x b = , and
b a
x
n

= .
Simpsons Rule: If ( ) f x is continuous function over the interval [ , ] a b , then
[ ]
0 1 2 3 2 1
( ) 4 2 4 ...... 2 4
3
n n n
b
a
x
f x dx y y y y y y y

= + + + + + + + +

; where ys are the values of

( ) f x at the partition points
0
x a = ,
1
x a x = + ,
2
2 x a x = + ,,
1
( 1)
n
x a n x

= + ,
n
x b = , and
b a
x
n

= [The number n is even].