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The transmission network may be classified into three types, they arc: 1) EHV transmission network 2) Subtransmission network 3) Distribution network
Usually the networks operated at 132kv and above voltages are known as EHV transmission network. 33kv and below voltages mostly in the form of radial arc Sub transmission network. The laterals extended to the individual loads arc known as Distribution network.
The objective of the power companies is to give quality of power to the customers i.e., at defined voltages and reliable supply. To achieve this, load 80w studies at different points of network is essential. The focus of this project is eo. 33kv network i.e., sub-transmission network. Load flow is a study that gives voltages & power flow at different nodes / locations of a network.
NOMENCLATURE
1
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
MUL = Mulugu
MNH = Manoharabad
Description
Page No.
BMOR = Bandamadararn TM K = Tumk i Bollaram VTM = Vantimamidi VD = Voltage drop CABC = Cable Capacitor
TR = Transformer
PL = Power loss
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Description
Page No.
2.1 2.2
An illustration of voltage spreads occuring at the utilization point One -line diagram of a typical Residential feeder
13 16 18 22 29 30 32 33 34
37
One line diagram of Rural feeder I I kv Feeder Distribution Feeder Vector diagram Flow chart for load flow module for balance Flow chart for network parameter module Flow chart for demand module The load voltage characteristic
3.6
4.1
4.2
4.3
Block diagram of distribution Single line diagram of load flow analysis Frame with scroll bar displaying results Dialogue box for data entry Hardware for power distribution studies
47 49 54 55 56
4 .4
4 .5
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
Description
Page No.
2.1
Typical voltage drop allocations for rural feeder components Supply voltage to the transformer which serve the plant Voltage Regulation Of Conductors Summary of the results of load factor Value of RLC for different loading patterns Voltage and percentage loss data Feeder Data Voltage regulation and Power loss data
19
2.2 2.3
,
20
24 39 41 42 58 61
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Power Flow studies are also known as load flow studies. The principal information obtained from these studies is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and real and reactive power flowing in each lin. There by we can calculate voltage regulation of each feeder, power flow in all branches, feeder circuits, losses in each branch and total system power losses. The importance of these studies is planning the future explanation of power system as well as in determining the best operation of existing system. It is an important tool involving numerical analysis applied to power system. The conventional method of calculating voltage regulation is simple which is based on KVA KM loading of conductors. Also, the conventional method to evaluate the demand loss (or) peak power loss on a distribution feeder is based on the use of loss constants. The conventional technique is simple but may not result in correct computation of loss for the following reasons: The loss constants are obtained on the assumptions that6 voltage at all buses along the length of feeder is the voltage. The drop in voltage of the feeder from source to tail end and the consequent increase in loss are not considered. The demand loss in each feeder segment increases the power flow in all preceding feeder segments up to the source. The effect of such loss is not considered in the conventional technique.
Hence there is a need for more accurate techniques such as DISBUT used in APTRANCO. The power flow techniques such as NEWTON-Rap son method, fast decoupled load flow method etc. are used to solve well behaved power systems effectively. But, when these techniques are applied to illconditioned (or) poorly initialized power systems, have led to many short comings. Whereas the DISBUT package for calculating voltages, current, active and reactive power flowing in each line, there by voltage regulation and power loss of feeders at different voltage levels(i.e.., 33kv, 11kv etc). As a case study, the voltage regulation and power loss of the following 33kv feeders where considered in annex-2. 1) Gajwel Gouraram 2) Gajwel Mulugu 3) Medchel. Alliabad 4) Medchel. Bandamandaram 5) Manoharabad. Kallakal 7
6) Medchel.Kesavaram
The results were analyzed and the solutions suggested for better network operation.
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1. FAVOURABLE ZONE;
This zone contusions the majority of the existing operating voltages. It should be designed in such a way that most of their operating voltages lie within the zone. The equipment should be designed and rated so as to give completely adequate and efficient performance throughout the zone, but it should be adequate and satisfactory.
2. TOLERABLE ZONE;
This zone includes operating voltages slightly above and below the favorable zone. The zone is necessary because from practical field conditions voltages slightly outside of the favorable zone often results. Equipment should give fairly satisfactory operation throughout tolerance zone, although at the low and high ends the operating characteristics may not be as good as obtained throughout the favorable zone.
3. EXTREME ZONE;
This zone doesnt have any set boundary limits but it normally extends two or three percent above and below the tolerance zone. Above and below the tolerable zone, should be temporary. That is, they should occur only during emergency periods such as during fault conditions or as a temporary measure during periods of construction.
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The voltage at the point of utilization when keeping with in the favorable zone can be 110 to 125 volts. The logical primary feeder designed to permit maximum loading and area coverage is to permit the first consume electrically nearest to the source to have maximum voltage of 125 volts during maximum load conditions. The most remote consumer electrically from the source to have the minimum permissible voltage of 110 volts, The average voltage drop for residential interior wiring during maximum load conditions is approximately three volts; hence to have the utilization voltage no lower than 11-0 volts the voltage at the consumers service entrance or meter socket must be 113volts or above. The feeder components of a residential feeder are shown in one line diagram below. Studies of residential feeder design have shown that at a definite amount of voltage drop can be allocated to each component for maximum economy.
SERVICE DROP;
The voltage drop most generally found for service drops during heavy load conditions is 1volt.
12
SECONDARY LINE;
Secondary conductors when installed generally have a voltage drop of approximately two to two and half volts, and as load increases the voltage drop is permitted to increase to three or three and half volts. /when the voltage drop reaches the upper limit another distribution transformer is added between the existing and the secondary line is split between the new and existing units. Such a procedure reduces the secondary voltage drop to less than 1 volt.
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER;
At the time of installation in a developed residential area,. The transformer loading during peak periods is generally 80 to 100 percent. For the average distribution transformer rating this represents a voltage drop of 1.75 to 2.5 volts the transformer remains in service until the peak load increases to about 140 to 160 percent. This represents a voltage drop of 3.25 to 4 volts.. The amount of voltage drop al.lo0cated to the distribution transformer out of the permissible 12 volts spread is generally 3 volts.
13
Fig 2.3 one-line diagram of rural feeder A one line diagram of a typical rural feeder is shown in fig/. It is much longer than a residential feeder, often 5 to 10 times longer. Below table shows typical voltage drop allocations for rural feeder components. The table values keep the service voltage within the favorable zone. Even with the increased primary line drop as compared to the residential feeder, it is often necessary to add some supplementary voltage boost out on the feeder.
14
FEEDER RESIDENCIAL COMPONENTS FEEDERS MAXIMU M LOAD CONDITIO N Primary feeder from first distribution transformer to last distribution transformer Distribution transformer Secondary line Service drop Total 3.5 MINIMUM LOAD CONDITIO N 1.0
3 3.5 1
3 2 11.0VOLTS
15
2.3.3INDUSTRIAL FEEDERS; Industrial feeders are relatively short feeders and serve anywhere from one to several consumers. They are similar to rural feeders, in that there are generally no secondaries, as each consumer has his own transformer, There are no recommended allocations of voltage drop for industrial feeder components. Each industrial consumer on a feeder should have the supply voltage to the transformer or transformers which serve the plant fall within the zone shown in columns 2 3 in the below table. The voltage spread for the [primary supply should be four percent and should fall within the recommended voltage zone. NOMINAL SYSTEM VOLTAGE COLUMN 1 VOLTS ZONES OF VOLTAGES OF PRINARY ON TRANSFORMERS COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 PRIMARY VOLTAGES SPREAD COLUMN 4 PERCENT OF COTUMN 1 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% COLUMN 5 VOLTS 100 170 190 280 460 550
MINIMUMVOLTS MAXIMUM VOLTS 2130 3680 4260 6100 10200 12200 2520 4360 5040 7250 12100 14500
TABLE 2.2
16
2.4VOLTAGE REGULATION Owing to the variations in the current flow through a transmission line, there is variation in the voltage drip in the line. Thus the receiving changes with changing load. It is necessary under electricity rules to maintain the voltage at the receiving ends of O.H line within permissible limits as given below: Declared voltage of supply to consumers Not greater than 250 volts Medium voltage not great than H.V not greater than 33,000 Extra higf voltage above 33,000 +6% -650 volts +6% volts 12.5 volts
Procedure : The vector diagram for known receiving end voltage conditions, for lagging PF is indicated below. The voltage drop per phase is given by equation.
The voltage regulation is usually consider as the percentage drop with reference to the receiving end voltage.
17
Sample calculations:
Let consider an 11 KV feeder enumerating from a 33/11 KV S/S with 7/2. 59 mm ACSR for the main feeder and 7/2.11 mm ACSR for tab lines with the connected distribution transformers and distances as indicated below:
2) 6*33
3) 5*25 =
Total
1503KVA
18
Total calculating the voltage regulation of the main feeder, it is assumed that the loads on the tab lines are concentrated at the point of tapping and taking moments about the section we have. OA AB BH HC CI IO OR RE EF FG = = = = = = = = = = 1503 1403 1215 1115 927 764 601 413 288 100 * * * *. * * * * * * 1 1.5 1.5 5 1 1 2 2 2.5 1 = = 1503 .0 2104.5
TOTAL KVA KM 10526.5 .. % regulation = total KVA KM *Regulation per 100 * KVA KIM / 100 * DF
Assuming factor of 2.5, regulation constant for 7/2.59 ACSR at 0.8 power factor is 0.08648 from table 2. % Regulation = 10526.5 * 0.08648 / 100* 2.5 = 3.64% Similarly the regulation of the tap also calculated. Tet us consider the furthest tap lines and find out the regulation at M taking moments in KV KM for the main feeders with 7/2.59 mm ACSR; we have
1) 1503 * 1 = 1503.0
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2) 1403 * 1.5 = 2104.5 3) 1215 *1.5 = 557.5 4) 927 * 1.0 = 927.0 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 927 764 601 413 288 * * * * * 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 = = = = = 927.0 764.0 1202.0 826.0 720.0
. Total KVA KM 1110, 426.5 .. For tab FM with 7/2.11 mm ACSR we have 1) 2) 3) 188 88 25 * * * 1.0 0.5 0.5 = = = 188 44 12.5
. Total KVA KM 224.5 . 1) % Regulation on 11 KV main feeder 2) % Regulation on 11 KV tap line = = = % Regulation at point M of tap line = 10426.5 * 0.8648 / 100 * 2.5 244 0.118% 3.6.1 + 0.118 = 3.728% * 0.12115 / 100 * 25
20
100 Sq.mm
TABLE 2.3
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6. Changing of feeder sections from single phase to multi phase. 7. Transferring of loads to new feeders. 8. Installing of new substations and primary feeders. 9. Increasing of primary voltage level. In order to evaluate the performance of a power distributions network and to examine the effectiveness of proposed alterations to system in the planning stage. It is essential that a load flow analysis of the network is carried out. The load flow studies are normally carried out to determine: The flow of active and reactive power in network branches/ No circuits are overloaded, and the bus bar voltages are within acceptable limits/
Effect of additions or alterations on a system such as voltage regulators, shunt and series
capacitors.
Effect of loss of circuits under emergency conditions.
22
CHAPTER 3
The structure of distribution network is simple, as the power flow is in directional. but the load flow analysis of distribution network is complicated, due to the following special characteristics of distribution feeders.
The distribution feeders have multiple toppings along the length of the feeder forming
high voltage drop. The load flow techniques which give more accurate results with assured convergence are required.
Therefore a load flow algorithm, which is capable of taking into account load modeling, load allocation, un balanced loads, un symmetrical networks and also exploits of the radial structure of distribution feeder to obtain convergence , even for ill conditioned feeders is necessary. The proposed algorithm first developed for balanced network , considering single phase representation and is later extended to un balanced network. The algorithm is based on basic equations used to compute the receiving end voltage and sending and power are specified as descript below.
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Consider a branch (k+1, k) of distribution feeder shown above. The active and reactive power flowa in the branch are given by the exppressipon:
Pk= KJ=1 Pj * Ej + kj=1 plj .. 3.1c Qk= KJ=1 qj Ej + kj=1 qlj .. 3.2
Pj = active power of load incident at node j Pk = active power flow in section with node end j Qj = Reactive power of load incident at node j Qk = active power flow in section with node end j Plj = active power loss in section with node end j
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Qlj = Reactive power loss in section with node end j Ej = Voltage in KV at node j The vector diagram of the branch is shown below.
Fig 3.2
26
It can be seen that the equation is presented in terms of the voltage magnitude, Only avoiding the complex quantities due to the elimination of voltage phase angle From the equations. The simplifies the solution to the problem. The P & Q in the Equations are total load fed by node k which comprises the load incident at the node and all other loads fed through it, including losses. In other words P&Q is the load of the wquivalent network connected to node k. The load is estimated taking into account the effects of load modeling and load allocation described later.
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2. Call parameter module 3. Intialise E= 1.0 FOR j =1,2.n, OLDLOS=0.0 4. Call demand module 5. Select selection J
6. Conpute BB = (PKRK+ QKXK-E2K+1) 7. IS BB 0 if yes goto 8 in no goto 2.5
8. Compute ERj using Eq 3.3 9. Is AVB or TR located at end node If yes go to 10. If NO goto 12.
10. As ABS (ERj-vest) step. If YES goto 12.
If NO goto 11. 11. Adjust tap, goto 10 12. Calculate PTOSJ , QLOSJ 13. TLOS = TLOS +PLOSJ
14. Is J NS. If YES goto 15. If No goto 16.
17. IS [(TLOS-OLDLOS)/TLOS] EPS if TES go to 23. If NO GO TO 18. 18. OLDLOS = TLOS 19. Is ITER MANIT. If YES GO TO 21.if NO goto 4.
20. Is ABS(RP-CP) EPSL if YES goto 21. If NO goto 4 21. Is ABS (RQ-CQ) EPSL . if YES goto 22. If NO goto 4.
23. Print message load flow convergence failed and convergence linit. 24. Is the maximum number of inerations increased If yes goto 4. If no goto STOP.
25. Print message that load flow convergence failed due to votage collapse and stop.
29
5. compute R&X of feeder segment 6. is AVB located at end load. If YES goto 7. If NO goto 10.
7. XJ = XJ- SCXJ
30
The module DEMAND considers load modeling and load allocation and evaluates the active and reactive power flow in each feeder segment, considering loads incident at buses. The cogeneration and dispersed generating units connected to the distribution network in parallel operating are common today. The flow chart for this module indicating the important steps is in figure..
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LOAD ALLOCATION:
The simultaneous maximum demand at each distribution transformer is necessary for load flow analysis of primary distribution feeder. Unfortunately, neither peak demand nor the simultaneous demand at each transformer is recorded or monitored. The procedure described below is proposed to be adopted to estimate the same.
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LOAD MODELLING:
The influence of voltage variation on load characteristics is significant and it is desirable to consider it for accurate load flow analysis. The loads can be broadly classified into three categories, VIZ., constant current, constant impedance and constant power. Based on the influence of voltage variations on loads. The load voltage characteristics of the above three types of loads are shown in the figure below and are represented by an equation, as follows:
Where, P = Power at voltage V = Voltage at bus Vn = Nominal rated voltage Pn = Nominal active or reactive power of load K = an exponent describing the voltage sensitivity of the load.
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For constant power loads K=0; for constant current loads K=1; and for constant impedance loads K=2; in a graph of P/Pn against V/Vn, K is the slope of the curve at the operational condition. Most of the loads in the practical distribution networks are the composite loads that are assumed to be a combination of constant current, constant impedance and constant power. The load voltage characteristics of practical loads are represented by an equation as shown below. Where Kp, Kc, Ki indicate proportion of constant power, constant current and constant impedance component of load and (Kp+Kc+Ki=1.0). EMPIRICAL LOSS FORMULA: The most popular and widely used method for estimation of energy losses is by the use of a empirical loss formula. The empirical loss formula for loss factor in terms of load factor was suggested by F.H Bulker and C.A. WOODROW and additional work was reported by H.F.HOEBEL. The formula suggested was
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Where, KP, KC Ki indicate proportion of constant power, constant current and constant impedance component of load and (Kp+Kc+Ki=1.0).
The most popular and widely used method for estimation of energy losses is by the use of a empirical loss formula. the empirical loss formula for loss factor in terms of load factor was suggested by F.H. buller and C.A Woodrow and addition work was reported by H.F Hoebol. The formula suggested was
Where,
ELF = Equivalent hours loss factor LDF = Load Factor A = constant coefficient, whose value varies between 0.3 to 0.15 For the utilites
Another empirical formula for estimation of loss factor suggested by EPRI is given below
ELF = LF ..3.
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Where is constant and value varies between 1.7 to 1.9 for most of the utilities. The coefficients are determined for each utility by carrying out sample studies on the feeders. Unfortunately no such studies have been conducted on Indian utilities so far. The value of the constant in empirical formula is taken as 0.2 based on UK practice, even though the load conditions in India are totally different from UK. Hence the loss factor coefficients are evaluated for a large number of feeders of A.P system. A summary of the results are presented in below table.
S.NO
NO. of Feeders
ALOS
Alpha
1 2 3 Total
22 43 33 98
Average
0.278
0.200
1.73
Table 3.1
On review of table, it could be seen that the average value of co-efficient of equivalent hours loss factor varies between 0.18 to 0.25 for Indian utility and average value is 0.2. The exponential coefficient for equivalent hours lo9ss factor varies break when 1.64 to 1.77 with the average value of 1.73.
The percentage of loss (PL%) and the percentage of voltage drop (VD%) of a distribution feeder are interrelated, but no empirical formula relating these has been derived, so far. The relationship is of great practical significance as the voltage drop of feeder can be easily measured by recording voltage at substation end and tail end; whereas it is difficult to measure the power loss and it can only be estimated through load flow analysis of the feeder. A mathematical expression relating the two parameters is developed as shown below
Where,
PL % / VD % = RLC/ KVL.3.12
KVL = [ cos + (x/r) sin] cos 3.13 Ps = Demand on the feeder at the substation
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The term KVL is a constant based on the feeder configuration, power factor and the conductor size. The term RLC factor for four different types of loading is computed and is as shown in the below table to get an idea of the variation in the value of RLC.
SI. NO 1. 2. 3.
LOADING PATTERN
VALUE OF RLC
Concentrated load Uniform distribution of equal loads with equidistant section Non uniform distribution of equal loads With section length increasing from source To load
4.
Non uniform distribution of equal loads With section lengths increasing from load end to source
0.75
Table 3.2
The loading of the practical distribution feeders does not follow any specific pattern. Therefore, the value of RLC for 500 practical feeders of AP system is computed. A summary of the results is in below table.
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Voltage and Percentage loss data SI. No. 1 2 3 Total No. of feeders 141 202 88 431 Percentage Of feeders 33 47 20 100 Average 0.74 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 Value of RLC
Table 3.3
On review of table it could be seen that the value of RLC for practical Distribution feeders in Indian utility varies between 0.7 and 0.8 for majority of the feeders and the total range of variation is 0.6 to 0.9. The average value of RLC is 0.7.
DECALIBRATION OF ENERGY METER DUE TO NORMAL WEAR OR DUE TO WRONG CALIBRATIN OF UTILLITY:
The loss on this account is determined by testing the meters of a sample of customers. As ample of the order of 0.5% of total customers is considered is nominal current. The losses are estimated based on sample testing and current energy consumption of consumers.
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DAMAGED METER: A meter is considered to be damaged when it does not measure energy because of blocked rotor. Etc. The meter is normally detected to be blocked by two identical meter readings. The losses
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