See Q.

Sampler on packet, pages 12-15 1st Lecture Exam on Tuesday, October 2nd (Multiple Choice)

EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE: GALAXIES - Milky Way o Democritus (450-370 BC) gave the first notion of the milky way o Galileo (1610 BC) First to really develop the telescope First to really look at space and the milky way o Georges Lemaitre (1927) Came up with the idea of the big bang o 20-15 BYA: Big Bang o EP Hubble (1924) Looked at the milky way and discovered that there were billions of galaxies beyond the MW o G. Gamow (1940s) Looked into the evolution of protogalaxies o Expansion: atomic fusion & cooling o Gravitational attraction = galaxies formed - Solar System o Nebular Theory [Pierre Simon Marquis de LaPlace (1815)] Matter became clustered in stars with the outer eddies condensed in chunks A hypothesis concerning the origin of the solar system according to which a rotating nebula cooled and contracted, throwing off rings of matter that contracted into the planets and their moons, while the great mass of the condensing nebula became the sun. - Earth o Earth is about 4.6 billion years old o All planets circle sun in same direction and their orbits lie on the ecliptic plane o Earths formation: Planetesimal (chunks of matter) accretion by coalescence Internal melting due to Gravitational compression Impact heating Radioactive decay Differentiation into layers Light material rises to the top (surface) Heavy material sinks to the center (core) 4.2 to 3.7 billion years ago, crustal cooling & thickening start and continued until 1,000 million years ago, when crustal plates break up & begin migrating, initial mechanisms of plate tectonics Sea-floor spreading Subduction

By 600 million years ago, the earth already reached the structure of how it is today o 4 concentric layers of Earth Inner core: 1250 km Outer core: 2250 km NiFe = High Density 5500 degrees Celsius? Molten? Mantle: 2900 km Si, Mg, Fe: High Density 2800 degrees Celsius Lower mantle is rigid** (under pressure) Upper mantle is plastic** (100-700 km): Asthenosphere Crust: 10-40 km o It actually moves o Behaves differently from the lower mantle Differentiated into oceanic and continental crust Oceanic crust: o Basaltic (SIMA) o Heavier o Younger Continental crust: o Less dense (lighter) o Granitic (SIAL) o Doesnt subduct o Thicker Gutenberg discontinuity: lies at mantle base between mantle and outer core o Beno Gutenberg (1913) Mohorovicic discontinuity: lies right below the crust base between the crust and the mantle o Andera Moho Mohorovicic (early 20th century) o Made of Basaltic Rocks (Sima) Lithosphere = crust & uppermost mantle o Earths crust is thicker under continents Upper crust (SIAL) is lighter (density: 2.65 g/cc) and discontinuous, so its only found under the continents Lower crust (SIMA) is denser (about 3.0 g/cc) than continents and continuous, so its found over the whole planet (therefore, only this crust type is present below oceans Continents float on a heavier (about 13% more) crust layer SIAL: aluminum silicates

 SIMA: magnesium silicates o Crust under mountains are thicker than any other areas (called mountain roots, allows crust of the continents to extend deeper through the mantle)

Rocks Formation, Classification, and Relationships Pockets of magma approach surface and cool -> Igneous o Weathering: process of breaking down rocks o Transportation: moves downhill usually and clumps up Sediments stack up and the bottom layers become compacted from high pressure (lithification) -> Sedimentary Heat and pressure create Metamorphic o Deformed rocks from some previous cycle (magma) o Melting allow the process to start over Rock Formation +/- 100 elements -> 2000+ minerals -> combine to form rocks o Physical properties o Chemical properties o Origin, processes formation Rock Genesis 3 basic groups and 6 sub groups Igneous (Intrusive aka plutonic or extrusive aka volcanic) Sedimentary (Detrital aka clastic or chemical) Metamorphic (foliated or non foliated) Definitions Intrusive (igneous): form inside the crust of the earth = plutonic Extrusive (igneous): form on surface of earth = volcanic Detrital: chunks of rock from weathering and breaking down that clump up eventually Chemical: non chunks Foliated: cleavage, parallel lines Igneous Rocks Crystalline structure (even during cooling and solidification) Location (internal/external) Temperature (cooling rate) Speed of formation Size of crystals -> strength Igneous intrusive rock (plutons, a lot of plutons = batholith) Dike: vertical structure Sill: horizontal structure

Laccoliths: dome shape

Volcanic Rocks Lava: magma at earths surface and flows, differ in chemical and physical, properties: basaltic and silicic. Pyroclastic material: broken by fire, ejected, travel through air. All sizes, from ash/cinder to volcanic bombs.

Mica is a very common mineral found in rocks. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - - Sedimentary environments are just where materials have been collected - - Deposition below slopes are called colluvial sediments - Arranged in layers and develop in sedimentary environments - Only 5% of the earth, but 75% of all outcrops! - Contain fossils sedimentary rocks are the only ways we can preserve fossils - Economically important - Nicholas Steno published Sedimentology (1669) o Law of Superposition: in undeformed sequences, the older beds are on the bottom o Law of Original Horizontality: if beds are tilted, they must have been moved into that position after their deposition - Sedimentary rocks have beds and bedding planes - Conglomerates are very common forms of sedimentary rocks

Rock formation sequence: Weathering Transport (Erosion) Deposition (end of sedimentation) Internal changes What leads to a rock?

- Burial causes compaction - Pressure solution along grain contacts - Deposition of dissolved materials in percolating water and grain residues Two possible components: 1) Rock Particles (grains) 2) Intergranular cement (also called matrix) *Their strength and other properties may be different from one another and may affect further weathering, infiltration, water storage, etc. Two Sedimentary Rock Types: 1) Detrital (aka Clastic): with rock fragments/grains and cement 2) Chemical: with soluble materials - These may be precipitated by inorganic or organic (biological) processes - Organic example: Coral limestone, coal Detrital Sedimentary Chemical Organic Inorganic

METAMORPHIC ROCKS - Metamorphic rocks have been subjected to processes of metamorphism (e.g. heat, pressure, chemical fluids) Contact metamorphism: in close proximity to magma masses, lots of heat Regional metamorphism: occurs over extensive areas, especially along subduction zones Hydrothermal metamorphism (least common): contact with thermal waters *For diagrams of the forms of metamorphism, see textbook - Metamorphic rocks are also divided by INTENSITY of metamorphism processes Low grade metamorphism (minimal alternation) High grade metamorphism (significant change)

Metamorphic Rocks 1. Metamorphic rocks are classified by Presence of Foliation Foliation - Cleavage Plains Foliated - Mineral crystals are visibly aligned, rock displays a banded aspect (2+ minerals must be present.) 1. Mainly produced by Compressive Stress Non-foliated - Rocks have one single mineral, and/or have minimal deformation (lowgrade), and minerals have equidemensional crystals (i.e.+- equal dimensions. 2. Metamorphism Results in Specific Types of Rock (know this)

Limestone----Marble Sandstone----Quartzite Granite-----Gneiss Coal----Anthracite Shale---- Schist, Slate Metamorphism of metamorphic rock (Met) Schist, Gneiss-----Migmatite (Met) Phyllite-----Schist 3. Final Possibility in the Rock Cycle Rocks may be so completely melted and thoroughly deformed, that the may revert to molten Magma, thus cycle is completer and new igneous rocks may form Rock Weathering 1. 2 types of weathering Physical o Involves physical changes, mainly fragmentation of rocks, down to silt size (>.01 mm) o Major Components Frost wedging - Expansion up to 9%, up to 125 kg/cm pressure - Intensity vs. Frequency - Most common at high latitudes and high altitudes Salt (Crystallization) Weathering - First, water dissolves mineral: Solution - Then water evaporates - Solutes precipitated left behind - Then, solutes fill cavities of rocks creating pressures up to 125 kg/cm - Produces small cavities called Tafoni o Many Tafoni result in honeycomb pattern - Common in areas where salt is abundant, with high temperatures and in deserts Pressure Release - Occur over Long time periods - Best seen in Plutons, as igneous rocks slowly expand as pressure above gradually decreases (due to slow landscape erosion) - Cracks, Fracture planes result - The Process is Exfoliation. The resulting landforms are exfoliation domes

Insolation (=Thermal Weathering) - Due to temperature changes

Caused by solar radiation, fires, or even rain o Rain causes sudden rock cooling - Occurs in areas with hot days and colder nights - Rock expansion during heating (day), then pronounced contaction during cooling (night), when rock breaks down (splits) - Most common in deserts and hot/dry areas Plant (root) pressure - Induced by plants - Lichens & larger plants (shrubs, trees, etc.) o Lichens can break down rocks that ultimately accumulate to create soil o Lichens grow everywhere o Larger plants can pry apart layers/slivers of rock, due to the gradual growth and expansion of roots - Root growth (thickening, elongation) & increase in pressure against rocks **ABRASION: weathering that can be done by wind, water and gravity Chemical o Associated with chemical changes Rock materials are altered; new chemical compounds may be formed and released, including clays o Major Components Solution (Very Important) - Affects ALL minerals and elements, but some are more soluble than others Carbonation - Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) dissolves, and it is faster when Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is present Chelation - Organic acids from decomposing plants; acids are catalysts and speed up mineral solutions Hydration (water absorption) - Water is a POLAR liquid, with + charges on one end and charges on the other

Water is attracted to mineral particles; these have negatively charged particles - Water molecules also attach to other water molecules - Many water layers attach on mineral particles - Water layers act like wedges, pushing apart mineral particles. Minerals in rocks are altered and weathered o Expansion when wet, contraction when dry Hydrolysis - Water molecule splits into 2 ions - H2O = HO + H - These ions then combine with minerals - Occurs more frequently at high temperatures Oxidation and Reduction - Minerals react in the presence or absence of oxygen - Oxidation: occurs in aerobic (O-rich) environments o Produces red/yellow/orange colors - Reduction: occurs in anaerobic (O-deficient) zones o Produces gray/dark brown/black colors Weathering is needed for the development of different sediments and soils Main elements in Earths crust o Oxygen (O) o Silicon (Si) o Aluminum (Al) o Calcium (Ca) o Magnesium (Mg) o Sodium (Na) o Potassium (K) o Iron (Fe) (SiAlOCaFeKNaMg) Order of relief: difference of elevation o First-Order landforms Oceans and landscapes o Second-Order landforms Features: Major oceans or continent subdivisions Examples: mountain ranges, large river valleys, deltas, ocean basins, marine fans Second order includes third order o Third-Order landforms Examples: mountains, glaciers, domes, streams o Fourth-Order landforms Miniature relief: an area with Tafoni, a rock Pedestal, a group of exfoliated blocks *Orders of relief includes one another (fourth falls in third, which falls in second) * 1st and 2nd order landforms (continents, oceans) are caused by global dymanics (plate tectonics) over long time periods * 3rd and 4th order landforms caused by erosion and deposition of materials over shorter time periods

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PROCESSES OF PLATE TECTONICS - Alfred Wegener came up with the idea of the continental drift - Early Jurassic, ~200 million years ago [MYA] o Pangaea continent, surrounded by Panthalassa o ~750 MYA: Rodinia started splitting - Late Jurassic, ~150 MYA o Starts separation into Laurasia (North) and Gondwana (South) o 250 MYA: Gondwanas glactiation occurred - Cretaceous, ~90 MYA o Gondwana breaks apart into South America, Africa, India, Australia, Antarctica - Early Cenozoic, ~50 MYA o Laurasia breaks apart into Eurasia, North America, and Greenland - Late Cenozoic, ~20 MYA o Separation into Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, Pacific Coast - 20 last MYA to present o Gulf of California, Red Sea opens up, Panama Isthmus forms - Possible Future o North and South America move further, West Africa and Europe might collide, Australia crosses the Equator moving north Processes of Plate Tectonics 1. Plate divergence Plate Boundaries Perpendicular to (main) Divergent Boundary

Leads to continental break-up and seafloor spreading If the split is at a slow rate, the geography piles up If the split is at a fast rate, the geography doesnt have time to pile up and is more flat - Ex: East African Rift Zone, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise Processes of Plate Convergence (collisions) 2. Continent/Ocean collision (C/O) - Subduction: oceanic plate goes under continent and melts away into the mantle - Many ocean trenches are around the ring of the Pacific - Ex: Western South American and the Andes) 3. Ocean/Ocean collision (O/O) - Formation of (Oceanic) volcanic islands

Ex: Guam-Marianas Islands and Marianas Trench, in the Western Pacific Ocean, Puerto Rico Trench 4. Continent/Continent collision (C/C) - Formation of folded mountains - Ex: India and the Himalayas Additional processes 1. Hot Spot interaction plates poke through the crust (like a bubble rising through the mantle from the core) - Eventually reaches the surface of the planet, creating flood basalts - The plates are moving, so the stationary hot spot plume creates an island chain - The Hawaiian Islands are a perfect example of how islands are created by hot spots - Ex: Hawaii, Galapagos, Canary Islands

VOLCANIC PROCESSES & LANDFORMS Volcanism: related to tectonic plate boundaries (subduction, seafloor spreading) and hot spots Magma sources & types define: - Nature of the eruption - Types of landforms created Basaltic vs. Silicic Volcanism - Basaltic magma o Calm eruptions o From upper mantle (new magma) o Main sources: mid-oceanic ridges, areas of crustal rift & hotspots o SIMA with low silica % o Very hot = ~1,200 degrees C o Very low gas %, Include water vapor (most abundant) Gases remain dissolved in the melt o Low viscosity = high fluidity (due to low SiO2% and high temperature) o Little or NO explosive activity o Volcanic products: fluid lava Main type: Pahoehoe = travels far - Silicic magma o From melting of subducted rocks Main sources: subduction zones @ continental edges & island arcs o SIAL, with high silica % o Lower temperatures = ~900 degrees C o **High gas %, mostly water vapor Gases separate below surface, when still under high pressure o High viscosity = low fluidity (due to high SiO2% & low temperature)

o Extremely explosive activity Chain reactions due to gas pressure Gas bubbles (lava vesicles) are produced o Numerous volcanic products: Viscous Lavas, main type: AA, with a broken, blocky, jagged surface Pyroclastic (which means broken by fire) material: ASH, cinder, pumice, volcanic bombs, tephra Gases: H2O, CO2, CO, S, N, Cl, H

o Fissure Eruption on Shield volcano Lava fountaining Basaltic lava flows Fissure Volcanic Landforms - Basaltic: Shield volcanoes (flood) lava plateaus Silicic (aka Andesitic): Composite (strato-) volcanoes, calderas, and plug domes o Collapse calderas (indentation/depression in the middle of volcano) o Collapse of Mt. Mazama (~7700 150 years B.P.) Formation of crater lake (Caldera) Collapse of mountain into magma chamber o Plug dome Always associated with silicic lava with very high content of SiO2 (~70-80%) Produced by highly silicic lavas that flow slowly and solidify quickly All the previous plug domes are formed of dacite Cinder cones o Steep conical hill of tephra (volcanic debris) that accumulates around and downwind from a volcanic vent o Made of pyroclastic material o Magma exploded into the air and cooled quickly to form cinder cones

4 Zones of Vulcanism 1) Seafloor spreading 2) O/C subduction 3) O/O subduction 4) Hot spots

Summary of Volcanic Landforms: - Basaltic o Shield volcanoes o Lava plateaus - Silicic (Andesitic) o Composite (strato-) volcanoes o (collapse) Calderas o Plug domes Plus: Cinder Cones (present in basaltic, but more common in silicic volcanic areas)