SHAKESPEARE'N VENEDK TACR O Y U N U VE LATN KOMEDS Do. Dr.

Engin Z M E N Shakespeare'in btn oyunlarnn kaynaklar, bu kaynaklarn eitli ynlen ve sonularyle ve yazarn kendisine has amalarm gerekletirmek iin yapma gerekli bulduu deitirmelerle birlikte o kadar etrafl bir ekilde incelenmitir ki bu sahada yeni bir aratrma gereksiz grlebilirdi. Fakat kaynak aratrmasnn pek ok eitli ve hemen gze arpmyan fay dalar ve kullanl yerleri vardr. Kaynaklarn aratrlmas oyundaki baz zorluklarn anlalmasn kolay bir hale getirebilir ve belki oyunu ele al tarzmzda bir deiiklik meydana getirmek suretiyle bir eletirme prob lemini zme yolunu bize gsterir. Orijinal olduunu hi bir zaman iddia etmediimiz bu dnce P. H. Davison'un Volpone oyunu zerindeki bir incelemesinde gayet iyi bir ekilde belirtilmektedir. 1 Bu incelemede yazar Volpone'deki vak'a ya da ahslarn modellerini Yunan Eski Komedisinde bulmaa almaz (zaten byle bir aba sz konusu olamazd) fakat oyunda bulunup da Elizabeth komedisinde raslanlmas normal olmyan hususlarn bahsi geen Yunan komedisinin dolayl etkileri olduunu gstermee gay ret eder. Bir oyunu bu adan ele aln Venedik Taciri iin de yararl olduu inancndayz. Shakespeare bu oyunun vak'asn ve ahslarn Ltin kome disinden almamtr; bunlar Orta alara ait halk hikyelerinde gelir, fakat bu O r t a a kaynaklar Venedik Tacm'ndeki en nemli problemi, yani Shakespeare'in Shylock'a olan tutumunu aydnlatmaz. Bizce bu t u t u m en iyi ekilde Ltin komedisinin baz zelliklerinin altnda aa kar. Zaten Rnesans komedisinin etkilenmi olduu en nemli kaynak Ltin komedisidir. Venedik Taciri ve zellikle Shylock zerinde ok sayda bilgin ve ele tirmeci tarafndan yaplan eitli aratrmalar sadece bu oyunun tefsirine kar duyulan ilginin daima artarak devam ettiini gstermekle kalmaz, ayn zamanda her zamankinden daha da fazla olmak zere, adeta gerek bir insanmkinden byk buutlara sahip olan Shylock'un karakterindeki karmakl daha iyi deerlendirme frsatm da verir. Shylock ve onun dman olan gen Hrstiyanlar zerinde son zamanlarda verilen en taraf sz hkm Shylock'un, en geni anlamiyle "iyi yaama" fikrinin aleyhinde olduu ve oyundaki en nemli iki mefhumu, yani sevgiyi ve paray birle1 "Volpone and the Old Comedy", Modern Language harlerly, Vol. 24, No. 2, J u n e 1963, pp. 51-7.

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tiremediidir. 2 Bu yzden, onu alt eden gen, sevgi dolu, cmert ve zamann modasn temsil eden dier ahslarla karlatrld zaman komedinin atmosferine ve erevesine uymyan bir unsur olarak grlr. 3 O bir Yahudi ya da yabanc olduu iin deil fakat komedinin gerekliliklerine uyamad iin yenilmee mahkmdur. 4 Dorudan doruya Shylock'u ele almadan nce Venedik Taciri ile Ltin komedileri arasndaki benzerlik ve ilikileri belirtmek ve tesbit etmek gerekir. Yalnz daha nce u iki fikir hemen zikredilmelidir: Birincisi, Ltin komedilerinde ve Venedik Taciri'ndeki durum ve ahslarn btnyle ayn olmalarn beklememek lzmdr; nk aradaki yzyllar boyunca hem toplumda hem de toplumun etkiledii dramda ok byk deimeler mey d a n a gelmi bulunuyordu. kincisi, Shakespeare'in Ltin komedisi tarafn d a n ne ekilde etkilenmi olduunu gstermee almak gereksizdir, nk aratrmann amac bu deildir ve zaten, belki Ben Jonson mstesna, Shake speare'in ya da herhangi bir Elizabeth d r a m yazarnn klsik etkileri ne ekilde alm olduunu tespit etmek hemen hemen imknszdr. Shakespeare Ltin komedilerini orijinallerinden ya da ngilizceye veya baka bir modern dile yaplm tercmelerinden okumu ve belki bugn elde bulunmyan tercmeleri kullanm olabilir. Yahut da Shakespeare dorudan doruya veya dolayl bir ekilde Ltin komedilerinden yararlanm olan ingiliz ya da Avrupa sahne oyunlarndan etkilenmi olabilir. Bizim iin nemli nokta, ingiliz Rnesans komedisinin onu bugn bulduumuz ekle gelmesinde Ltin komedilerinin ok byk bir rol oynam olduudur. Ltin komedileri ve Venedik Taciri arasndaki benzerlik ve ilikilerin birka grup iinde incelenmesi en iyi yol olacaktr. Bunun iin nce d r a m tekniiyle ilikisi nisbeten d a h a byk olan arka pln ve sahne zellikleri gibi noktalar zerinde durulacak, sonra temalar ele alnacak ve tipler ve ahslarla incelemee devam edilecek ve Shylock'un kayna ve zellikleri aratrmann arlk noktasn tekil edecektir. 5 I. A R K A PLN

Ltin komedileri baz Yunan Yeni Komedisi oyunlarnn tercmeleri ve adapteleri olduundan ok defa arka pln olarak denizi alrlar. Atina'nn yaknndaki denizden bazan ihtiyar efendi bazan da gen efendiler seyahat ya da ticaret amaciyle hareket ederler. Mesel Plautus'un Mercator adl oyununun ilk sahnesinde, ihtiyar Demipho'nun genliinde deniz ticareti
2 M. V. Doren, " T h e Merchant of Venice", Shakespeare, (New York, 1955), p. 79. 3 Ibid. pp. 83-4. 4 J. R. Brovvn, Shakespeare and His Comedies, (London), p. 73. 5 in this study the references to Latin comedies are from the Loeb Classical Library edition of the works of Plautus and Terence, translated respectively by P. Nixon and J. Sargeaunt. Referen ces to The Merchant of Venice are from the New Penguin Shakespeare edition of the play, edited by W. M. Merchant (1967).

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sayesinde para kazanm olduunu reniriz. imdi ise gen olu Charinus parasn ve zamann memleketinde israf etmektedir. Bu yzden Demipho oluna bir gemi ve eya alp ticaret yapmas iin uzaklara gnderir. Charinus zengin olarak dner. Bunun gibi Bassanio Venedik'te kalr ve hem kendisinin h e m de Antonionun parasn israf eder; halbuki Antonio'nun gemileri de nizleri dolap Antonio iin para kazanmaktadr. Bu parann bir ksmiyle Bassanio gidip Portia'ya evlenme teklif edecek ve bu teebbsnde baar kazanrsa zengin olacaktr. Bassanio bunun iin gene bir deniz yolculuu yapmak zorundadr. Baka bir rnek vermek gerekirse, Platus'un Rudens oyununda esirci Labrax denizde bir kazaya uram ve maln mlkn kaybetmitir. De nizin gvenilmez oluundan yaknr (II.iv.) ki bu bize Antonio'nun gemi lerinin kaza haberlerini ve Shylock'un denizdeki tehlikelerden bahseden szlerini hatrlatr (I.iii.). II. SAHNE Z E L L K L E R

Rnesans dramndaki bir takm sahne ve oyun kuruluu ile ilgili zel likler Ltin komedisinden gelir. Kullanl ok yaygn olan bu zelliklerden be perde dzeni ve sahneye girmek zere olan bir ahsn o anda sahnede olan bir bakas tarafndan haber verilmesi hemen akla gelen iki rnektir. Bu ikincisi iin misl olarak Venedik Taciri'nden aadaki yerleri gstere biliriz: (I.i.57-8), (I.iii.36-7), (II.vi.20), (II.ix.3) ve (V.i.24). Gze d a h a abuk arpan komik zellikler arasnda uan mevkii ve fonksiyonu zikre dilebilir. Ltin komedilerinde komik unsurun byk bir ksm klelerin kendi aralarnda, efendileriyle ya da bakalariyle konumalarndan kar. Venedik Taciri'nde sadece, belli bal fonksiyonu elendirici bir ekilde konu an Launcelot adl bir uak vardr. Ancak Launcelot'un konumasn bugn gerektii kadar komik bulamyorsak suu o an zevki yksek olmyan baz seyircilerini m e m n u n etme amaciyle Launcelot'u derinlikten m a h r u m bir soytar seviyesine indiren yazarda bulabiliriz. (Folio'da konuma balarnda Launcelot ad yerine "Soytar" kelimesi vardr). Rnesans komedisinde Ltin klesi, saf ya da nkteden ve zeki oluuna gre cahil veya sarayl soytar ekline girer. Launcelot Venedik Taciri'nde zeki bir kimse gibi grn mek ve konumak arzusundadr. Bazan Ltin komedisinde grlen saf kle yerinde de Launcelot'un babas Gobbo bulunmaktadr. Bu ihtiyar olunun akalarna hedef olur. Launcelot Shylock'a bir hediye gtrmekte olan ba basna Shylock'un evinin yolunu karmakark bir ekilde tarif ederek onu artr ve bu kadar bir akayla yetinir. Zaten kor olan basn bulamyaca bir evi aramaa gndermee niyeti yoktur (II.ii.369). Bu d u r u m Terentius'un Adelphi adl oyununda da grlr. Kurnaz kle Syrus, kzgn baba Demea'y bandan savmak iin artc bir yol tarafiyle onu bulamyaca bir yere gnderir. Gobbo'nun aksine olarak Demea yola kar ve tabii eli bo dner (IV.ii., V.i.).

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Venedik Taciri'nin son sahnesinin banda Belmont sakinlerine mjde getiren Launcelot'un sahneye garip bir ekilde girdiine ahit oluruz. O r a d a bulunmakta olan Lorenzo'yu aramakta olduu halde onu grmez, duymaz ve tanmazm gibi davranr. Launcelot'un bu ocuka cokunluu uzun ve zdrap verici mahkeme sahnesinden ve Lorenzo ile Jessica'nn efsanelerdeki talihsiz sevgililerden sz etmesinden sonra seyircileri tamamen ne'eli ve kaygsz bir ruh hline sokma niyetine balanabilir, oyunun sonundaki o fars unsurlar tayan "yzk olay" iin de bir hazrlk olabilir. Fakat ama ne olursa olsun bu, Ltin komedilerinde sk sk raslanlan bir d u r u m d u r . Bu komedilerde bazen bir kle ya da parazit nnden ekilmeleri iin bara ara sahneye girer ki grne gre "sola", "wo, ha, h o " diye haykran Launcelot da ayn eyi yapmaktadr. Buna benzer bir ekilde Plautus'un Captivi oyununda parazit Ergasibus yolundaki hayli ahslar tehdit ederek sahneye girer (IV.ii.). Kkken karlm olan olunun sa salim geri geldii mjdesini vermek iin Hegio'yu aramaktadr. Gene de mjdesini vermeden nce orada bulunan Hegio'yu grmemezlikten gelir. Parazit ya da kle bu ekilde hareket ettii zaman daima iyi bir haber getirmekte olup biraz aka yapmann kendisine zarar vermeyeceini bilir. III. TEMALAR A. Ak

Captivi mstesna btn Ltin komedilerinde esas tema ak olup ok defa bir gen kz ya da fahieyi elde etme amacyla hazrlanan entrikalar n plna geer. Bu entrika genellikle gen efendi, onun klesi ve arkadalarnn, gen efendi tarafndan sevilen kadn ele geirme abalarndan doar. Gen efendi sevgilisine kavumasn salayacak paradan her zaman m a h r u m dur. Delikanl ya bu paray ihtiyar babasndan bir hileyle almak ya da sev gilisini bir esircinin veya palavrac askerin elinden kurtarmak zorundadr. Venedik Taciri'nde de buna benzer bir duruma ahit oluruz. Bassanio evlen mek istedii kza gidebilmek iin gereken paraya sahip deildir. Bu paray ona arkada bor verir. Venedik Taciri'nde daha baka aklar da vardr. Lorenzo ile Jessica bir birleriyle evlenmek istemektedirler. Fakat onlarn yolundaki engel parayla ilgili deildir. Babasnn Yahudi olmayan sevgilisiyle evlenmesine izin verme yeceini bilen Jessica onunla kamak zorundadr. Ltin komedilerindeki bu na benzer durumlar daha sonra esirci tipini incelerken gzden geireceiz. Oyunda evlenen dier bir ift de Gratiano ile Nerissadr. Gratiano bir bakma Bassanio'nun srda durumundadr, Nerissa'nn da Portia ile ilikileri aa yukar ayndr. Gratiano'nun Nerissa ile ilgilenmesi bize Plautus'un Truculentus adl oyunundaki bir olay hatrlatr. Burada kle Truculentus, efendisi Strabax'm sevgilisi Phronesium'un hizmetisi Astaphium'a kar bir yaknlk hissetmektedir.

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B.

Para-Tefecilik

Ltin komedilerinde bulduumuz dnya, ak elde etmek iin dahi parann gerekli olduu materyalist bir dnyadr. Evlenmelerde de para esastr. Bir delikanlnn eyizi olmayan bir kzla evlenmesi hemen hemen tasavvur edilemeyecek bir eydir. Venedik Taciri'nde Bassanio'nun Portia'y sevdiine phemiz yoktur fakat hi bir zaman onun servetini aklndan karmaz ve bunu Antonio'ya olan borlarn deyecei bir vasta olarak zikreder (I.i.). Ayrca Portia'nn bulunduu Belmont'a gidip ona evlenme teklif edebilmesi iin de paraya ihtiyac vardr. Ltin komedilerinde bir delikanlya para lzm olduu ve bunu arkadalarndan bulamad ya da babasndan hile ile alamad zaman bir tefeciden almak isteyecektir. Plautus'un Mostellaria adl oyununda Philoloches byle hareket eder fakat tefeciye borcunu deyemeyince ba derde girer. Plutus'un Epidicus adl oyununda Stratippocles faizle bulduu para karlnda bir esir kz satn almtr. Arkada Chaeribulus'tan, tefeciye olan borcunu demek iin p a r a ister, fakat onun da paras yoktur (I.ii.). Bu rneklerden grld gibi tefeciden para almak zor bir durumdan kurtulmak iin hi bir zaman iyi bir yol deildir ve bu, Venedik Taciri'nin merkez temasdr. C. Genlere K a r T u t u m

Genellikle Ltin komedisinde ihtiyar babalar oullarnn paralarn ve vakitlerini elence uruna israf etmelerini uygun bulmazlar. Bu babalar hemen daima akl banda kimseler olup gen kua, fayda salamayan bo meguliyetleri yznden tenkit ederler. Venedik Taciri'nde bu tutumu, mas keli, mzikli gece elenceleri ve geitleri yaptklar iin Hristiyan genlerini aptal olarak gren Shylock temsil eder. Ltin komedilerindeki delikanllar serbest, samimi ve cmert bir tabiata sahip olup bize Venedik Taciri'nde Antonio ve Bassanio'nun arkadalarn hatrlatrlar. IV. AHISLAR

A. Ak Delikanl, A r k a d a l a r ve Y a r d m c l a r Birka istisna ile Ltin komedileri bir delikanlnn ak macerasnda karlat glkleri konu alr. Bu ak bazen gizlidir bazen deildir. Bassanio bu eit bir delikanlya ok bakmdan benzerlik gsterir. Ltin komedisindeki ak genellikle fakirdir ve sevgilisine kavumas iin paraya ihtiyac vardr. Bassanio da yledir. Ltin komedisindeki an zihni sadece bir tek ama zerinde, yani sevgilisine nasl kavuaca problemi zerinde toplan mtr. Bassanio da Antonio'nun hayat tehlikeye girinceye kadar yledir. Ltin komedisinde an karakteri basit bir ekilde izilmitir, fert olmaktan ziyade tip zellikleri tar. Sevgilisi dnda oyunda hi bir kimseye kar manev bir sorumluluk hissetmez; sevgilisine olan vazgeilmez ball ise

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arzularn tatmin amacndan ileri gitmez. O y u n u n ilk yarsnda Bassanio da byle hareket eden bir kimsedir. Bassanio burada, Bradbrook'un da sy 6 ledii gibi fert olmaktan ziyade tip olarak grnr. Ltin komedisinde gen an, gvendii kurnaz klesinden baka, ak macerasnda ya da iine dt zor durumda kendisine yardm eden bir arkada vardr. Venedik Taciri'nde Antonio sevdii arkadana yardm etme arzusu yznden neredeyse hayatn kaybedecek d u r u m a gelir ki Ltin komedisinde buna benzer bir iki durumla karlarz. Adelphi'de Demeann olu Ctesipho bir esircinin elinde bulunan bir kza aktr. Baba sna kar duyduu korku yznden bu hususta hi bir ey yapamaz. Bunun iin kardei Aeschinus esircinin evine zorla girer, onu dver ve kardeine gtrmek zere kz karr. Bunu yaparken kendi ban derde sokmu olur, nk sevgilisi onun artk bakasn sevdiine inanr. Antonio'nun durumuna daha iyi uyan bir olay Captivi de buluruz. Philocrates ve klesi Tyndarus bir savata esir dmlerdir. Efendisinin serbest kalmasn salamak iin Tyndarus, karlaabilecei tehlikenin cid diyetine ramen onunla elbiselerini deitirip onun yerine geer. Nitekim efendisi kle sanlarak braklr, fakat gerek anlald zaman Tyndarus Hegio tarafndan ar bir cezaya arptrlma tehlikesiyle kar karya kalr. Bu durumda Hegio, duyduu hiddet ve elindeki aciz kurbanna istedii cezay uygulama imknna sahip olmas bakmndan Shylock'a ok benzer. Son anda Philocrates sadk klesini kurtarmak zere geri gelir. Bu bize Bassanio'nun, henz evlenmi olduu Portia'y geride brakarak kendisi iin tehlikeye dm olan arkada Antonio'nun yardmna komasn hatr latr. Bu d u r u m d a Antonio, uruna hayatn kaybetmek zere olduu arka dana veda eder. Artk akbetine raz olmutur fakat gene de btn bunlarn Bassanio'nun yznden bana gelmi olduunu ona hatrlatmaktan ken disini alamaz: "Bu d u r u m a senin iin dtm diye kederlenme" (IV.ii.262). Buna benzer bir ekilde Tyndarus, "Allah seni korusun" diyen efendisine yle cevap verir: " U r u n a bu bellar ektiim siz efendimi de Allah
korusun" (V.IV.I009).

Venedik Taciri ile Captivi arasndaki dier bir benzerlik oyunlarn so n u n d a grlr. Masum Antonio ve Tyndarus sadece lmden kurtulmakla kalmazlar ayn zamanda mkfatlandrlrlar. Antoni kaybettiini sand servetine fazlasyla kavuur ve Tyndarus'un, Hegio'nun kkken karl m olu olduu meydana kar. B. Kz K a h r a m a n

Ltin komedisinde kz kahramann oyundaki rol ok pasiftir. H a t t a bazen sahnede grnmez bile. Bir delikanlnn bir gen kza ak olmas bir
6 Bassanio is called "luck and young love personified" in "Moral Theme and Romantic Story", Casebook Series, The Merchant of Venice, (London, 1969), p. 139.

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Ltin komedisini balatmak iin yeterli bir durumdur. Kz sadece komik entrikann balamasna sebep olur. Gen kzla ilgili nemli dier bir nokta da evlenmesi konusunda hi bir sz sahibi olmaydr. phesiz Yunan-Roma toplumunda delikanlnn da babasnn kendisi iin semi olduu kza iti raza hakk yoktu; fakat Ltin komedisinde gen ok defa karsn kendisi se mee alr. Kzn babas kzn hemen her zaman uygun bulduu bir ekil de evlendirmee hazrdr. Kzn kendisi iin seilmi olan delikanly sevip sevmedii bahis konusu olmaz. Kzn, isteklerine kar gsterilen bu kayt szla nem vermediini dnmee yazar bizi adeta zorlar. Zaten bazen kz kendisi iin seilmi olan delikanlya aktr. Romal babann kz ze rindeki bu byk hakimiyeti bize, lm olduu halde kznn evlenmesini byk lde kontrol edebilen Portia'nn babasn hatrlatr. Portia sevdii adamla evlenirken dahi babasnn vasiyetine uygun bir evlenme yapmaktadr. C. K l e ya da U a k Delikanlnn sevdii kza kavumasnda oynad rolden tr Ltin komedisinde ok nemli bir yeri olan kle bu yerini Rnesans komedisinde kaybetmee balar ve ak delikanlnn arkadalar ok defa klenin bu fonksi yonunu stlerine alrlar. Bu deiikliin bir rneini Venedik Taciri oyu nunda buluruz. Burada Antonio, Portia ile evlenmesi iin Bassanio'ya her trl yardm yapt gibi Lorenzo Jessica'y karmasnda arkadalarnn i birliine gvenir. Nitekim Lorenzo onlara b u n d a n tr o kadar mte ekkirdir ki "evlenmek zere kz karmak" istedikleri zaman arkadalarna yardm edeceini sylemek zorunda hisseder ( I I . v i . 2 3 ) . Venedik Taciri'nde Ltin komedisindeki klenin etkisini az da olsa his sedebiliriz. Launcelot, efendisi Shylock'tan m e m n u n deildir ve ondan ayrlmak istemektedir. Fakat bu hususta kolayca karar veremez, efendisini terketmek istedii iin vicdan onu rahatsz etmektedir. Bu bize garip gelir, nk Hrstiyan bir toplumda bir Hrstiyan uan Yahudi efendisinden brakmaktan niin korktuunu, bu hususta niin vicdan azab ektiini bilemeyiz. Fakat eer Shakespeare Launcelot'un karakterini tasarlarken Ltin komedilerindeki klelerin etkisi altnda kalmsa Launcelot'un gs terdii kararszln sebebini anlamamz kolaylar. Yunan ya da Ltin klesi efendisinin malyd ve bu yzden ne kadar kt muamele grrse grsn onunla kalmak zorundayd. 7 (Tabii bu d u r u m u tam bir tiyatro a sndan ele alrsak grrz ki Launcelot'un tereddtleri komiktir, nk efendisini terketmek isteyiinin sebebi Shylock'un eytan olduu dnce sidir. Bu dncenin, ilerde ele alnacak olan nemli bir yn vardr). Kurnazl ve her derde are bulabilmesi gibi zelliklerinin yansra Ltin klesi yemee, imee ve uyumaa fazlasyla dkndr ki bu husus7 J. W. Draper says "a master may take legal action against a servant who left without just cause" in "Shakespeare's Rustic Servants", Stratford to Dogberry, (Pittsburg).

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lar onu daha da komik gsterir. Shylock Launcelot'ta bu dknlklerin bulunduunu iddia edince Launcelot ile Ltin klesi arasnda bir benzerlik daha kurulmu olur: "Serserinin iyi bir yrei var ama obur mu obur. Faydal ilerde salyangoz kadar yava. Gndz uykusunu yaban kedilerin den daha fazla seviyor" (II.v.44-6). Launcelot ile Ltin klesi arasnda bir baka benzerlik daha bulunur. htiyar efendisinin muhalefetine ramen kle ak macerasnda gen efen disine yardmc olmaktadr. Launcelot da bir dereceye kadar ayn eyi yapar, fakat bu iin neminin Ltin komedilerindeki kadar byk olmay sadece uan Rnesans komedisindeki fonksiyonunun azalm olduuna iarettir. Launcelot Jessica ile Lorenzo'nun birlikte kamalarnda rol oynar. Bu tabii Ltin komedilerinde bulduumuz d u r u m u n tersidir, yani burada yardm edilen ahs delikanl deil de gen kzdr. Fakat Rnesans kome disinde gen kzn rol ve fonksiyonunun geliip nem kazandn, hatta ok defa delikanlnn arka plana itildiini hatrdan karmamalyz. imdi gen kz kyafetini deitirerek dahi olsa sokaa kabilir, h a t t a sevdii ada m dnyann uzak yerlerine kadar takip edebilir. Ayrca Shylock'un, ua ve genler tarafndan aldatlmas onu, ok defa genlerin istedikleri ekilde hareket etmelerine kar olan Ltin komedilerindeki baba tipine de yak latrr. D. Parazit

Yunan ve hatta R o m a toplumlarnda ve dolaysyla komedilerinde belirli bir fonksiyonu olan parazitin Rnesans toplumunda yeri yoktu. Bu yzden parazit Rnesans komedisinde grnd zaman ya bulunduu oyunun realitesi iinde ikna edici olmaktan uzak bir tiptir ya da kurnazl ve bakalarnn safl sayesinde geinen ve o alarn hayatnda sk sk rastlanan bir ahs olmutur. Venedik Taciri'nde an realitesine uymayan cinsten bir parazitin dahi bulunduunu iddia etmek istemiyoruz, fakat oyundaki baz ahslar Ltin parazitinin baz zelliklerine sahiptirler. Ger ek bir parazitin devaml bir ii ya da paras olmamaldr. Elenceyi, ye mei, imei sevmelidir ve tabii kendisine bakacak birini bulmaldr. Bassanio iin Antoni'nun parazitidir demek muhakkak ki zordur fakat Antonio ve Bassanio'nun arkadalar arasnda byle bir tiple karlamamz mmkn dr. Grne gre bu genlerin devaml bir ii yoktur ve arkadalariyla glp elenecek bol vakitleri vardr. Tabii onlar zengin ve bu bakmdan ok zamanlar olan, sosyal mevkileri bakmndan Antonio ve Bassanio aya rnda kimselere olarak dnebiliriz. Fakat bu fikir, onlarn dostlar Antonio'ya paraya en byk ihtiya duyduu bir anda yardm edemeyileri gerei karsnda doru grnmez. Salerio ve Salanio Antonio'nun btn gemilerinin kazaya uradn bilirler ve bizzat Shylock'un azndan, An tonio kendisine olan borcu vaktinde demezse anlamalarna uyarak onun etinden yarm kilo keseceini duyarlar (III.i.). u nokta zellikle nem tar

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ki tam bu srada Antonio'nun ua gelerek Salerio ve Solanio'ya efendisinin onlarla grmek istediini bildirir. inde bulunduu bu g d u r u m d a n kendisini kurtarmak amacyla Antonio'nun onlardan bor para isteyeceini dnrz. Antonio ile iki arkadann konumalar sahnede gsterilmedii gibi sonradan bu konumaya herhangi bir atfta da bulunulmaz. Fakat Antonio'nun iki arkadandan para almad muhakkaktr. Dier ynden Antonio, bu ok skk ve tehlikeli d u r u m d a arkadalarnn kendisine yar dmdan kandn sylemedii iindir ki Antonio ve Bassanio'nun arkada larndan hi birinin paral kimse olmadn kabul etmek zorunda kalrz ve onlara bir eit parazit gzyle bakabiliriz. Venedik Taciri'nde parazit olarak grlebilen dier bir ahs da Gratiano'dur. Bu ahsn devaml bir ii olmay ve Bassanio nereye giderse onun da oraya gittii gereinin yannda Gratiano Ltin parazitlerinin en nemli bir zelliine, yani insanlar elendirebilme yeteneine sahiptir. Bassanio arkadann bu ii ne kadar iyi yaptn bildiinden Belmont'ta uyandr mas gereken olumlu intibalar Gratiano'nun bozmasndan korkar ve ona Portia'ya evlenme teklif ettii sralarda dilini tutmasn syler. Ancak Belmont'a hareketinden nce verecei bir veda partisinde istedii kadar ne'eli hareket etmesi hususunda ona izin verir (II.ii.). Ltin parazitinin zellikle bir yemek davetinde btn yeteneklerini ortaya dktn biliyoruz. S. Burchardt Gratiano iin "saray soytars" tabirini kullanr. 8 Byle bir ifade Ltin komedisinde parazitin fonksiyonunun Rnesans komedisinde soyta rnn fonksiyonuna yakn olduunu bize tekrar hatrlatr. E. Palavrac Asker

Klsik komedinin en nde gelen ahslarndan biri palavrac askerdir ki bu ahs sekiz Ltin komedisinde grlr. Palavrac askerin kayna dramn balarna kadar gider ve lp hayata dnen tanrnn rakibinde ve Yunan Eski Komedisindeki kahramann rakibinde, yani bir eit yabanc ve sahtekr olan "alazon" tipinde grlr. Alazon vnmeyi sever, hakk olmayan eyler zerinde hak iddia eder ve sonunda alay edilerek uzakla trlr. skender'in uzak lkelerde yapt savalarda arpm olan ada askerlerden baz realist zellikler de alan palavrac askerin realist ve dramatik gelimesi Ltin komedisinde de srer ve sonra eitli yollardan Rnesans komedisine geer. imdi onun fonksiyonu Yunan ve Ltin komedisindeki fonksiyonu kadar nemli deildir. Buna sebep olarak artk savalarda silh ve tekniin kiisel kahramanlktan daha mhim olmaa baladn gstere biliriz. Gene de palavrac asker hi bir zaman d r a m d a n btn btn kay bolmaz ; eski ve tecrbeli asker, parazit, sarayl olarak karmza kt gibi dramdaki gerek askere baz zelliklerini, bilhassa kahramanl ve gemi teki byk asker baarlaryla vnme huyunu verir.
8 "The Gentle Bond", Casebook Series, The Merchant of Venice, (London, 1969), p. 218.

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Venedik Taciri'nde Fas Hkmdar palavrac askerin baz nemli zel liklerini kendisinde toplar grnmektedir. Renginin esmer olduunu nk gnein komusu ve (eer "near b r e d " kelimelerini "yakn akraba" olarak alrsak) yakn akrabas olduunu syler (II.i.). Bu, tanrlarla olan ilikilerin den ve tabiat st vasflarndan vnerek sz eden Ltin palavrac askerin den iddialarna benzer. Mesel Plautus'un Miles Gloriosus adl oyununda Pyrgopolynices Vens'n torunu ve hemen hemen Jpiter'le yat olduunu, ocuklarnn 800 yl yaadn syler (IV.vi.). Gene renginden sz ederken Fas H k m d a r kannn herhangi bir kuzeylininki kadar krmz olduunu syler ki bu bir cesaret almetidir. H k m d a r grnnn c e s u r kimseleri rkttn fakat lkesinin kz larnn bundan holand ilve eder. O n u n szlerini ciddiye almamz gere kir, nk bu iddialarnda samimi olduu phesizdir; fakat gene de kul land sz ve ifadeler, sadece askerlik ynnden byk baarlar ve tabiat st zellikleriyle deil ayn zamanda dnyann her yerinde kadnlarn kalbini almakla vnen Ltin palavrac askerine has sz ve ifadelerdir. Palas zerine yemin eden Fas Hkmdar bize harp tanrs ya da tan ras zerine yemin eden Ltin palavrac askerini hatrlatr. Mesel Plau tus'un Bacchides adl eserinde Cleomachus Bellona ve Mars zerine yemin eder (IV.viii.). Fas Hkmdar, Sultan Sleyman'n ordusundaki baarla rndan da sz eder. an byk hkmdarlarndan bu ekilde bahsetmek de bazen gerek bir kirala hizmet etmekte olan ya da hayal bir kirala yapt hizmetlerle vnen Ltin palavrac askerine has bir zelliktir. Mesel Miles Gloriosus''ta Pyrgopolynices K r a l Selecus iin asker toplamaktadr (I.i.). Terentius'un Eunuchus'unda Thraso, adn vermedii bir k r a l l a olan samimi ilikileriyle vnr ( I I I . i . ) . Fas Hkmdar, " a n a aydan st emen yavrular alp gtrecek" ve "aslan av ararken onunla alay edecek" kadar c e s u r olduunu iddia eder. Gene Portia'nn sevgisini kazanabilmek iin onun btn bunlar yapmaa hazr olduuna inanrz. Buna ramen bu trl szler bize Ltin palavrac askerinin hayvanlarla yapt mbala dolu mcadelelerin bir yanks gibi gelir. Mesel Plautus'un Curculio'sundaki Therapontigonus'un mhrnde "bir fili klcyla ikiye blen zrhl bir sava" grlr (III.i.). Miles Gloriosus'ta Pyrgopolynices bir filin n bacan bir yumrukta krabileceini iddia eder (I.i.). Ltin palavrac askeri bazen kendisi ve harp ilh Mars arasnda sava lk zellikleri bakmndan benzerlikler bulur. Mesel Plautus'un Truculentus adl oyununda Stratophantes (II.iv.) buna iyi bir rnektir. Eunuchus'ta, Thraso ise yar tanr Herkl'n kendisi gibi ak olmu olduunu hatrlatr (V.vii.). Fas H k m d a r da kendisini Herkl'e benzeterek nasl o klesiyle zar oynarken kaybedebilirse kendisinin de kapal kutudan, iinde Por tia'nn resmini bulunan semesinde baarszla uramasnn mmkn olduunu hatrlatr.

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Fas Hkmdarnn altn kutuyu semesi (ve bu yzden Portia ile evlen me ansn kaybetmesi) onun sath dnya grnnn bir sonucu olmakla beraber ayn zamanda klsik ya da Rnesans palavrac askerini daima bekleyen, istedii kadn elde edememe akbetine ayr bir rnek olur. Ltin palavrac askeri hemen daima oyundaki erkek kahramann sev gilisi ya da nianls olan bir kadnn peindedir. Bir yabanc olan Fas H kmdar da ayn amala ortaya kar ve baarszla urar. Baarszl dorudan doruya kutudan iinde Portia'nn resmini olan bulamayna balanabilir fakat o gittikten sonra Portia'nn syledii szler Fas Hkm darnn Venedik toplumunda nasl karlandna iyi bir rnek verir: "Bun d a n iyi kurtulduk. Perdeleri ekin, haydi. O n u n rengindekiler beni hep byle sesinler" (II.vii.78-9). F. Cimri

Ltin komedisi ve Venedik Taciri arasndaki ilikileri ve benzerlikleri bu ekilde tesbit etmee altktan sonra imdi Shylock'u ele alp onun Ltin komedisindeki muhtemel kaynaklarn aratrabiliriz. M a m a f i h Shylock'un iinde bulunduu durumlar ve sahip olduu zelliklerini, onun bir proto tipi olduunu iddia edeceimiz Ltin esircisininkilerle karlatrmadan nce Shylock'un dier bir tiple, yani cimri ihtiyar tipiyle de baz mterek zel liklere sahip olduunu grmeden geemeyiz. Paras ve mal zerindeki ar dikkati yznden Shylock'u hasis bir kimse olarak grenler bulunabilir. Bununla beraber hasislik onun karak terinde nde gelen bir yer tutmaz ve n plna kar grnd zaman da bunu yabanc ve hatta dman bir toplumda yaamak zorunda olan bir ahsta gayet tabii bulacamz bir ihtiyatl hareket etme kaygsna balayabiliriz. Gene de Shylock ile Ltin komedisindeki tek gerek cimri, yani Plautus'un Aulularia oyunundaki Euclio arasnda en aa iki benzerlik buluruz. Euclio'nun topraa gmm olduu bir mlek altn ve gen bir kz vardr. Batl itikatlara inand iin sol tarafnda bir kuzgunun tmesini definesinin tehlikede olduunu bildiren bir iaret olarak kabul eder (IV.iii.). ve mleini yerinden karp baka bir yere gmer (IV.iv.). Lyconides'in klesi Strobilus b u n a ahit olur ve altn dolu mlei alp gtrr. Euclio b t n servetini kaybettiini anlad zaman (IV.ix.), kz Jessica'nn parasyla birlikte katn renen Shylock gibi yanp yaklr. Fakat bu Euclio' n u n bana gelen tek felket deildir, kz Lyconides ile kar-koca hayat yaamaktadr. Ancak Lyconides Lorenzo'nun aksine drst bir delikanldr; sadece kzla evlenmek istemekle kalmaz, klesinin onun iin yapt hrsz lktan habersizdir. Euclio Lyconides'ten phelenip de onu en kymetli var ln almakla itham ettii zaman Lyconides onun kzn kastettiini sanr ve onunla yaamakta olduunu itiraf eder. Euclio o zaman kaderden iki darbe yemi olduunu, hem kznn iffetinin hem de parasnn kaybolmu

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olduunu renir. Sonunda altnlar gene Euclio'ya ide edilir ve gen sev gililer evlenirler. G. Esirci

Ltin komedisindeki belli bal ahslardan biri esircidir. Birok oyun da grnr, komik olduu kadar trajik zelliklere sahiptir ve Ltin kome disindeki en nemli komik unsur olan entrikada nemli bir rol oynar. imdi karakter ve aksiyon bakmndan Shylock ve Ltin esircisi arasndaki ben zerliklere ksaca gz gezdirelim. Esircinin entrikada pasif bir rol vardr, nk daima entrika onu hedef alr. Elinde bulunan kzlardan birine erkek kahraman aktr ve paras olmad iin onu satn almaktan acizdir. Gen ak bu yzden kurnaz klesinin, arkadalarnn ve klesinin arkadalarnn yardmyla kz esir ciden kurtarmaa alr. Terentius'un iki oyununda bu durumu buluruz. Phormio'da esirci Dorio, Phaedria'nn sevdii Pamphila adl kzn sahibidir. Adelphi'de esircinin elinde Aeschinus'un kardei tarafndan sevilen bir kz bulunmaktadr. Yukarda sylendii gibi Aeschinus, esirci Sannio'nun evine zorla girerek, onu dverek ve ayrca ona hakaret ederek kz kardei iin karr. Plautus'un oyunlarnda da esirci bu rneklere benzeyen bir d u r u m d a grlr. Curculio'da (I.i.) Phaedromus, esirci Cappadox'un evinde bulunan sevgilisini bir gece ziyaret ederken yannda me'ale tayan kleler vardr. Bu grn bize Venedik Taciri'nde maskeli arkadalaryla bir gece Jessica'y karmaya gelen Lorenzo'yu hatrlatr. Sonra kz bir hileyle Cappadox'un elinden alnr. Esirci kz elinden kardktan baka para kaybna da urar, nk bu esir kzn aslnda hr bir Atin'lnn kz olmadna dair iddiaya girmitir. Bu oyunda da esirci hakaretle karlar. Esirciye sk sk hakaret edilir. Persa oyununda bu vuku bulduu zaman (III.iii.) esirci Dordalus'un ayn ekilde davranmas ve hakarete hakaretle karlk vereceini sylemesi bize, grd kt muameleye intikam almakla cevap vermee alan Shylock'u hatrlatr. Bu oyunda bir esir kz sevgilisine satm olan Dordalus'a kar bir komplo hazrlamaktadr. (Dordalus da, Launcelot ayrld zaman Shylock'un syledii gibi beslemek zorunda ol duu bir kimsenin evinden gitmesinden tr memnun grnmektedir). Kurnaz kle Toxilus, Dordalus'un dikkatini ona kar kurmakta olduu komplodan uzaklatrmak iin onu iltifat ve vgye boar. Klenin niyeti esirciye hr bir Atina'l kz satarak onun ban derde sokmaktr (IV.iii.). Dordalus yanl bir i yapp mahkemeye gitmekten ekindii iin kz satn almakta tereddt ederse de kolayca para kazanaca dncesi ihtiyatn yener, kz alr ve gerekten hemen ba derde girer. Sadece kz iin dedii paray kaybettiini zannederken kzn babas kagelir ve Dordalus'u mah kemeye srkler. Sonunda esirci hem davay kaybeder hem de parasn verip alm olduu kz elinden karr.

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Poenulus'ta Agorastocles, esirci Lycus'un sahibi olduu bir kza aktr. Agorastocles' in klesi Milphio Lycus'a bir oyun oynamaa hazrlanmakta dr. Gen efendisine sadece sevdii kz deil esircinin kendisini ve btn maln mlkn dahi vadeder. Milphio esircinin klesi Syncerastus'tan Lycus'un elindeki iki kzn hr bir ailenin ocuklar olduunu renir (IV. ii.). (Syncerastus Ltin komedisinde efendisine bu ekilde ihanet eden tek kledir ve bu yzden Launcelot ile onun arasnda bir benzerlik vardr). Sonunda kzlarn babas esirciden ift para cezas ister (V.vi.). Bu arada Lycus hem para hem de moral bakmndan kt bir duruma dm ve artk kadere boyun emitir. O kadar ki lmee dahi hazr olduunu syler. Kaybedecek bir eyi kalmam olmas onu byk bir krgnlk iine atmtr. Bu krgnlk bize Venedik Taciri'nde mahkeme sahnesinin sonunda her eyini kaybetme d u r u m u n d a olan Shylock'un szlerini hatrlatr: Hayr, hayatm ve her eyimi aln, hayatm dahi balamayn. Evimi ayakta tutan destei alrsanz evimi elimden alyorsunuz demektir. Hayatm devam ettiren vastalar elimden alnca haya tm alm oluyorsunuz. IV..37I -4 Ancak Poenulus'ta kzlarn babas Lycus'a kar merhametli davranr ve Venediklilerin Shylock'a yaptklar gibi cezay sonuna kadar gtrmez. Gene de Lycus Agorastocles'e bir miktar para verecektir, fakat iinde bulun duu moral bozukluu yznden bunu hemen o anda deyemez ve "sana paran sonra vereceim" der (V.vii.I 4 I 7 ) . O n u n ruh hli ve szleri bize gene Shylock'u hatrlatr: Rica ederim, buradan gitmeme izin veriniz benim. Kendimi iyi hissetmiyorum. Bonoyu arkadan gnderin; imza ederim. IV.i.392-4 Pseudolus'un banda Callidorus adl bir delikanlnn Ballio isimli bir esircinin elinde bulunan bir kza ak olduunu reniriz. Callidorus sev gilisinden bir mektup almtr ve bu mektubu yazm olan eli vmekte ve klesine yle sylemektedir: "Ah, zarif bir el tarafndan zarif tabletlere yazlm bu zarif yazy niin takdir etmiyorsun?" ( I . i . 2 7 _ 8 ) . Bu vg, Jessica'dan mektup aldktan sonra ondan sz eden Lorenzo'nun syledik lerini hatrlatr: Bunu yazan eli tanyorum. Gerekten gzel bir eldir o. H e m de zerine yazd kttan d a h a da beyaz bir eldir o. II.iv.12-4 Her iki mektubun muhtevasnn benzer olduunu, yani her iki kzn da aa yukar arzularna kar olarak alkonulduklar evden kurtarlma

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arzu ettiklerini hatrlarsak bu iki d u r u m arasndaki benzerlik daha da kuv vet kazanr. Bu arada Ballio gen an babas Simo tarafndan uyarlm ve ona kurnaz kle Pseudolus tarafndan bir oyun oynanaca ihtar edilmi tir. Fakat Ballio zeksna o kadar gvenmektedir ki adanmayaca husu sunda Simo ile iddiaya girer. Sonunda tabii aldatlr ve hem kz hem de iddia parasn kaybederek ikili bir zarara urar. Shylock da hem Jessica'y hem de onun beraberinde gtrd paralar kaybederek byle bir zarara girmiti. Oyunun sonunda Pseudolus, Ballio'yu aldatn arkadalaryla kutlar ve Simo da onlara katlr. Bu sahneyle Venedik Taciri sonundaki ne'eli toplant arasnda benzerlik bulabiliriz. Rudens'te esirci Labrax'n bindii gemi batm ve Labrax kendisine ait olan iki kzdan ayrlmtr. Kzlar Vens tapnana snrlar ve Labrax'a dnmek istemezler. Labrax onlar zorla almaa teebbs ettii z a m a n da klelerden dayak yer. Klelerin sahibi Daemones, o yerde geerli olan ve Labrax'n esir kzlarn geri almasn nleyecei anlalan bir k a n u n d a n sz eder (III.iv.). Labrax gerekten zorla mahkemeye gtrlr ve orada kz larndan birisi elinden alnr (V.i.). Sonunda Daemones ile yapt bir an lamaya gre dier kz zerindeki haklarndan da vazgeer. Burada da esirci mahkemede davasn kaybetmitir. Buna sebep o memlekete has garip bir kanundur. Labrax'n bylece hem kzlar hem de paras elinden al nr. Gerek Shylock gerekse Ltin komedilerindeki esircilere yneltilen bir itham dinsizliktir. Her iki d u r u m d a da bu itham geree uygun grnr. Shylock Hristiyanlar iinde bir Yahudidir ve insanlar samimi olarak onun bu yzden cehennemlik olduuna inanrlar. Jessica bile evlerinin "bir cehennem" olduu fikrindedir (II.iii.2). D a h a nce sylendii gibi Ltin komedilerinde esirci eitli hakaretlere maruz kalr ve bu hakaretlerin ara snda onun tanrlara kar gerekli saygy gstermeyii ithamnn bulunmas tabiidir. ok defa esircilerin kendileri dahi tanrlara olan inanlarnda bir eksiklik olduunu itiraf ederler; zellikle kr kayglar din dev ve zorun luluklarla atma halindeyse. Adelphi'de Sannio iin "u dinsizliin ta kendisi" (II.ii.266) denir. Curculio'da Cappadox hasta olup tp tanrs Aesculapius'un yardmn dilemektedir. Esirci ryasnda Aesculapius'un yanna gelmek istemediini grr ve as onun bu ryasn, dier tanrlarn da Cappadox'u terkedecekleri eklinde tabir eder (II.ii.). Poenulus'ta. Lycus, Vens iin kurban kesmi fakat ondan arzularnn kabul edileceine dair bir iaret alamamtr (II.i.). Bunun zerine hiddetlenip Vens' ona ait olan kurban etinden m a h r u m brakmaa karar verir. Pseudolus'ta. Ballio, kr bahis konusu olduu zaman Jpiter'den dahi kurban etini esirgeyeceini itiraf eder (I.iii.). Rudens'te Labrax dinsizlikle itham edilir (III.iii.). Bir rahibeyi bile bomaktan ekinmeyecei sylenir ki Vens tapnana sn m olan iki esir kz geri almak iin neredeyse bu ii yapar (II.vii.). O y u n u n sonunda, elini Vens sunana koyarak etmi olduu yeminden geri dner.

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ou eletirmecilere gre Shylock davasn haksz bir ekilde, bir ke lime oyunu yznden kaybetmitir ve bylece kz ve parasndan baka nc bir kayba daha uramtr. Mahkemenin kararna gre, sadece Antonio'ya vermi olduu paray kaybetmekle kalmaz, malnn bir ksm ceza olarak devlete geer. Bylece iki defada ift zarara maruz kalr. L tin komedilerindeki esirciler delikanl ve onun kurnaz klesiyle anlamazlk halinde bulunduklar zaman hakl olduklarn bilirler ve bazen b u n a gve nerek kendi arzularyla mahkemeye giderler. Ellerinde olduu takdirde mahkemeye gitmemei tercih ettikleri zamanlar da vardr. Her iki d u r u m d a da muhakkak davalarn kaybederler. Shylock gibi iki katl bir kayba maruz kalrlar, kz ve paralarn kaybederler. Bununla ilgili olarak Adelphi'da nce hakkn elde etmek iin mahkemeye gitmek istedii halde sonra fikrini deitiren Sannioyu hatrlyabiliriz (II.ii.). Persa'da Dordalus, sonunda mahkemeye gitme korkusuyla harp esiri olduu iddia edilen bir kz btn sorumluluu kendisine ait olacak ekilde satn alma hususunda tereddt ldr (IV..). Gerek Shylock'un gerek Ltin esircisinin haksz muamele grdne phe yoktur ve her ikisi de bu yzden ikyet eder. Shylock bor olarak vermi olduu paray dahi geri alamayacan rendii zaman aknla der: "Ama param dahi alamyacak m y m ? " ( I V . i . 3 3 9 ). Bu bize, Adelphi'de esir kz iin demi olduu paray geri alamayan Sannio'yu hatr latr : "Aman tanrm, bir zavall demi olduu paray dahi alp almayaca hususunda phede mi kalacak?" (II.ii.242-3 ). Shylock karlat hakszlklardan ikyet eder ve Yahudilerin Hristiyanlardan farkl olmadn syler. Mahkemede Venedik devletinin tan yp koruduu haklarna gvenerek Dke kar direnir. Bu d u r u m gene Sannio'nun, nnde herkesin eit olduu kanunlarn geerli bulunduu Atina ehrinde oturduu ve hr bir vatanda olarak herkese eit olduu hakkndaki szlerini hatrlatr (II.i.). Antonio ve Bassnio ile yemee gitmeden nce Shylock'un iine kt eyler domaktadr. Bir gece nce ryasnda p a r a torbalarn grmtr ve evini brakma hi istememektedir (II.v.I8). Ltin komedilerindeki esircilerin de balarna felket gelmeden nce bunu hatrlatan ie domalar ya da iaretlerle karlatklar olur. Persa'da Dordalus, ok ucuz olduu iin harp esiri sand bir kz satn almaa raz olur ve fala gre o gnn kendisi iin krl olacan renmi olduunu syler (IV.vi.). Tabii yanl maktadr ve bu yzden ar bir kayba maruz kalr. Bu olaya, daima kay betmee m a h k m bir adama kaderin oynad bir oyun olarak bakabiliriz. e doma ya da ters kan bir fal fikri bir tanr ya da tanra iin kesilen kurbann beklenilen ekilde sonu vermedii durumla ve kt bir rya grl mesiyle birletirilebilir. Bununla beraber Rudens'te byle bir rya gren kimse esirci deil fakat Daemones'tir. Bu rya esircinin bir kayba urayacan gsterir ki bu kayp da iki esir kzdr (III.i.).

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Ltin komedilerindeki esirciler Shylock gibi sadece hakaretle karla makla kalmazlar, ayn zamanda belirli bir hakaret sk sk onlara yneltilir ki bu herkesin onlara gidip kendilerini asmalarn sylemeleridir. Bazen de esirci fazla baskya maruz kald zaman kendini asma dnr. Persa'da Paegnium adl bir kle Dordalus'a kendisini asmas dn verir (V.i.). Poenulus'ta Lycus tuzaa dt zaman tek kar yol olarak kendisini as ma iki defa aklndan geirir (III.v.). Grne gre bu fikirde olan sadece kendisi deildir, nk sonra tekrar sahnede grnd zaman arkada larnn dahi kendisi asmasndan baka bir tavsiyede bulunamadklarn bil dirir (V.vi.). Rudens'te esirci Labrax'n dman olan Plesidippus drt defa onun aslmas gerektiini syler (III.iii. ve III.vi.). Ltin komedisinde Tasladmz bu zalimce davrann Shylock'a kar da gsterildiini grrz. Launcelot, Shylock'a hediye getiren babasna, " O n a hediye vermek mi? O n a yal bir kement ver" der ( I I . i i . 9 7 - 8 ) . Shy lock mahkemede davasn kaybettikten ve Portia ona Dkten merhamet dilemesine syledii zaman Gratiano atlr: Kendini asmana izin vermelerini dile. Ama btn maln devlete getiine gre kendine bir ip alacak dahi paran kalmamtr. Bunun iin senin aslmann masrafn devletin vermesi gerekecek. IV.i.36I-4 Portia bu defa Antonio'ya Shylock iin nasl bir merhamet gsterebileceini sorduu zaman Gratiano gene sze karr: "Bedava bir kement. Allah a kna baka bir eye raz o l m a " ( I V . i . 3 7 5 ). Bu asma fikri sadece szden ibaret deildir, R o m a toplumunda esircilere kar taknlan, Ltin komedilerinde karlalan bir tutumu ve daha da kuvvetli bir ekilde Shakespeare'in seyir cilerinin bir Yahudi tefeciye kar olan tutumlarnn canl bir ifadesidir. . D r a m d a iki ahs arasndaki benzerlikler karakter ve aksiyonun dna kp bunlarn evresindeki ahslara da uzanabilir. Shylock'un ua ile bir ya da iki esircinin kleleri iin de bu geerlidir. Launcelot sonunda Shylock'a hizmet etmekten vazgeer. Bunu hatrlatacak bir ekilde Poenulus'taki esircinin klesi Syncerastus efendisinin mesleinden, yapt iler den ve evinin atmosferinden ikyet eder (IV.ii.). Tabii klenin efendisin den kamas sz konusu deildir fakat bir esircinin evi yerine ta ocanda ya da deirmende alma tercih ettiini syler. Ayn sahnede kle efen disinin " b t n kurbanlarna ramen Vens bayramnda tanradan olumlu bir iaret alamadn, halbuki fahielerin daha ilk kurbanlaryla bekledileri iareti bulduklarn" sylerken Syncerastus da Launcelot gibi efendisinin dinsiz yn zerinde durmu olur. Gobbo'nun, olunun efendisine hediye getiriine benzer bir d u r u m u Pseudolus'ta buluruz. Esirci Ballio doum yldnm iin sade emrinde alan fahielerden deil klelerinden de hediye beklemektedir.

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Sonu Yukarda verilen benzerliklere dayanarak Shakespeare'in dorudan doruya veya dolayl olarak, bilerek veya bilmeyerek Ltin komedisinden etkilenmi olduunu gstermi olduumuzu umarz. Shakespeare'in btn komedileri arasnda Venedik Taciri'nin, zellikle Yanllklar Komedyas ya da Hrn kz'a nisbetle Ltin komedisinden en az etkilenmi eserleri arasnda olmas bu Ltin etkisinin ne kadar kuvvetli olduunu gsterir. Venedik Ta~ ciri'ndeki ahslarn da bu etkilerden uzak kalmalarna imkn yoktu. Bu incelememizin esas konusu olan Shylock'ta da Orta alar ya da Elizabeth a edebiyatndaki Yahudi karakterinden farkl bir kiilik buluruz. Ltin komedisinde Shylock iin rnek tekil edebilecek bir Yahudi bulunmad halde onu etkileyen ve Shakespeare'in oyunundaki hale getiren baka bir tiple, yani esirciyle karlayoruz. Bu tipin, iinde bulunduu komedilerde ifa edecei belirli bir rol olan komik bir ahs olduu muhakkaktr. Bu ahsn, ama, aksiyon ve oynad rol bakmndan Shylock'la arasnda ben zerlikler bulunur ve bunlar Shylock'un da her eyden nce bir komedideki komik bir ahs olduunu ileri sren son eletirmecilerin fikirlerini destek ler mahiyettedir. imdiye kadar anlattklarmz yle derleyip toplayabiliriz: Shylock ve Ltin esircisi birok zellikleri paylarlar. Her ikisi de mtehakkimdir, kazanc severler, kendilerini kuvvetli ve emniyette hissettikleri zaman avan tajl durumlarndan faydalanmak isterler. Ya dinsizdirler ya da dinsizliklikle itham edilirler. Onlarn kk grlen mesleklerinden yararlanma hususunda hi tereddd olmayan kimselerden, hatta zarara girip zor bir duruma dtkleri zaman bile kt muamele grrler. Herkes onlarn asl masn diler. Mahkemeye gittikleri zaman hakl grnmelerine ramen davalarn kaybederler. zellikle kz (ya da kzlar) eklinde, kayp stne kayba urarlar. Mesleklerinin kt ynlerinin farkndadrlar fakat bunlar deitiremezler, onun yerine mesleklerini kendilerine avantaj salayacak ekilde kullanmaa alrlar. Bu da onlarn kendilerini emniyette hissetmeyilerinde doar. inde bulunduklar dman toplumda yapabildikleri tek ey para kazanp onun sayesinde bir eit kudret sahibi olmaktr. Kar latklar kt muameleden ikyet ve devlet iinde kanun tarafndan ka bul edilmi olan durumlarna gvenerek kendilerine hakaret edenlerle eit haklara sahip olduklarn iddia ederler. Bazen onlara fenalk etmek isteyenlerin iltifatna hedef olurlar. Bazen, yakn bir zamanda urayacaklar bir kayb gsteren bir rya grrler ya da kt veya aldatc bir iaretle kar larlar. Genellikle her komedinin amac bir delikanlyla bir gen kzn evlen mesi ya da bazen Ltin komedisinde olduu gibi bir delikanlnn holan d bir fahieyle beraber yaamas olduundan gen kz ya da fahieyi elinde tutan esircinin, aklarn yolunda engel tekil etmesi yznden saf

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d edilmesi gerekir. Dolayl bir ekilde olsa bile Shylock Bassanio ile Portia'nn dman bulunduktan baka Jessica ile Lorenzo'nun evlenmesine mani olma durumundadr. Bu yzden onun da Ltin komedisindeki esirci gibi aldatlmas gerekir. Shylock hi bir Ltin esircisinin yapmad bir ekilde, arkadalaryla birlikte ak, dostluu, cmertlii ve iyi yaama temsil eden bir adamn hayatn tehdit etmektedir. Buna gre komedinin atmosferinin fazla zarar grmemesi iin onun bu kimseler tarafndan alda tlp alt edilmesi gereklidir. Fakat Shakespeare'in ann din inanlarna gre Shylock iin hal mit vardr, nk zorla Hristiyan yapld zaman sadece Venediklilerin arasna kabul edilme frsatn elde etmekle kalmaz ayrca cennete gitme imknna da sahip olur. Bylece gen Venediklilerin cmertlii Shylock'u da iine alr ve netice itibariyle hi bir Ltin esircisinin karlaamad iyi bir muameleyle karlaaca mjdesi ortaya kar. Shakespeare Shylock'u, Plautus ve Terentius'un esircilerini ilediinden daha insan bir ekilde canlandrm dahi olsa Yahudi tefecisinin rol ve kaderiy le Ltin komedisindeki prototipinin (yani esircinin) rol ve kaderi arasn daki nemli benzerlikler gene de ortada durmaktadr.

T H E MERCHANT OF VENICE AND LATIN COMEDY Dr. Engin U Z M E N The sources of all Shakespeare's plays have been so throughly studied in their various aspects and implications together with the alterations that the dramatist found necessary to make in order to serve his peculiar ends that one more effort in this field might seem superfluous; yet source study has its many varied and subtle uses -it can shed light on difficult points in a play and, perhaps by causing a change of emphasis in our critical outlook, show us the way to solve a critical problem. This thought - by no means original - is well illustrated in a study of Volpone by P. H. Davison 1 , in which the writer does not try to find models for the story and the characters in Old Greek comedy, which he obviously could not have done, but rather tries to show that those aspects of the play which were unusual in Elizabethan comedy were the result of the indirect influences of Old Greek comedy. Such an approach may, I believe, be fruitfully taken to The Merchant of Venice. Shakespeare did not find the actual story or the characters of this play in Latin comedy - these came from medieval folk-tale. But the medieval sources do not throw light on the most important problem in The Merchant of Venice, that of Shakespeare's attitude toward Shylock. This attitude, I feel, is best illuminated by the peculiarities of Latin comedy, which, after all, was the principal basis for Renaissance comedy. The numerous studies by scholars and critics of The Merchant of Venice, in particular of Shylock, not only show a continuing interest in the interpretation of the play but also enable us to appreciate more fully than ever the complexity of the larger than life figure of Shylock. A recent and impartial judgement on him and on the young Christians who are his enemies finds that Shylock is against good living in the broadest sense of the term, that he cannot reconcile love and money 2 , the two dominant themes in The Merchant of Venice, and that, therefore, he is a jarring element in the comedy when contrasted with the young, loving, generous, and fashionable young men by whom he must be defeated 3 . He must be defeated not because he is a Jew, a stranger, or an outsider 4 but because he is at odds with the main characteristics of comedy.
1 "Volpone and the Old Comedy", Modern Language Quarterly, Gilt 24, No. 2, Haziran 1963, s. 51-7. 2 M. V. Doren, "The Merchant of Venice" Shakespeare, (New York, 1955), s. 79. 3 Ibid. s. 83-4. 4 J. R. Brown, Shakespeare and His Comedies, (London), s. 73.

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Before we look at the specific case of Shylock, however, we should try to establish the affinities between The Merchant of Venice and Latin comedy. Two considerations must be mentioned. First, we should not expect to find that the situations and characters in Latin comedy and in The Merchant of Venice are exactly alike; many violent changes had taken place in society and d r a m a during the intervening centuries. Second, we should not attempt to show how Shakespeare happened to be influenced by Latin comedy. For one thing, such an attempt is not our primary concern here, and, for another, there seems little likelihood that we shall ever be able to tell pre cisely how Shakespeare, or perhaps any Elizabethan playwright, with the possible exception of Ben Jonson, received his classical influences. Shake speare may have read the Latin comedies in their originals, he may have read them in translations, either in English or in some modern language, and he may have used translations which have not survived. Or, again, he may have been influenced by English and continental dramatic works, which have been influenced in turn, directly or indirectly, by these Latin comedies. It should suffice to realize that Shakespeare was influenced by the Latin comedy writers, Plautus and Terence, and it is irrelevant whether such an influence was conscious or unconscious, direct or indirect. T h e point is that without the example of the Latin comedies Renaissance English comedy would not and could not have been what it was. My study of the parallels and resemblances between Latin comedy and The Merchant of Venice can, I feel, be best presented under several divi sions, beginning with more technical points such as background and stage devices, continuing with themes, and ending with types and characters, with special emphasis on the origin of the character of Shylock. 5 I. T H E BACKGROUND Latin comedies, being translations and adaptations of some New Greek comedies, often have the sea as background. Athens is very near the sea a n d sometimes the old master or the young men go out on the sea, travelling or buying and selling. For example, in the first scene of the Mercator by Plautus, we learn that Demipho, an old gentleman, had traded at sea and m a d e money in his youth. Now Charinus, his young son, has been wasting his money and time at home. So Demipho furnishes Charinus with a ship and merchandise and sends him away to make his fortune. Charinus comes back home prosperous. Similarly, Bassanio stays in Venice, squandering his money and Antonio's, while Antonio's ships are plying the sea making money for him, money which Bassanio uses to go and woo Portia with, an
5 Bu aratrmada kullanlan Latin komedileri, srasyla P. Nixon ve J. Sargeaunt'un "Loeb Classical Library" serisindeki Plautus ve Terentius edisyonlardr. Venedik Taciri'nin ngilizce metni iin W. M. Merchant'in 1967 tarihli "New Penguin Shakespeare" serisinden The Merchant of Venice edisyonu kullanlmstr.

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enterprise which will make him rich if he succeeds in it. To carry it out he has to undertake a sea journey. Or, to take another example, in Rudens by Plautus, Labrax the slave -dealer has just suffered a shipwreck and lost his property. He complains about the unpredictable qualities of the sea (II. iv.), a complaint which reminds us of the rumoured wrecks of Antonio's ships, as well as Shylock's description of the dangers of the sea (I.iii.). I I . STAGE D E V I C E S A number of stage devices and structural peculiarities in Renaissance drama come from Latin comedy. Many of these are so widely used that we need only mention them in passing. We can straightaway think of the five -act structure and of a character being announced just before his entrance by another who is already on the stage. The chief instances in The Merchant of Venice are Li.57-8, I.iii.36-7, II.vi.20, II.ix3 , V.i.24. Among the more notable comic devices is that of the place and the function of the servant. In Latin comedies the greater part of the comic element occurs when slaves talk among themselves, with their masters, or with other people. In The Merchant of Venice we have only one servant, Launcelot, one of whose functions is to provide most of the amusing conversation. If we find his comic talk unsatisfactory, we may perhaps put the blame on the dramatist who, feeling it necessary to cater to the groundlings, made Launcelot into a shallow clown. (In The Folio Launcelot is not mentioned in the speech headings, which are simply labelled "Clown"). In Renaissance comedy the Latin slave often becomes a clown or a fool or jester according to whether he is dull or witty and clever. In The Merchant of Venice Launcelot performs the function of raising an easy laugh, and in the place of the other Latin slave, the dull one, we have his father, old Gobbo, who is a foil to his son. Early in the play Launcelot teases his father by describing in a very confusing way the whereabouts of the house of Shylock, to whom old Gobbo is bringing a present. Launcelot bewilders his father by his directions but does not send him on a wild goose chase, something which he did not intend to do in the first place (II.ii.36-9 ). This whole exchange is parallel to a situation in Adelphi by Terence. The cunning slave Syrus, in order to get Demea, the angry father, out of the way, gives him misleading directions. Unlike Gobbo, Demea attempts to follow these and failing, returns (IV.ii., V.i). At the beginning of the last scene in The Merchant of Venice we witness Launcelot making a curious entrance, who comes in with good news for the people of Belmont. He is looking for Lorenzo, who is there, but he pretends not to see him, hear him, or recognize him. The childish boisterousness may be intended to put the spectators into an entirely gay and irresponsible

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mood after the long and painful trial scene and after the talk of Lorenzo a n d Jessica about the unfortunate lovers in legends. It may also be a prepara tion for the farcical ring incident. But regardless of its purpose, the trick has its parallel in Latin comedy. Sometimes a slave or a parasite comes in shout ing to the people to make way for him, as Launcelot apparently does with his "sola" and "wo, ha, h o " . Similarly, in the Captivi by Plautus the parasite Ergasibus comes in threatening the imaginary people in his way (IV.ii.). He is looking for Hegio in order to tell him tell him the good news that his kidnapped son is safe and back. Before he delivers this news, however, he pretends not to see Hegio, who is there. When the parasite or the slave acts in this way, he is bringing good news, and he knows that he can get away with a little teasing. III. T H E M E S A. Love In all Latin comedies, with the exception of the Captivi, love is the main theme and often results in an intrigue for capturing a young woman or a courtesan. This intrigue generally arises from the efforts on the part of the young master, his slave, and his friends, to get the girl loved by the young master, who is always in need of money to attain her. T h e young m a n has either to extort this money from his old father or to kidnap the girl from the clutches of a slave-dealer or a braggart soldier. In The Merchant of Venice we witness a similar situation. Bassanio is the poor young lover in need of money to attain the desire of his heart. T h e money is lent to him so that he can attempt to marry Portia. There are other wooings in The Merchant of Venice. Lorenzo wants to marry Jessica, but the difficulty in getting her is not a monetary one. Know ing that her father would never consent to her marriage with a gentile, she has to elope with her lover. Similar incidents happen in Latin comedy, and these we shall study later in connection with the slave-dealer. The other couple who get married in The Merchant of Venice are Gratiano and Nerissa. Gratiano is a confidant of Bassanio's at this point and Nerissa is his female counterpart. Their attraction can be compared to that which we find in Truculentus by Plautus between the slave and Astaphium, maid to Phronesium, with whom Strabax, the master of Truculen tus, is in love (III.ii.). B. Money-Usury The world that we find in Latin comedy is a materialistic one where money is necessary even to attain love. In marriages too it plays a great part. It is almost inconceivable for a young m a n to marry a girl who has no

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dowry. In The Merchant of Venice Bassanio no doubt loves Portia, but he never forgets her riches and mentions them as a means by which he hopes to pay back his debts to Antonio (Li.)- Also he must have money before he can woo Portia. In Latin comedy, when a young m a n is in need of money and cannot get it from friends or extort it from his father, he will borrow it from a money-lender. In Mostellaria by Plautus Philoloches does this, and when he cannot pay the money-lender, he is in trouble. In Epidicus by Plautus Stratippocles, the young master, has bought a slave girl with the money he h a d borrowed upon interest. He asks his friend Chaeribulus for a loan to pay back the money-lender, but Chaeribulus has no money (I.ii.). As these examples show, borrowing money from a usurer is not a good way to get out of a difficult situation, a truth which is central in The Merchant of Venice. C. Attitude to Young P e o p l e In Latin comedy, generally speaking, the old men do not approve of their sons wasting their time and money in having a gay time. They are almost always sober and critical of the younger generation and of any un profitable and frivolous behaviour. In The Merchant of Venice this attitude is represented by Shylock, who thinks that the young Christian men are silly for arranging masques and pageants. Young men in Latin comedy have free, open, and generous natures, reminding us of their counterparts in The Merchant of Venice, the friends of Antonio and Bassanio. IV. T H E C H A R A C T E R S A . T h e Young M a n , o r Lover, a n d H i s Friends and Helpers With a few exceptions, Latin comedies are about the difficulties en countered by a young m a n in a love affair which may or may not be clan destine. To such a young m a n Bassanio shows many resemblances. T h e R o m a n lover is often poor and needs money to attain his sweetheart; so too Bassanio. T h e R o m a n lover is single-minded in his purpose, all his being seems to centre around the one idea of getting his sweetheart, and Bassanio is like that until Antonio is in danger of his life. T h e R o m a n lover is depicted in a simple way, not as an individual but as a type, and he feels no moral responsibility towards anybody in the play, except perhaps to his sweetheart, and this only with the purpose of gratifying his desires. This is true of Bas sanio in the first part of the play, where he may strike one more as a type than as an individual, as has been noticed by Bradbrook. 6
6 Bassanio iin ansn ve genlik aknn ahslandrlm ekli" kelimeleri kullanlr. "Case book Series", The Merchant of Venice, (London, 1969), s. 139.

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The Roman lover, besides having a clever slave to rely on, has a friend, whose help he needs in his love affair or in getting him out of a difficulty. Antonio in The Merchant of Venice nearly loses his life because of his desire to help his good friend, and this situation has one or two counterparts in Latin comedy. In The Adelphi Ctesipho, Demea's son, loves a girl who is kept by a slave-dealer. As he is too frightened of his father to do anything about his love, his brother Aeschinus breaks into the slave-dealer's house, beats him, and takes the girl away for his brother. In so doing he gets into trouble himself because his sweetheart believes that he does not love her any more. Another and perhaps more relevant situation occurs in the Captivi. Philocrates and his slave Tyndarus have been captured in war. To free his master, Tyndarus changes clothes with him, despite the serious danger he may incur. His master is set free, but when the truth is found out Tyn darus faces the threat of heavy corporal punishment in the hands of Hegio, who, in this particular situation, is just like Shylock in his anger and is his capacity to inflict any kind of punishment on his victim. At the last moment the master comes back to save his loyal slave. His return reminds us of Bassanio leaving Portia, whom he has just married, in order to help his friend Antonio who is in danger because of him. In The Merchant of Venice, when Bassanio comes to help Antonio in court, Antonio bids farewell to his friend on whose account he is about to lose his life. He is quite prepared to endure his fate; yet he cannot help reminding Bassanio that he is suffering all this for him. "Grieve not that I am fallen to this for y o u " (IV.ii.262). Similarly, Tyndarus replies to his master's "God bless you, T y n d a r u s " by saying, "And you, sir, for whose sake I am undergoing this confounded experience" (V.iv.1009 ). Another parallel between these two plays occurs at the end of both of them. The innocent and self-sacrificing sufferers not only are saved from death they are also rewarded. Antonio recovers his wealth and Tyndarus is found to be the kidnapped son of Hegio. B. T h e H e r o i n e In Latin comedy the heroine has always a passive role in the action of the play. Sometimes she does not even appear on the stage. T h e fact that the young m a n is in love with a girl is enough to start a Latin comedy. She is only the cause of a comic intrigue. Another significant thing about the young girl is that she does not seem to have any say in the matter of her marriage. Of course, in Graeco-Roman society even a young m a n had no right to object to his father's arranging a marriage for h i m ; yet in Latin comedy the young m a n often tries to choose his own wife, whereas almost always, the girl's father disposes of her in the way he sees fit. Often enough it is immaterial whether she really loves the m a n chosen for her; we are made

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to assume that she would not mind this indifference to her wishes. Some times she happens to be in love with the young m a n chosen for her. T h e authority of the R o m a n father over his daughter reminds us of Portia's father, who, although dead, can still control, to a great extent, the mar riage of Portia. Even when Portia marries the m a n she loves, she is still marrying in accordance with her father's will. C. T h e Slave or Servant The slave, who is of great importance in Latin comedy because of the part he plays in helping the young m a n get the girl he loves, loses his im portant place in Renaissance comedy, and is often superseded by young man's friends. We find this kind of adaptation of Latin comedy in The Merchant of Venice when Antonio helps Bassanio to get Portia, and Lorenzo relies on his friends' cooperation to run away with Jessica. Lorenzo is so grateful to his friends that he is compelled to tell them that when they want "to play thieves for wives" he will help them (II.vi.23 ). Nevertheless there may be a faint echo of the slave in The Merchant of Venice. Launcelot is dissatisfied with his master, Shylock, and wants to leave him. Yet he cannot make up his mind easily; he has strong compunc tions about quitting his service, which strikes us as odd. We do not know why he is afraid to leave his Jewish master in a Christian society, or why his conscience should trouble him. But if Launcelot has been modelled on the Latin slave, then his hesitation becomes understandable. T h e Greek or Latin slave was his master's property and so had to stay with him no matter how badly he was treated. 7 (Of course, from the purely theatrical point of view, the hesitation of Launcelot is comic as is his reason for wanting to desert his master, that he is a devil, though this has a significance which we shall consider later). Besides his cunning and resourcefulness, the Latin slave is notorious for his fondness for food, drink, and sleep, a fondness which makes him ap pear even more amusing. T h e same fondness is said by Shylock to be found in Launcelot, thus establishing another affinity with the Latin slave (II.v. 44-6). There is another parallel between Launcelot and the Latin slave. T h e Latin slave helps his young master in his love affair, despite the opposition of his old master. Launcelot does the same thing, though in a minor way which reflects the diminished function of the servant in Renaissance comedy. Launcelot plays a part in Jessica's running away with Lorenzo. This is the situation in Latin comedy reversed, that is, it is the girl now who is helped and not the young man, but we must remember that the young girl gains
7 J. W. Draper "bir efendi hakl bir sebep olmadan onu terkeden uan mahkemeye verebilirdi" der. "Shakespeare's Rustic Servants", Stratford lo Dogberry, (Pittsburg).

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importance in Renaissance comedy frequently at the expense of the young man. She can now disguise herself, go out, and follow her sweetheart to distant parts of the world. Also, the duping of Shylock by a servant and the young lovers, brings, him closer to the Latin father, who is almost always against young people having their way. D. The Parasite The parasite, who was an accepted figure in the society, and also in the comedy, of Greece as well as of Rome, had no place in Renaissance society. Therefore, either he is an unconvincing creation in the framework of Renaissance comedy or he is made more convincing by becoming a figure who has to live by his wits and at the expense of the gullibility of others. In The Merchant of Venice there is no character whom we can really call even an unrealistically drawn Renaissance parasite; yet some characters have the more obvious qualities and characteristics of the Latin parasite. A parasite must not have a regular job or money. He must love fun, eating, and drink ing, and, of course, he must always have somebody to attach himself to. It may be too much to find in Bassanio a parasite of Antonio's, but perhaps we may find such a figure in Antonio and Bassanio's friends. They appa rently do not have r e g u l a r jobs and have a lot time to spare in having fun with others. We may regard them, of course, as people of means and leisure on the same social footing as Bassanio and Antonio, but this does not alto gether accord with the fact that they cannot help Antonio financially in his great need. Salerio and Solanio are aware of Antonio's loss of ships and learn from Shylock himself that he means to take Antonio's flesh if it is for feit (III.i.). Significantly enough, at this point a m a n enters and tells the two young gentlemen that his master, Antonio, wishes to speak with them. We have the impression that Antonio is going to ask them for a loan to get himself out of his difficulties. Their interview is not shown on the stage or referred to later, but we know that Antonio did not obtain any financial aid from Salerio and Solanio. And as there is no complaint on the part of An tonio as to his friends letting him down in his desperate need, we may well be led to think that none of the friends of Antonio and Bassanio are men of independent means and so that they should be looked upon as parasites. There is another possible parasite in The Merchant of Venice. This is Gratiano. Not only does he not have a regular job and is free to follow Bas sanio wherever he goes, but also he has the most important characteristic of a Latin parasite, namely the capacity for entertaining people. He does it to such an extent that Bassanio is afraid that Gratiano may play his part too well and spoil his chances of making the right kind of impression in Bel mont. Therefore Bassanio warns Gratiano to curb his tongue when he is courting Portia. Yet he gives him permission to be as merry as he likes at

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the party he is going to arrange for his friends (II.ii.). We will remember that the Latin parasite was at his best at a party. Gratiano is referred to as a "jester" by S. Burchardt, 8 a reference which reminds us that the function of a parasite in Latin comedy was close to the function of the jester as entertainer in Renaissance comedy. E. The Braggart Soldier One of the major characters of classical comedy is the braggart soldier, who appears in no less than eight Latin comedies. The origin of the braggart soldier goes back to the beginnings of the drama and can be found in the rival of the god who dies and comes back to life, also in the "alazon" of Old Greek comedy, who is the rival of the hero, an impostor, an outsider. This character claims the right to things which he does not deserve, loves boasting, and is mocked and rejected. In Greek comedy he shows great development, having acquired some realistic comtemporary attributes from the soldiers who had fought in the campaigns of Alexander in the remote parts of the world. His development goes on in Latin comedy and then passes by various routes into Renaissance comedy where he performs some different and less dignified functions compared to those which he performed in Greek or Latin comedy. The loss of his importance and stature in Renaissance comedy can be attributed to the fact that weaponry and technical warfare had become more important than personal valour. Yet the braggart soldier never disappears; instead he becomes the veteran soldier, the parasite, or the courtier. And sometimes he gives the real soldier in drama some of his characteristics, mainly his boasting about his bravery and about his great military deeds. In The Merchant of Venice the Prince of Morocco seems to be comprised of the various qualities of the braggart soldier. He says he is dark because he is a neighbour and a close relative to the sun, if we take the words "near bred" to mean close relative (II.i.). This is like the claims of the Latin Braggart soldier, who talks about his affinities with deities or about his supernatural attributes. For example, Pyrgopolynices in Miles Gloriousus by Plautus says that he is the grandson of Venus, that he is almost the same age as Jupiter, and that his children live eight hundred years (IV.vi.). While talking about his complexion, Morocco says that his blood is as red as any northerner's - a sign of bravery - that his appearance frightens the valiant, and that the girls of his country loved his aspect. These words should be taken seriously, and Morocco is no doubt capable of living up to them; yet his words and expressions are typical of the Latin braggart soldier, who lays claim not only to great martial deeds and supernatural attributes but also to the hearts of the women in all parts of the world.
8 "The Gentle Bond", "Casebook Series", The Merchant of Venice, (London, 1969), s. 218,

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Morocco swears on his scimitar, which reminds us of the Latin braggart soldier, who swears on the deities of war. For example, Cleomachus in Bacchides by Plautus swears on Bellona and Mars (IV.viii.). Morocco mentions his achievements in the wars which he fought on the side of Solyman. Such name-dropping is like that of the Latin braggart soldier's, who sometimes serves a king or boasts of his services with an imaginary king. For instance, Pyrgopolynices in Miles Gloriosus is recruiting soldiers for King Seleucus (Ii.) and Thraso in Eunuchus by Terence boasts of his friendly relationships with a king, whose name is not given (III.i.). Morocco claims that he is brave enough to "pluck the young sucking cubs from the she-bear" and "mock the lion when he roars for prey". Again, we are convinced that Morocco is prepared to do all these things to win Portia's love; yet his boasts seem to be echoes of the Latin braggart soldier's hyperbolical accounts of his fights with animals. For instance, the seal of Therapontigonus in Curculio shows "a bucklered warrior cleaving an elephant in twain with his blade" (III.i.), and Pyrgopolynices in Miles Gloriosus claims that he can break the foreleg of an elephant with his fist (I.i.). The Latin braggart soldier compares himself to Mars in warlike qualities, as Stratophantes does in Truculentus (II.iv.), and to Hercules, as Thraso does in Eunuchus when he says that he has fallen in love as the demi-god did (V.vii.). Morocco also compares himself to Hercules saying that just as Hercules playing at dice with his slave might lose, so too he may not be able to choose the right casket. Morocco's choice of the gold casket is, of course, a sign of his superficial view of things, but it is also, I feel, an echo of the inevitable failure and rejection of the braggart soldier, classical or Renaissance. Every Latin braggart soldier is after a woman, who is almost always the sweetheart or the future wife of the hero of the play. So too Morocco, who is an outsider and fails. His failure is directly due to his lack of good fortune in the choice of the caskets, but the farewell Portia gives him behind his back indicates what kind of a reception he would get in the Venetian community: "A gentle riddance. Draw the curtains, go. /Let all of his complexion choose me so" (II. vii.78-9). F. The M i s e r Having established the affinities, resemblances, and parallels between Latin comedy and The Merchant of Venice, it is now time to turn to Shylock and to his possible origins in Latin comedy. Before his position is compared with that of the Latin slave-dealer, who will be claimed to be the prototype for Shylock, however, we cannot help noticing that he partakes of some characteristics of yet another type in Latin comedy, that of the miser.

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Being careful - and perhaps over careful - about money and property, Shylock may be said to be a miser. Miserliness, nevertheless, is not prominent in him and whenever it shows itself it can be attributed to the natural caution of an individual who is an alien in a hostile society. However, we can find at least two parallels between Shylock and the only miser in Latin comedy, Euclio in Aulularia by Plautus. Euclio has a buried pot of gold and a young daughter. He is a superstitious person, and when he hears a raven on his left side, he takes it as an omen that his treasure is in danger (IV.iii.). and he hides it elsewhere (IV.iv.). Strobilus, slave to Lyconides, sees this action and takes the pot of gold away. When Euclio discovers that he has lost all his wealth (IV.ix.), he raves as Shylock does when he finds out about the elopement of Jessica with his money. But this is not the only disaster that happens to Euclio. His daughter has been living with Lyconides. Unlike Lorenzo, Lyconides is honest in that he not only intends to marry Euclio's daughter but also has no idea that his slave has stolen for his benefit. When Euclio suspects Lyconides and accuses him of stealing his most valuable possession, Lyconides thinks Euclio means his daughter and confesses that he has been living with her. Euclio realizes that he has sustained two blows, the loss of chastity of his daughter and the theft of his gold. In the end the pot of gold is returned to him and the young lovers get married. G. The Slave-dealer

Another prominent character in Latin comedy is the slave-dealer. He appears in many Latin comedies, possesses comic as well as tragic possibilities, and has an important function to perform in the intrigue, which is the main comic interest in Latin comedies. Let us see, briefly, the similarities between Shylock and the Latin slave-dealer in character and in action. The role of the slave-dealer in the intrigue is a passive one because invariably the intrigue is directed against him. He has in his possession the slave girl loved by the young man who cannot attain her because he is penniless. The young man tries to cheat the slave-dealer of the girl through the help of his cunning slave, of his own friends, and of the friends of his slave. This is what happens in two of Terence's plays. In Phormio Dorio, the slave-dealer, owns Pamphila, beloved by Phaedria. In Adelphi the slave-dealer keeps a girl wooed by the brother of Aeschinus, and Aeschinus takes away the girl, breaking into Sannio's house and beating and insulting him to boot. The slave-dealer plays a similar role in the plays of Plautus. In Curculio (I.i.) when Phaedomus visits his sweetheart at night, who is a slave in the house of Cappadox, he has slaves with him carrying torches, and this reminds us of the masquers with whom Lorenzo kidnaps Jessica in The Merchant of Venice. Later, the girl is taken away from Cappadox by deceit. Cappadox also loses some money because he had a bet that the slave girl was not a free-born Athenian. In this play, too, the slave-dealer is insulted.

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Insults are frequently hurled at the slave-dealer. When this occurs in Persa by Plautus (III.iii.) Dordalus, the slave-dealer, replies in kind and says that he is ready to return insult for insult, reminding us of Shylock, who attempts to repay bad treatment with revenge. A plot is brewing against Dordalus, who has just sold a slave girl to her lover. (He sounds pleased that he has one less mouth to feed, as Shylock does when Launcelot has left him). Toxilus, the cunning slave, approaches Dordalus, praising and flattering him in order to distract his attention from what he is intending to do, which is to sell him a free girl and thus to get him into trouble (IV.iii). Dordalus hesitates as he does not want to make a mistake and then go to court, but his desire for an easy profit overcomes his caution; he buys the girl and immediately goes into trouble. Just when he thinks that he has lost only the money he had paid for her, the girl's father appears and drags him to court. In the end, he loses his case and the slave girl. In Poenulus by Plautus, Agorastocles is in love with a slave girl belong ing to Lycus, the slave-dealer. Agorastocles' slave, Milphio, is plotting against Lycus, and promises his young master not only the girl but also t h e slave-dealer himself and all his house. Milphio approaches the slave-deal er's slave, Syncerastus, and learns from him that the two girls in possession of Lycus were free-born (IV.ii.). (Syncerastus is the only slave in Latin comedy to betray his master in this way; in this regard he is parallel to Launcelot). T h e father of the girls demands double payment from the slave-dealer (V.vi.). Apparently Lycus is at the end of his tether financially and emotionally. So great is his resignation that he even implies that he is willing to die. In fact, feeling that he has lost everything, he becomes bitter. This bitterness reminds us of Shylock, who says at the end of the trial scene, Nay, take my life and all! pardon not t h a t ! You take my house when you do take the prop T h a t doth sustain my house. You take my life When you do take the means whereby I live. IV.i.37I- 4 The girls' father tends to be merciful, and like the Venetians with Shy lock, will not press his claims any further. Lycus, however, must still give money to Agorastocles, but in his dejection he is unable to bring himself to pay it at the moment; "I'll give you your money tomorrow" (V.vii.I4I7). His complete loss of spirit reminds us of the mood of Shylock's last words: I pray you give me leave to go from hence, I am not well; send the deed after me, And I will sign it. IV.i.392- 4

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At the beginning of Pseudolus by Plautus we see Callidorus, the young man, in love with a slave girl belonging to Ballio, the slave-dealer. Calidorus has received a letter from his sweetheart, and he praises the hand that wrote the letter, "Ah, why do you disparage the dainty writing in dainty tablets indited by a dainty h a n d ? " (Li.27-8). This praise is reminiscent of Lorenzo's words after he has received a letter from Jessica: I know the hand. In faith, "tis a fair hand, And whiter than the paper it writ on Is the fair hand that writ. II.iv.I2-4 When we remember that the content of both letters is similar, that is to say, both girls express a desire to be rescued from the houses where they are kept more or less against their will, the parallel gains more strength. Ballio has been warned by Simo, the father of the young lover, that Pseudolus may be preparing a plot against him, but Ballio is so confident of his own astuteness that he makes a bet with Simo that he cannot be cheated. He is, of course, cheated, and when Simo demands payment of the wager Ballio sustains a double loss, the girl and the money, just as Shylock does, when he loses Jessica and the ducats. At the end of the play Pseudolus celebrates his success over Ballio, and Simo joins the fun in a scene not unlike the gay gathering at the end of The Merchant of Venice. In Rudens by Plautus, Labrax, the slave-dealer, is shipwrecked a n d separated from the two girls in his possession. The girls take refuge at the temple of Venus and refuse to return to Labrax, who is beaten by slaves when he tries to take them away by force. The owner of the slaves, Daemones, mentions a law of the place which would apparently prevent Labrax from taking the girls back (III.iv.). Labrax is dragged to court, where he loses one of the slave girls (V.i.). In the end he has to give the other one u p , too, through a deal he makes with Daemones. Again, the slave-dealer has been unlucky at court, this time mainly owing to a peculiar law of the place, and has lost his girls and money. A charge levelled at Shylock as well as most slave-dealers is that of impiety. This accusation rings true in both cases. Shylock is a Jew in a strictly Christian community, and people sincerely believe that he is doomed to hell. Even Jessica finds that her father's "house is Hell" (II.iii.2). In Latin comedies, as we have already remarked, the slave-dealers are always insulted, and it is natural that among the insults should be an accusation of lack of respect for the gods. Often the slave-dealers themselves admit their lack of faith in gods, especially if the idea of profit is in conflict with any religious duties and obligations. Sannio in Adelphi is called "That piece of impiety" (II.ii.266). In Curculio Cappadox is ill and craves the aid of Aesculapius, the god of healing. He dreams that Aesculapius refuses to

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come near him, a dream which his cook interprets as his rejection by all the other gods as well (II.ii.). In Poenulus (II.i.) Lycus has sacrificed to Venus without receiving any favourable signs from her. He gets angry and decides to deprive Venus of her sacrificial meat. Ballio in Pseudolus admits that for profit he would deprive even Jupiter of his sacrificial meat (I.iii.). In Rudens (Ill.iii.) Labrax is accused of impiety. He is said to be capable of strangling a priestess, an act which he nearly carries out when his two slave girls have taken refuge in the temple of Venus (Il.vii.). At the end of the play he goes back on a vow which he had taken with his hand on the altar of Venus. According to most critics Shylock loses his case at court unfairly, owing to a verbal quibble, thus sustaining another loss in addition to that of his daughter and ducats. At court he not only loses his bond but also some of his property as a fine. Thus he receives two blows, or rather, two sets of blows. Slave-dealers in Latin comedy generally know themselves to be in the right when they are in conflict with the young man and his clever slave, and so go go to law willingly, though there are times when they would rather not go to court at all if they could help it. They invariably lose their cases. Like Shylock they sustain two losses, the girl and money. In this connection we can note the case of Sannio in Adelphi, who wants to go to law for his rights, though he later changes his mind (II.ii.). Dordalus in Persa hesitates to buy an allegedly slave girl at his own risk for fear of a lawsuit (IV.iii.). No doubt both Shylock and the Latin slave-dealer are dealt with un fairly, and both parties complain. Shylock is shocked that he cannot even recover his principal: "Shall I not have barely my principal?" (IV.i.399). This is like Sannio in Adelphi complaining that he is denied even the money he had paid for his slave girl: "Good heavens! is a poor wretch put in doubt about his principal even?" (II.ii.243-3). Shylock complains of injustice (III.i.) and says that Jews are not dif ferent from Christians. In the court scene he stands his ground with the Duke trusting to his legal rights as recognized by the law of Venice. This is again like Sannio saying that he is in Athens, a city where there are laws before which everybody is equal, and that being a free man he is equal to any body (II.i.). Shylock has premonitions before he goes out to dine with Antonio and Bassanio. He has dreamt of his money bags the night before, and he is loath to leave his house (II.v.I8). T h e slave-dealers in Latin comedy have also significant premonitory dreams before their disasters. In Persa Dordalus is persuaded to buy a girl whom he thinks to be a bargain and says that ac cording to the auspices the day should be a lucrative one for him (IV.vi.). He is mistaken and suffers heavily. We may look upon this as a trick played upon the doomed loser by fate. T h e idea of a premonition can be joined to the idea of unfavourable sacrifice to a god or a goddess, or to an unfavour able dream. In Rudens, however, it is not Labrax the slave-dealer who has

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the dream but Daemones, whose dream points to the slave-dealer sustaining a loss, in this case his two slave girls (III.i.). Not only are most slave-dealers in Latin comedies insulted as Shylock is but they are also the subject of a particular insult, being told that they should go and hang themselves. Sometimes the slave-dealer thinks of hanging himself when he has been oppressed too strongly. In Persa (V.i.) a slave called Paegnium advises Dordalus to hang himself. In Poenulus when Lycus realizes that he is trapped, twice he thinks of hanging himself as the only way out (III.v.). Apparently he is not the only person who thinks he should do this, for later he comes in and says that even his friends can give him no better advice than to tell him to hang himself (V.vi.). In Rudens Plesidippus, who is an enemy of Labrax the slave-dealer, four times mentions hanging him (III.iii. and III.vi.). The cruelty shown here in Latin comedy is the same as that shown towards Shylock. Launcelot tells his father, who is bringing a present to Shylock" "Give him a present? Give him a halter". (II.ii.97-8). After Shylock is defeated at court and Portia has told him to "beg mercy of the Duke", Gratiano interjects" Beg that thou mayst have leave to hang thyself, And yet, thy wealth being forfeit to the state, Thou hast not left the value of a cord. Therefore thou must be hanged at the state's charge. IV.i. 36I- 4 He interrupts again, when Portia asks Antonio what mercy he can render Shylock, saying, "A halter gratis! Nothing else, for God's sake". (IV.i.375). The idea of hanging is no mere verbal trick; it is at once an indication of the attitude of Roman society towards the slave-dealers to be found throughout Latin comedies and more immediately in terms of Shakespeare's audiences towards a Jew and a money-lender. The similarities between any two characters in drama may extend beyond similarities of character and action to similarities between their satellites. Such is the case with the servant of Shylock and the slaves of one or two slave-dealers. Launcelot eventually leaves Shylock's service, and his excuse for doing so is that his master is a devil, a comic device which relates to the idea of Shylock's impiety. Similarly, Syncerastus, slave to Lycus the slave-dealer in Poenulus, complains in a soliloquy about the profession and the deeds of his master and the atmosphere of his household (IV.ii.). He cannot think of running away from him but he does say that he would rather work in a stone quarry or a mill than live in the house of a slave-dealer. When he says in the same scene that "for all his victims he (his master) could not propitiate Venus on her festal day, although the courtesans won

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her favour at once, with their first victims", he is, like Launcelot, dwelling upon the godlessness of his master. The incident of Gobbo's bringing a present to Shylock, his son's master, has a parallel in Pseudolus. It is Ballio, the slave-dealer's birthday, and he demands not only that the courtesans should bring him presents but that his slaves should also. Conclusion I hope it has now become clear, by the many similarities and parallels which I have quoted, that Shakespeare was strongly influenced by Latin comedy, directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously. The fact that of all Shakespeare's comedies The Merchant of Venice is among the least influ enced by Latin comedy, especially when we compare it, for example, with The Comedy of Errors or with The Taming of the Shrew, shows how pervading this Latin influence was. The characters in The Merchant of Venice could not escape this influence. So in Shylock, a study of whom is the main purpose of this paper, we have a modified character who is not same the as the J e w of medieval or Elizabethan literature. Although there was no J e w in Latin comedy who would be model for Shylock, the influences working on and modifying him came from another character, the slave-dealer. This charac ter is undoubtedly a comic figure with a clear-cut part to perform within the comedies in which he is placed and he shares with Shylock similarities of character, purpose, action, and role. These similarities help to strengthen the recent criticism of Shylock that he is at first a comic character in a comedy. To round off what has been said, Shylock and the Latin slave-dealer possess a great many common characteristics. They are possessive, they love profit, they do not mind taking advantage of a situation when they feel strong and safe. Either they are irreligious or they are accused of being godless. They are always badly treated by those who are only too willing to make use of their services, even when they have already sustained a loss and are in a difficult position. People say they want to see them hanged. If they go to court they lose their cases although they appeared to be in the right. They sustain loss upon loss, mainly in the form of a girl (or girls) and money. They are aware of the unpleasant character of their professions, yet they cannot change them; instead they try to use them to their advantage. Such an attempt arises from a feeling of insecurity. In the hostile society in which they find themselves, all they can do is to make money and thus gain some kind of strength. They complain of the bad treatment they receive and claim equality with their attackers, relying of their status in the state as recognized by the law. Sometimes they will be flattered by those who want to ruin them. Sometimes they will have a dream, a premonition, or an omen indicating some loss which they will soon sustain.

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As the end of every comedy is, generally speaking, a young man and a girl getting married, or as in Latin comedy sometimes a young man being able to live with a courtesan, the slave-dealer who is keeping the young girl or the courtesan has to be defeated because he is in the way of the lovers. Shylock, besides being an enemy of Bassanio and Portia, although indirectly, is in the way of Jessica and Lorenzo. Sohe has to be cheated in a similar way to the duping of the Latin slave-dealer. Shylock threatens as no slave-dealer does, the life of a man, who, together with his friends, represents love, friendship, generosity, and good living, Accordingly, he has to be cheated and defeated again by those people so that the spirit of comedy is not violated. But there is hope for Shylock as far as the religious ideas of Shakespeare's day go, because, when he is forced to become a Christian, he is given not only the opportunity of acceptance by the Venetians, but, more importantly, the opportunity of salvation. So the generosity of the young Venetians will embrace Shylock as well, and he is ultimately accorded a more pleasant treatment than that given to any Latin slave-dealer. But though Shakespeare treated Shylock more humanely than the Roman dramatists treat the slavedealer, there still remains a significant parallel between the role and the fate of the Jewish money lender and the role and fate of his Latin prototype.