Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Binomial Identities
Remark 1.1 Throughout these tables, we assume, unless specified, that n, j, k, and r represent
non-negative integers. Furthermore, we reserve x, and y for arbitrary real(complex) numbers.
1.1
Basic Identities
Pascals Formula
x
k
Committee/Chair Identity
(n + 1)
Cancelation Identity
x+1
k
r
n+1
r+a
=r
x
k1
(1.1)
(1.2)
r1
n
n nr
=
r+a
r
r
a
n n+r
n+r
2r
n + r 2r
(n + r)!
=
=
=
(r!)2 (n r)!
r
r
nr
r
2r
r
n 2n
n+r
2n
=
r
n
r
nr
1 Transformation
n+r
r
= (1)
n+r
n
x+r1
r
= (1)
r 1
n
(1.3)
(1.4)
(1.5)
(1.6)
(1.7)
x+1
n+r
x
rn
1
2
Transformation
1
2
1
2
Transformation
1
2
1.2
n+1
= (1)
= (1)
= (1)
n1
j
n+1
2n
n+1
jk
n+r
2n
n+r
1
22n
1
1)
j
k
=
j
k
jn1
22n (2n
(1.8)
(1.9)
(1.10)
(1.11)
sin(x)
n!(1 n)! =
sin(n + 1)
1
1
(n )!(n )! = (1)n
2
2
22x1
Identities from Duplication Formula: (2x) = (x) x + 12
(n
)! =
(2n)!
22n n!
22n (n!)2
n!
=
(2n + 1)!
2(n + 12 )!
n n 1
n!
!
!=
2
2
2n
n
22n+1
=
1
2n
2
n
k
nk
22n+2
2n2k
=
1
1
2 2k
2
2
k
nk
22n ( n1
)!
n
22n
2
=
=
n
n
n!
n1
2
2
(1.12)
(1.13)
(1.14)
(1.15)
(1.16)
(1.17)
(1.18)
(1.19)
1.3
Limit Formulas
lim
2n
n
n1
= lim
(2n)!
=4
(n!)2
n+1
n
lim
= lim
=e
n
n
n
n
n!
n!
( ne )n 2n
lim
=1
n
n!
(1.20)
(1.21)
(1.22)
2
2.1
Remark 2.1 In this chapter, we assume a is a nonnegative integer. We also let [x] denote the floor
of x, i.e. the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
n
f (k) =
k=a
km
m1
f (j) =
f (2k) =
k=[ a+2
]
2
f (2k 1) =
[ n1
]
2
k=0
2.1.1
f (k) +
k=a
[ n+1
]
2
ki+1
a1
f (j),
k=a
f (k)
(2.1)
1m
(2.2)
k=0
i=0 j=ki +1
k=[ a+1
]
2
f (k)
k=0
j=k0 +1
[2]
(1)k f (k),
k=a
f (k)
(1)k f (k),
k=a
n
1 (1 + x)n (1 x)n
x2k =
,
2k + 1
2
x
(2.3)
na+1
na+1
(2.4)
n1
(2.5)
Bifurcation Formulas
Bifurcation Formula
n
f (k) =
k=a
Let i =
[ n+1
]
2
[2]
f (2k) +
k=[ a+1
]
2
k=[ a+2
]
2
f (2k 1),
na+1
(2.6)
ik f (k) =
k=0
k=0
[ n1
]
2
[2]
f (2k) + i
k=0
k=0
k2
(1) i f (k) =
[2]
(2.7)
n1
[ n1
]
2
[ k2 ]
f (2k + 1),
(1)k f (2k) + i
k=0
k=0
n1
(2.8)
f (k) =
k=0
f (4k) +
(2.10)
[ n2
]
3
f (3k + 1) +
na+2
f (3k + 2),
k=[ a3 ]
[ n1
]
4
k=[ a+3
]
4
k=a
na+1r
k=[ a+1
]
3
f (k) =
f (3k) +
k=[ a+2
]
3
[4]
f (rk + j),
[ n1
]
3
k=a
[3]
f (k) =
r1
[ nj
]
r
r1
f (k) =
(2.9)
f (rk + j),
j=0 k=0
k=a
r1
n1
[ n2
]
4
f (4k + 1) +
k=[ a+2
]
4
(2.11)
[ n3
]
4
f (4k + 2) +
f (4k + 3),
(2.12)
k=[ a4 ]
k=[ a+1
]
4
where n a + 3.
Alternating Bifurcation Formula
n
[ n+1
]
2
(1)k f (k) =
k=a
[2]
k=[ a+1
]
2
f (2k)
k=[ a+2
]
2
na+1
(2.13)
na+r1
(2.14)
f (2k 1),
(1)k f (k) =
k=a
k=a
r1
[ nj
]
r
[ n1
]
3
(1)k f (k) =
[3]
k=[ a+2
]
3
(1)k f (3k)
[ n2
]
3
(1)k f (3k + 1) +
k=[ a+1
]
3
k=[ a3 ]
where n a + 2.
n
[ n1
]
4
(1)k f (k) =
[4]
k=[ a+3
]
4
k=a
f (4k)
[ n2
]
4
f (4k + 1) +
k=[ a+2
]
4
k=[ a+1
]
4
[ n3
]
4
f (4k + 2)
f (4k + 3),
k=[ a4 ]
(2.16)
where n a + 3.
2.1.2
k=1
(f (k) f (k + r)) =
f (k+r)f (k)
.
r
Then,
k=1
(f (k) f (k + n)
1
1
k,r f (k) =
k,n f (k)
n k=1
r k=1
2.1.3
(2.18)
(2.19)
2n1
1
k
f (k) =
f
+1
2 k=1
2
k=1
(2.20)
2n
1
f (k) =
f
2 k=1
k=1
k+1
2
k=1
2.2
(2.17)
(1)
k1
2n1
1
k
[ k2 ]
f (k) =
(1) f
+1
2 k=1
2
1.
(2.21)
[ n+1
]
2
[2]
ik f (k) =
(1)k f (2k) + i
k=[ a+1
]
2
k=a
k=[ a+2
]
2
(1)k1 f (2k 1)
(2.22)
(i) f (k) =
k=[ a+1
]
2
k=a
2.2.1
[ n+1
]
2
[2]
(1) f (2k) i
k=[ a+2
]
2
(1)k1 f (2k 1)
(2.23)
Expansion of (1 + i)n
n
(1 + i)n =
[2]
(1)k
k=0
2.2.2
[ n+1
]
n
n
k
i
(1)
2k
2k 1
k=1
(2.24)
[ n+1
]
n
n
k
+i
(1)
2k
2k 1
k=1
(1 i) =
[2]
(1)
k=0
[2]
(1)
k=0
[2]
(1)
k=0
2n
n
2k
k=0
(1)
n
2k
(1)
k=0
2n
2k
(1 + i)n + (1 i)n
2
= ( 2)n cos
4
4n
2k
(2.26)
(2.27)
= (1)n 22n
(2.28)
(2.29)
(2.25)
[ n+1
]
2
(1)
k1
k=1
[ n+1
]
2
(1)
k1
k=1
n
2k 1
n
2k 1
(1)
(1)
2n
k1
4n
2k + 1
n
2k + 1
(2.30)
= ( 2) sin
=0
n
4
(2.31)
(2.32)
(2.33)
(2.34)
(2.35)
n
Expansions of cos 3 +i sin 3
n
n k
3 = 2n cos
2k
3
(2.36)
n
n
2n 3
k
3 =
sin
2k + 1
3
3
(2.37)
[2]
(1)
k=0
[ n1
]
2
(1)
k=0
2.2.4
(1)
k=0
2n1
(1 + i)n (1 i)n
2i
2k + 1
2n + 1
n
k
(1)
= (1)[ 2 ] 2n
2k + 1
k=0
2n + 1
n+1
k
(1)
= (1)[ 2 ] 2n
2k
k=0
k=0
2.2.3
[ n1
]
2
k=0
n1
n
Expansions of cos 6 +i sin 6
n
n 1
2 3
=
cos
2k 3k
3
6
(2.38)
n
1
2 3
=
3
sin
2k + 1 3k
3
6
(2.39)
[2]
(1)k
k=0
[ n1
]
2
k=0
(1)k
2.3
2.3.1
na
f (k) =
k=a
k=0
f (k) =
k=a
2.3.2
k=a
f (n k),
(2.40)
a0
f (a + n k),
(2.41)
a0
2n
1 2n
2n1
=2
+
k
2 n
k=0
2n
k=0
2n
k=1
nk
=2
2n 1
+
,
n
2n1
2n
k=1
n+k
=2
2n1
(2.42)
(2.43)
n1
1 2n
n
n
2n
2n
2n 1
2n1
=
=2
,
nk
n+k
n
k=1
k=1
2n 1
k
k=0
[2]
2n
=2
2n2
k=0
2k
=2
2n2
2n 1
+
,
n
n1
1 + (1)n 2n 1
+
,
2
n
4n
4n 1
4n2
=2
+
2k
2n
k=0
9
n1
(2.44)
(2.45)
(2.46)
(2.47)
(2.48)
[ n1
]
2
k=0
2n
2k + 1
=2
2n2
n1
4n
= 24n2 = 42n1 ,
2k
+
1
k=0
[2]
[2]
2n
2n
2n 1
2n2
=
=2
+
n
2k
n
+
2k
n
k=0
k=0
(2.52)
k=0
4n
2n 2k
4n
k=0
2k
k=1
k=0
k=0
4n
2n + 2k
4n
4n 2k
f (k) =
k=1
n
k=0
(2.50)
n1
(2.51)
[2]
(2.49)
n1
[n
]
[n
]
2
2
2n
2n
1 2n
2n2
=
=2
+
n
2k
n
+
2k
2 n
k=0
k=0
n
1 (1)n 2n 1
+
,
2
n
(f (k) + f (n k + 1)) +
k=1
(f (k) + f (n k)) +
[ n1
]
2
k=0
n
k
=2
n1
=2
4n2
1 4n
+
2 2n
n+1
2
(2.54)
1 + (1)n n
f
,
2
2
= 22n ,
n 2 (2.55)
n1
(2.56)
(2.57)
n1
(2.58)
n0
r+n
r
n 1 k
n + 2k
n
k
f (k) = (1)
(1)
f (k + n),
k
k
k=n
k=0
10
(2.53)
1 4n
+
2 2n
1 + (1)n n
,
4
[ n2 ]
2n + 1
k=0
=2
4n2
1 (1)n
[ n1
]
2
f (k) =
r, n 0
(2.59)
2.3.3
f (k, j) =
k=0 j=0
2.4
j
n
(2.60)
f (n k, n j)
j=0 k=0
n1
n1
2k + 1
4k + 1
f
=
f
,
4n
4n
k=0
k=0
n1
(2.61)
(1) f
k=0
2k + 1
4n
n1
4k + 1
=
f
,
4n
k=0
k=0
(1) f
2k + 1
4n
2n1
k=0
11
4k + 1
,
4n
n1
(2.62)
n1
(2.63)
3
3.1
Remark 3.1 In Section 3.1, we assume a and b are nonnegative integers. We assume p is a positive
integer. Furthermore, we assume that ab ab+1 ... an an+1 an+2 an+3 . Lastly, recall
the [x] is the greatest integer in x.
3.1.1
(r)
f (x) dx = (b)
ar
r=b
an+1
f (x) dx +
ab
r=b+1
((r) (r 1))
an+1
f (x) dx
ar
(3.1)
r=a
((r) (r 1))(n + 1 r) =
n
r=a
((1) (1)
r1
r=a
)(n r + 1) =
(1)r (nr + 1) =
r=0
r=0
r1
n
r=0
r=1
f (r) = nf (n)
f (k)
k=1
(r) (n a + 1)(a 1)
r=a
(1)r (1)a1 (n a + 1)
(1)n + 2n + 3
4
(n r + 1) =
(3.5)
(3.6)
r = n2n1
n1
r=1
n
r (f (r + 1) f (r))
nf (n + 1)
=
k
n+1
k=1
12
(3.3)
(3.4)
n
r=0
(3.2)
f (k + 1) f (k)
k+1
k
(3.7)
(3.8)
r=1
r! = nn!
k
n
f (k + 1)
f (k)
k=1
k=1
(3.9)
r2 r!
r=1
(f (n + 1))n
= n
k=1 f (k)
(k (k 1) ) f (k) = n f (n + 1)
k=1
(3.10)
k p (f (k + 1) f (k))
(3.11)
n
p
(k (k 1) ) f (k) =
(1)
k pj f (k)
j k=1
j=1
k=1
(3.12)
k p
n
f (k + 1)
(3.13)
k=1
3.1.2
n1
f (k)
r=b
= (f (n + 1))n
(f (k))(k1)
p k p
k=1
f (x) dx =
ar
an+1
(3.14)
f (x) dx
ab
2r + 3
1
=
1
(r + 1)2 (r + 2)2
(n + 2)2
(3.15)
2r + 5
1
1
=
2
2
(r + 2) (r + 3)
4 (n + 3)2
(3.16)
r=0
r=0
r=0
2r + 2a + 1
1
1
= 2
,
2
2
(r + a) (r + a + 1)
a
(n + a + 1)2
n
3r2 + 9r + 7
1
=1
3
3
(r + 1) (r + 2)
(n + 1)3
r=0
13
a1
(3.17)
(3.18)
3r2 + 3r + 1
r3 (r + 1)3
r=1
r=0
(3.20)
(3.21)
rr! = (n + 1)! 1
(3.22)
r
1
=1
(r + 1)!
(n + 1)!
(3.23)
r2 + 2r
1
=
1
(r + 1)2 (r!)2
((n + 1)!)2
(3.24)
r=0
r=0
r=0
r=0
1
1
(r + 1)p
r=0
(3.19)
r=0
=1
1
1
r+1
r=1
1
1
=1
p
(r!)
((n + 1)!)p
1
1
=1
r!
( (n + 1)!
r r
=1
r (r 1)!
14
(3.25)
(3.26)
(3.27)
3.1.3
r
b
(1)
f (x) dx = (1)
ar
r=b
ab+1
f (x) dx + (1)
ab
an+2
(3.28)
f (x) dx
an+1
r=b
(3.30)
k=0
(1)k
k=0
1
1
(1)n
= +
(k + 1)(k + 3)
4 2(n + 2)(n + 3)
1
1
=
(k + 1)(k + 3)
4
(3.32)
k 2 + 3k + 1
n+1
= (1)n
(k + 2)!
(n + 2)!
(3.33)
(1)k
k=0
(1)k
k=0
(3.31)
(1)k
k=0
n
n
r
r
(1)
f (x) dx =
(1)
k 2 + 3k + 1
=0
(k + 2)!
(3.34)
3.1.4
r=0
ar
r=2
ar+1
f (x) dx +
ar
15
a1
f (x) dx + (1)
a0
an+3
f (x) dx
an+2
(3.35)
r=0
(1) (F (r + 3) F (r)) =
r=2
+(1)n (F (n + 3) F (n + 2))
n
(1)r =
r=0
1 + (1)n
2
(3.37)
(2n + 1)(1)n 1
n n+1
(1) r =
= (1)
4
2
r=0
(1)r r2 = (1)n
r=0
3.2
3.2.1
n
k=1
(3.36)
n2 + n
2
(3.38)
(3.39)
n1
k=1
(k)(f (k + 1) f (k))
(3.40)
k=1
n1
f (k)
f (n) f (k) f (k + 1)
= f (1)
k(k + 1)
n + 1 k=1
k+1
k=1
k=1
2k + 1
1
=
2
3
3
k (k + 1)
k (k + 1)
k=1
1
1
2
=
1
=
2
k(k + 1)2
k 2 (k + 1)
6
k=1
16
(3.41)
(3.42)
(3.43)
3.2.2
ak bk =
k=a+1
3.2.3
3.3
k=a+1
n1
n1
n
1
ui dun =
ui
ui
duk
uk
i=0
i=1
k=1
i=1
(3.44)
(3.45)
Taylors Theorem
Remark 3.2 Let f (x) = ni=0 ai xi , where the ai are independent of x. Let f (k) (x) denote the k th
derivative of f (x). Let f (k) (y) be the k th derivative with respect to x evaluated at y.
Taylors Theorem
f (x) =
(x y)k
k!
k=0
xk
f (x + y) =
k!
k=0
f (x) =
xk
k=0
3.4
k!
(3.46)
f (k) (y)
(3.47)
f (k) (y)
(3.48)
f (k) (0)
ji
xi
(x1 + h1 , x2 + h2 , ..., xn + hn ) =
k=0
k!
j,0j
i k,
n
i=1 ji =k
k!
j1 !j2 !...jn !
hj11
j1
x1
hj22
17
j2
x2
...hjnn
jn
xn
(x1 , ..., xn )
(3.49)
3.5
Remark 3.3 In Section 3.5, we assume u and v be rtimes differentiable functions of x, where
r 0 and integral.
Leibnitz Formula
3.5.1
r rk
dr
r d u dk v
(uv)
=
dxr
k dxrk dxk
k=0
k
k=0
k=0
xr
n+1+k k
n+1
x =
x
x ,
r
(1 x)r+1
r
k=0
k
|x| < 1
(3.51)
2n + k 1
= 22n
k
n
2
k=1
(3.52)
r
xr
n n n! n r
k!
xk
x =
+
x x
r
(1 x)r+1
r
r! k=0 k (k r + n)! (1 x)k+1
(3.53)
xn
2n 2n
2n
xk
2n
x =
+
x
x
n
(1 x)n+1
n
k + n (1 x)k+1
k=0
2n
k
k=0
k+n
k=0
3.6
(3.50)
n
1
2n n
2n
xk+n
x =
+
x
(1 x)n+1
n
k + n (1 x)k+1
k=0
k
(3.54)
(3.55)
Remark 3.4 In Section 3.6, we will let Dz represent differentiation with respect to z. Hence,
Dzn f (x) is the nth derivative of f (x) with respect to z, i.e. Dzn f (x) = Dz Dz ...Dz f (x), where
the product contains n factors. We will let Dx represent differentiation with respect to x. We also
assume that x is a function of z, i.e. x = x(z). Finally, we let, , unless otherwise specified, denote
a nonnegative integer.
18
3.6.1
Dx f (x)
=0
Applications of Version 1
(1)
Dzn f (x)|z=a+bx =
(1)
j=0
1 n
D f (x),
bn x
(3.56)
xj Dzn xj
(3.57)
b = 0
Remark 3.5 In the following identity, is any real number. Also, we assume u = u(x).
Dxn u
j k
=
(1)
(1)
uj Dxn uj
k j=0
j
k=0
n
(3.58)
= (xDx ) f (x) =
Dx f (x)ez
=0
(1)
(1)
j=0
jn
(3.59)
Dxn
Dxn
Dzn
1
1
j
=
(1)
Dzn xj
j+1
x
j x
=0 j=0
(3.60)
Dzn
n
1
1
j n+1
=
(1)
Dzn xj
j+1
x
j
+
1
x
j=0
(3.61)
1
f (x)
1
f (x)
(1)
=0 j=0
j=0
(1)
n+1
1
(f (x))j+1
1
j + 1 (f (x))j+1
Dxn (f (x))j
(3.62)
Dxn (f (x))j
(3.63)
i
Remark 3.7 In the following identity, assume f (x) =
i=0 ai x , with f (0) = a0 = 0. Note that
all ai are independent of x. Furthermore, assume for a nonnegative integer ,
() j
()
(f (x)) =
j=0 bj x . Once again, all bj are independent of x.
19
(k)
j
bj
1
xj
k j +1
=
(1)
f (x)
j! k=0
k + 1 ak+1
0
j=0
(3.64)
Remark 3.8 In the following two identities, both u and x are functions of z.
Dzn
u
x
Dzn
u
x
n
k=0
Dznk u
=0
n
k=0
1
(1)
Dzk xj
j+1
j x
j=0
Dznk u
k + 1 (1)j
j=0
j+1
xj+1
Dzk xj
(3.65)
(3.66)
Remark 3.9 In the following two identities, assume f is any ntimes differentiable function. Also
assume a is independent of x
(a x)n+1 n
Dx
n!
(a x)n+1 n
Dx
n!
f (x)
ax
f (a) f (x)
ax
(a x)k
k=0
= f (a)
k!
Dxk f (x)
(a x)k
k=0
k!
Dxk f (x)
(3.67)
(3.68)
n
1 (k) 1
1
f (x)
k n
nk
f (x)
=
(1)
Dx
k
x
k
x
x
xk
k=0
20
(3.69)
Remark 3.11 The following identity is a generalization of the Version 1 due to R. Most. He assumes that both f and are (n + m)times differentiable functions, where m is an arbitrary
nonnegative integer.
Dzn f (x)
n+m
k=0
j
k
(1)k k
x
j k
kj n
Dx (f (x)(x))
(1)
x Dz
k!
j
(x)
j=0
(3.70)
Remark 3.12 In the following identity, due to R. Most, and are arbitrary real numbers.
Dzn x
3.6.2
n+m
= ( + )
n+m
n+m
(1)
j=0
n + m x+j
Dzn xj
j
+j
j
Dzn f (x) =
An
j (z)Dx f (x),
(3.71)
(3.72)
j=0
where
Anj (z)
1
j!
3.6.3
(3.73)
j
n
1
n!
1 k1 j 1
1
n
k
k
Dz f (x) =
Dx f (x)
D x
...
D x
,
(3.74)
k!
j1 !j2 !...j ! k1 ! z
k ! z
k=1
where the inner sum is extended over all partitions such that i ji = k and i=1 ji ki = n.
21
Iterative Series
Remark 4.1 In this chapter, recall that [x] is the greatest integer in x.
4.1
[2]
n
[2] n
Ar,k =
r=0 k=0
4.1.1
(4.1)
Ar,k
k=0 2k
r=0
r
r=0
f (r) =
(1)
r=0
r=0
r=0
r=0
n 2
(4.2)
f (r)
[ 2 ] 2k1
f (r)
1 + (1)n n
=
2
2
2
(4.3)
k=1 r=0
r 2
n
n
n r
=n
(4.4)
[ 2 ] 2k1
n
n
2n
k=1 r=0
n 1 + 3n[ n ] 4[ n ]2
2
(4.5)
(4.6)
rk
r
r=0 k=0
r=0
22
ar = an+2 1
(4.7)
r=0
2r cos
r
3
2n+1 3
(n + 1)
=
sin
3
3
(4.8)
[r]
n
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
[r] n
Ai,k ,
(4.9)
i=a ri
4.2
k]
n [
Ai,k =
k=1 i=1
4.2.1
n] n
i=1
Ai,k
(4.10)
k=i2
[ n] n
n
[ k]f (k) =
f (k)
(4.11)
i=1 k=i2
k=1
2[ n]2 + 3[ n] + 1
[ k] = [ n] n + 1
6
k=1
(4.12)
[ n]
n
[ k]
1
[ n]
=2
n
2k
2
2i2
i=1
k=1
(4.13)
[ k] 1
=
2k
2i2 1
i=1
k=1
(4.14)
23
4.3
1
n 2
Ai,k =
i=1 k=1
4.3.1
n 1
2
Ai,k
(4.15)
k=1 i=1+[log2 k]
k=1
n 1
2
k=1
n 1
2
f (k)
(4.16)
i=1 k=1
(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.19)
n 1
2
k=1
k=1
f (k)
[log2 k] = (n 2)2n + 2
k=1
n1
2
n 2
1
n 1
2
(1)k [log2 k] = 0
(4.20)
(1)k [log2 k] = n
(4.21)
k=1
n
k=1
1
n 2
f (i) =
i=1 k=1
4.4
n 1
2
f (i)
(4.22)
k=1 i=1+[log2 k]
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
n
n
i=a k=i
24
Ai,k
(4.23)
4.4.1
na
nk
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
Ai,k =
Ai,k =
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
Ani,k
(4.26)
na
i
Ani,k+ni
(4.27)
na
na
Ani,k+ni
(4.28)
n
na
Ani,ka+ni
(4.29)
k=a i=ka
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
4.4.2
na
n
k=0 i=k
Ai,k =
n
k
(4.25)
i=0 k=0
k=a i=a
n
k
Ai,k+i
i=0 k=ni
k=a i=a
k
n
n
ni
i=a k=0
k=a i=a
n
k
(4.24)
k=0 i=a
n
k
n
k
Ai,nk
n
n
(4.30)
Ani+a,k+ni
k=a i=k
k=0 i=0
Ai,k =
2n
i
i=0 k=0
n
k
Aik,k
f (j) =
k=a j=a
2n
i
n
n
j=a k=j
25
Aik,k
(4.31)
i=n+1 k=n+1
f (j)
(4.32)
jf (j) = (n + 1)
j=a
j=a
f (j)
n
k
f (j)
(4.33)
k=a j=a
n
n
x
x + 2k1
x
k
=
(n
+
1)
+ [x]
k
k
n
2
2
2
k=1
k=1
(4.34)
k
mn + n + m n + 1
k
=
m
m+2
m+1
k=0
(4.35)
4.5
Remark 4.4 In Section 4.5, we assume a and r are integers such that 0 a n and r 1.
n
rk
Ai,k =
k=a i=a
4.5.1
rn
Ai,k
(4.36)
Ai,k =
k=1 i=1
n
3k
Ai,k =
k=0 i=k
(4.37)
3n
n
Ai,k
(4.38)
rn
i1
n
2k
Ai,k
k=1 i=1
i=1
2n
n
Ai,k =
2n
i=0
26
rn(n 1)
2
(4.39)
i
i[ n+1
](in)
k=[ i+1
]
2
Ai,k
(4.40)
2k
Ai,k =
Ai,k =
Ai,k
(4.42)
Ai,ik
(4.43)
k=[ i+2
]
3
[2]
Ai,k =
i=1 k=0
k=1 i=k
4.6
(4.41)
i=0
k=0 i=k
2k
Ai,k
k=0 i=k
3k
n
k
Ai,k =
k=1 i=1
4.6.1
i=1 k=1+[
Ai,k
(4.44)
i1]
n
k
Ai,k =
k=1 i=1
n
k
Ai,k =
k=1 i=1
k=2 i=2k
[2]
i=1 k=1+[
Ai,k =
(4.45)
Ai,k
(4.46)
Ai,k
(4.47)
i1]
27
Ai,k
4.7
Remark 4.6 In the following identity, we define !1 as the inverse function of !. That is, x! = n if
and only if !1 n = x. Furthermore, we assum !1 1 = 1.
n
k!
Ai,k =
n!
(4.48)
Ai,k
k=2 i=2
Remark 4.7 In the following identity, we assume g(x) is a function such that xx = z if and only if
x = g(z).
2
n
k
Ai,k =
k=2 i=2
4.8
(4.49)
Ai,k
i=2 k=1+[g(i1)]
Let
(r)k1
f (k1 )
n
kr
kr1
...
kr =0 kr1 =0 kr2 =0
k2
f (k1 )
k1 =0
j
(r)j
4.9
n+r
,
k+r
r1
(4.50)
n, k 0
j=0 i=0
Ai,j
i=0
Ai,i =
n
n
j=0 i=0
i=j
28
Ai,j =
n
n
i=0 j=0
j=i
Ai,j
(4.51)
4.9.1
vj
j=0
u =
i=0
i=j
n
n
j=0 i=0
n
n
u =n
j=0 i=0
i=j
...
kr =0 kr1 =0
kr =kr
ui v j
n
ui v j
i=0
(4.53)
ui
i=0
u k1 = n
r1
uj ,
j=0 i=0
i=j
...
kr =0 kr1 =0
kr =kr
(4.54)
j=0
k1 =0
k1 =k2
where the left hand side is an rfold iterated sum for fixed positive integers r and n.
n n
n
n
ui =
ui
n
(4.52)
(4.55)
i=0
uk1 =
k1 =0
k1 =k2
j=0
uj
nr1
(4.56)
where the left hand side is an r iterated product, for r and n fixed positive integers.
n
n
j=0
(4.57)
i=j
j=0
n2 + 3n
(j + 1)ui =
ui
iui
2
i=0
i=0
i=0
i=0
i=j,nj
n
n
j=0 i=0
ui = (n 1)
Ai,j
ui +
i=0
Ai,ni =
i=0
(1)n + 1
u[ n2 ]
2
n
j=0
29
i=0
i=nj
Ai,j
(4.58)
(4.59)
5.1
f (i)(j) =
j=1 i=1
n
f (k)(k) +
k=1
5.1.1
i=1
n1
nj
(j)
j=1
(f (i)(i + j) + f (i + j)(i)) , n 2
n
n
nr
Ai
Bj =
Ak Bk +
(Ak Bk+r + Ak+r Bk ) , n 1
i=0
j=0
f (i)
i=1
k=1
f (k)
(f (k)) + 2
n1
nr
r=1 k=1
k=1
1
k!
k=1
k=1
f (k)f (k + r), n 2
n1
nr
1
1
+
2
, n2
(k!)2
k!(k
+
r)!
r=1 k=1
k=1
1
f (k)
j=1
(5.2)
k1
=n+
n1
(f (k r))2 + (f (k))2
r=1 k=r+1
n1 nr
1
=
j
n 1 r=1 k=1
f (k r)f (k)
1
1
+
k+r k
, n2
(5.3)
(5.4)
1
1
4
=
=
k 2 (k r)2
k 2 (k r)2
120
r=1 k=r+1
k=2 r=1
(5.1)
r=1 k=0
k=0
5.2
f (i)
j=1 i=1
(5.5)
, n2
(5.6)
(5.7)
Remark 5.1 In this Section 5.2, we let [x] denote the greatest integer in x.
k=0
f (k)
2n
k+1
k[ n+1
](kn)
30
f (i)f (k i)
(5.8)
5.2.1
Vandermonde Convolution
n
n
(5.9)
r
q
r+q
=
,
i
k
i
k
i=0
(5.10)
i=0
ki
2n
k
i=0
n
i=0
x f (i)
j=0
x (j)
a k xk
k=0
2x
k=0
x2k
(cosh x) =
(2k)!
k=0
2
xk
(k!)2
k=0
2n
n
(5.11)
n
n
=
x
f (i)(k i)
i
ki
i=0
k=0
2n
(5.12)
ai aki xk
(5.13)
xk k
(5.14)
k=0 i=0
(2x)k
k!
k=0
j=0
2k
2j
k!
i=0
1
1
cosh(2x) +
2
2
(2k)!
k=0
(k!)4
(5.16)
xk
1
k
=
x
=
xi
,
(1 x)n
k
k=0
i=0
31
(5.15)
|x| < 1
(5.17)
5.2.2
i=0
a1,i xi . Then,
(f (x)) =
(5.18)
ar,k xk ,
k=0
where
ar,k =
ar1,i a1,ki
i=0
5.3
Remark 5.2 In Section 5.3, we let [x] denote the greatest integer in x.
n
[ n1
]
2
ai ani = 2
i=0
ai ani +
1 + (1)n
2
i=0
a2[n ] ,
n1
(5.19)
ai ani+1 = 2
i=1
5.3.1
[2]
ai ani+1 +
1 (1)n
i=1
a2[n+1 ] ,
2
n2
(5.20)
ai a2ni+1 = 2
i=1
2n+1
ai a2ni+1 ,
i=1
ai a2ni+2 = 2
i=1
ai a2ni+2 + a2n+1 ,
i=1
n1
ak a2n1k =
k=1
[ n1
]
2
i=0
n
i
n1
a2n1
2
2
1 2n
1 + (1)n n
n ,
=
2 n
4
2
32
(5.21)
n1
(5.22)
(5.23)
n1
(5.24)
2
n1
2n
i
i=0
2
1 4n
1 2n
=
,
2 2n
2 n
2
n
2n + 1
i
i=0
1 4n + 2
=
,
2 2n + 1
n1
n1
(5.25)
(5.26)
Remark 6.1 In this chapter, we assume, unless otherwise specified, that a and p are nonegative
integers.
6.1
6.1.1
Basic Properties
Communativity Property
n
f (k)(k) =
k=a
k=a
(f (k))p =
k=a
f (k)
k=a
f (2k)f (2k + 1) =
k=0
f (k)
(k)
(6.1)
p1
(6.2)
k=a
2n+1
f (k),
k=0
n0
2n+1
k
f (2k)
=
(f (k))(1)
f (2k + 1)
k=0
k=0
k
f (2k)
=
(f (k))(1)
f (2k + 1) k=0
k=0
33
(6.3)
(6.4)
(6.5)
6.1.2
Exponent Property
n
f (k) =
k=a
k=a
(6.6)
f (k)
(6.7)
= na+1
k=a
k =
2
n2
n a +a
2
(6.8)
k=a
k n
x(1) (k ) = 1,
n = 0,
k=0
x = 0
(6.9)
x( k ) = x2
(6.10)
k=0
6.1.3
(f (k))p = p
k=a
6.1.4
logb f (k)
(6.11)
k=a
f (k) = e
k=a
n
k=a
(1 + f (k)) = e
k=a
f (k)
k=a
j=2 (1)
k=a
ln f (k)
j1 (f (k))
j
34
, |f (x)| < 1, a x n
(6.12)
(6.13)
6.1.5
(6.14)
k = n!
k=1
Remark 6.2 In the following identity, we assume b is a nonnegative integer. If the reader wants to
let b be an arbitrary complex number, then he or she must use the convention (b) = (b 1)!.
n
(k + b) =
k=a
(n + b)!
(6.15)
(b + a 1)!
Remark 6.3 In the following identity, we assume b is a positive integer greater than n. Otherwise,
the reader must use the fact that (b) = (b 1)! whenever b is a complex number which is not a
negative integer.
n
k=a
(b k) =
(b a)!
(6.16)
(b n 1)!
Remark 6.4 In the next eight identities, x is any complex number for which the corresponding
factorial expression will be defined via the Gamma function (see Remark 6.2).
n
n+1
(2j + x) = 2
j=0
j=0
n+1
(2j x) = 2
n + x2 !
x
,
1
!
2
n x2 !
x
,
2 1 !
n0
x
x
n
+
!
n
!
2
2
(4j 2 x2 ) = 22n+2 x
,
x
1 ! 2 1 !
2
j=0
j=0
(2j + 1 x) = 2
n+1
(6.19)
n0
(6.20)
n + x+1
!
2
x+1
,
1 !
2
n0
(6.21)
j=0
x+1
!
2
n0
(6.18)
n+1
(2j + 1 + x) = 2
n+
x+1
(6.17)
n0
35
1 !
j=0
(2j + 1) x
=2
j=0
j=0
2n+2
n + x+1
2
n+1
n x1
2
((n + 1)!)2 ,
n+1
x(x + n)!
,
(x n 1)!
(x2 j 2 ) =
(j 2 x2 ) = (1)n+1
n0
(6.23)
n0
x(x + n)!
,
(x n 1)!
(6.22)
(6.24)
n0
Remark 6.5 In the following identity, we assume b is a positive integer. The resulting factorial
expressions are evaluated by use of the Gamma function (see Remark 6.2).
bn n + 1b !
1
(1 + bk) =
(6.25)
!
b
k=1
n
(2k + 1) =
(2n + 1)!
k=1
n
2n n!
2k = 2n n!,
k=1
n
(6.26)
n1
(6.27)
n1
(6.28)
k=1
6.1.6
a
n
a
n
n+a
1+
1+
=
=
,
k
k
a
k=1
k=1
n1
k=1
1
1+
k
1+
k=1
n1
k=1
= np ,
n (2n)!
=
,
k
(n!)2
n
= (1)n+1 ,
k
36
n 1,
n1
n1
n2
a1
(6.29)
(6.30)
(6.31)
(6.32)
Remark 6.6 In the following three identities, we assume a is a positive integer. The corresponding
factorials are evaluated via the Gamma function (see Remark 6.2).
n
k=1
n
k=1
1
1 2 2
ak
k=1
k1
j=1
n2
1 2
j
n1
j=1
6.1.7
1
1+
ak
n+ a1
,
n
n + a1 ! n a1 !
= 1 1
,
! a !(n!)2
a
(6.33)
n1
1
1 2 2
ak
n1
sin a
1
= 1 1 =
! a !
a
a
(1)k1 k 2 2k 2n n j
=
22k n2
2j
kj
j=0
n2
1 2
j
(1)n1 2n
=
,
2
n
n1
(6.34)
(6.35)
(6.36)
(6.37)
f (k) =
k=a
k=a
f (n k + a)
k 2 = (n!)2 ,
k=1
n1
k=1
n+1
k=1
37
= 1,
(6.39)
n1
(6.38)
n2
n1
(6.40)
(6.41)
k! =
k=0
n1
(k + 1)nk =
k=0
n1
k=0
(n k)k+1 =
k=0
(n k)!
(6.42)
n1
(6.43)
(k+1)
n
n1
n1
1
k
(k+1)
=
n
1
,
k! k=0
n
k=1
k=0
6.1.8
f (k + 1)
f (k)
k=a
f (k 1)
f (k)
k=a
f (n + 1)
(6.44)
f (a)
f (a 1)
f (n)
(6.45)
a1
k=1
n
r
r=1 k=1
1
1+
k
k=a
k=a
n
k=a
k=a
= (n + 1)p ,
(6.46)
n1
n1
r=1
1
1
k
p
1
1+
k
1
1 2
k
1
1+
k
a1
n
a1
a
a1
(6.48)
a2
(6.49)
n+1
a
1
1 2
k
1
1+
n
a1
a
38
(6.47)
a2
a2
(6.50)
(6.51)
k+1
n2 + n
=
=
k,
k1
2
k=2
k=1
n
k=2
ln(k + 1)
k=2
ln(k 2) = ln
(1 + k)2p
k=1
kp
k
n
r+k
k=1
k = ln
k=1
= (n + 1)2p (n!)p ,
r
1
=
(n + j)nr+j ,
r
(n!) j=1
39
(6.52)
n2
n2 + n
2
n1
r, n 1
n2
(6.53)
(6.54)
(6.55)
Remark 6.7 In the following identity, we assume r is a positive integer such that r n + 1,
for fixed integer n 1. If the reader prefers to let r represent an arbitrary complex number, the
factorials must be evaluated by the Gamma function (See Remark 6.2).
n
rk
k=1
k+1
r
n+1
r
1
(r 1)!
(n + 1)!(r n 1)!
(6.56)
Remark 6.8 In the following identity, we assume r = 0 or r = 1. If the reader prefers to let r be
any complex number which is not a positive integer greater than or equal to 2, he or she should
ignore the binomial coefficient representation and evaluate the factorial by the Gamma function
(See Remark 6.2).
n+1
k+1
(n + 1)!(1 r)!
= 1r =
,
k
+
1
r
(n
+
1
r)!
r
k=1
n
6.1.9
(6.57)
k=a
n
1
1+
k
2k1
k=1
n
k=1
6.1.10
n1
2k1
(a 1)!(n + 1)n
,
aa1 n!
a = 1
(6.58)
k 2
n
k
= (n + 1)
,
k
+
1
k=1
n1
(6.59)
n1
(6.60)
(f (n k))k+1
(6.61)
n2
k=1
1
1+
k
k 2
= (n + 1)n ,
i=0 k=0
f (k) =
(f (k))nk+1 =
k=0
k=0
k k k! = (n!)n+1 ,
n1
(6.62)
k k1 k! = (n!)n ,
n1
(6.63)
k=1
n
k=1
40
6.2
Trigometric Products
Remark 6.9 In Section 6.2, we assume the reader is familiar with the Weirstrass Factorization
Theorem. The reader may find this important theorem on the Wikkipedia website.
Product for sin()
sin() =
k=1
2
1 2 2
k
(6.64)
k=1
42
1
(2k 1)2 2
(6.65)
Remark 7.1 In the following chapter, we assume, unless otherwise specified, that r and n are
positive integers.
7.1
(7.1)
rn r!
= n!
r (n + 1)(n + 2)...(n + r)
(7.2)
lim
lim
lim r
lim r
k=1
1
= n!
1 + nk
1+
k=1
41
n
1
=
k
n!
(7.3)
(7.4)
7.2
Remark 7.2 In Section 7.2, we assume a such that a 2. We assume n is a nonnegative integer.
We define the sequence (u0,n )
n=0 by the recursive definition (an 1)u0,n = u0,n+1 with u0,1 = 1.
u0,n+1 = u0,nr+1
r1
k=0
u0,n+1 = u0,0
k=0
(an ka 1)
(an ka 1)
(7.5)
(7.6)
Remark 7.3 In the following four identities, we let a = 2. Also, any noninteger factorial is
evaluted by the Gamma function, i.e. (x + 1) = x, for all complex numbers x, except negative
integers.
u0,n
2n1
=
(7.7)
1
n
!
2
(7.8)
2n 1
2
2n
(2n 2k 1) =
k=0
n 12 !
(2n 2k 1) = 2
1
n
!
2
k=0
r1
2n+1
(2k + 1) =
n+1 n 3 !
(1)
2
k=0
n
42
(7.9)
(7.10)
7.3
n+
2r+1
2
1
22n
2n
2
2n + 2k + 1
2k + 1
k=0
n + 12
2n 2n + 1
=
n
n
22n
n+
n
n+
n
7
2
5
2
(7.13)
(7.14)
(7.15)
(7.12)
2n (2n + 1)(2n + 3)
n
3 22n
3
2
n+
n
(7.11)
Remark 7.4 In the following three identities, any non integer factorials are evaluated via the
Gamma function (see Remark (7.3))
(2n + )! 1
!
n + 2
2
,
= 2n
(7.16)
n
2 !n! n + 1
!
2
where n is a positive integer and is a nonnegative integer.
,
= 2n
(7.17)
n
2 (2k)!n! n + 2k1
!
2
where n is a positive integer and k is any real number.
2n + 2k
2n
2n
n
=2
2n
n+k
n
n + 2k1
2
,
n
43
(7.18)
Remark 7.5 In the following three identities x is an arbitrary complex number, h is any nonzero
complex number and n is a positive integer.
n1
(x + kh) = h n!
k=0
n1
k=0
+n1
n
(x kh) = h n!
n
lim h n!
h0
7.4
x
h
(7.19)
(7.20)
(7.21)
= xn
Remark 7.6 In Section 7.4, we let [x] denote the greatest integer in x.
7.4.1
2k1
k=2
([ n] + 1)
2 1
n
(1 + [ k]),
k=1
[ n]
n[ n]2 +1
2k1
k=2
7.4.2
(7.22)
n2
(1 + [ k]),
k=1
n2
(7.23)
k=1
(1)k1
1+
k
k=2
(1)k
1
k
k=1
=1+
1 (1)n
,
2n
1 1 (1)n
+
,
2
4n
(1)k1
1+
k
44
=1
n1
n2
(7.24)
(7.25)
(7.26)
7.4.3
k=2
7.5
7.5.1
1 + (1)n
,
2n
=1+
(1 + x )(1 x
2i1
2n
j=n+1
(1 x ) =
j=1
(1 xj+n )
(7.28)
i=1
2n
j=1
(1 xj )
(7.29)
(1 + xj )
(7.30)
i=1
7.6
(7.27)
n2
i=1
7.5.3
7.5.2
(1)k
1+
k
j=1
a
and
k=0 x
a
k=0 (1 + x )
Remark 7.7 In Section 7.6, we assume a is any nonzero real number, except 1. Also, we may
assume that x is any nonzero complex number for which the products and resulting functions are
defined.
n
xa = x
an+1 1
a1
(7.31)
k=0
n
k=0
1+
1
x2 k
k=0
1+x
2k
x
x1
45
x2
n+1
1
x2n+1
x1
(7.32)
(7.33)
n1
1+x
2k
k=0
x2
k=1
1 x2
=
1x
(7.34)
k
n+1
x2 1 = x2 x2 ,
n1
1
1
1
1
1
,
k
k
2
2n+1
2
2
x
x
x
x
k=1
1
1
1
1 2k = 2 ,
k
2
x
x
x
k=1
n1
|x| 1
(7.35)
(7.36)
(7.37)
2 2 = 22
n+1 1
(7.38)
k=0
n
k=0
1
1 + 2k
2
1 + 22
k=0
k=0
7.6.1
=2 1
22n+1
= 22
1
1 + 2k
2
n+1
(7.39)
(7.40)
(7.41)
=2
ir k1
k=1 i=0
k=1
n 1
r
x =
j=0
1+x
3k1
+x
23k1
1 xr
1x
n, r 1, x = 1
(7.42)
1 x3
=
,
1x
46
n 1, x = 1
(7.43)
8
8.1
f (k) = f (1)
k=1
8.1.1
k=2
f (k)
1 + k1
i=1
f (i)
n2
(8.1)
n
n
1
1
1
=
1+ k
= 2 n1
k1
2
2 2
2
k=1
k=2
k=2
k=1
k=2
k=1
(8.3)
=2
1
1
2n
=
1+ 2
=
k(k + 1) k=2
k 1
n+1
1
1+ k
2 2
1
1+ 2
k 1
k=2
k=1
4(k + 1)
1+
(k 1)(k + 2)(3k + 2)
9
4
k
k
2
=
1+
=2
(k + 1)! k=2
(k + 1)! k 1
(n + 1)!
k=2
k
1+
(k + 1)! k 1
47
(8.4)
(8.5)
=2
n
1
1
4(k + 1)
1 n(3n + 5)
=
1+
=
k(k + 2)
3 k=2
(k 1)(k + 2)(3k + 2)
4 (n + 1)(n + 2)
(8.2)
=2
(8.6)
(8.7)
(8.8)
(8.9)
k=1
n
k(k + 2)
3
k(k + 2)
1
=
1+
=1
2
2
2
2
(k + 1) (k!)
4 k=2
(k + 1) ((k!) 1)
((n + 1)!)2
(8.10)
k(k + 2)
1+
(k + 1)2 ((k!)2 1)
(8.11)
k=2
8.2
4
3
Product as a Series
n
(1 + f (k)) = 1 + f (1) +
k=1
8.2.1
f (k)
k=2
k1
(1 + f (i))
(8.12)
i=1
Remark 8.1 In the following five identities, we assume r and n are positive integers.
k+r1 1
1 n+r
1
=
k
r
r
r
k=1
n
1 k+r1 1
1
lim n1
=
r r
r
k
n!
k=1
k+r
1
=
k
k
+
r
k=1
n+r
r
n
1 k+r
1
1
lim n1
=
r r
r
k+r
n!
k=1
lim
r0
n+r
r
1
k=1
(8.13)
(8.14)
(8.15)
(8.16)
(8.17)
(1 + k)k k k
k!
k=0
lim
(n + 1)n
=
n!
(1 + k)k k k
k=0
k!
48
n1
=e
(8.18)
(8.19)
8.3
i=0
8.4
ui =
n1
u0
k=0
k+1
i=0
ui
i=0 ui
(8.20)
j=0
49
(8.21)