FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE

HBSC2103

CHEMISTRY I

LECTURE NAME MATRICULATION NO IDENTITY CARD NO. TELEPHONE NO. E-MAIL LEARNING CENTRE

: : : : :

MS.CHAN CHIN HAN 780211075951001 780211-07-5951 012-9734760 zulk_nine@yahoo.com : PETALING JAYA LEARNING CENTRE

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SOALAN TUGASAN /ASSIGNMENT QUESTION Suppose, you are given a substance and told it was lead nitrate, lead carbonate, potassium nitrate or potassium carbonate. Prepare a report on how to find out which of these four substances it was. Justify your report with appropriate tests. If the substance is lead carbonate, suggest a method to prepare the salt and describe its preparation. Explain the principles involved in its preparation.

[Total: 40 marks]

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INTRODUCTION
This assignment its all about salt that we used in our daily life. Im sure you aware that chemicals salts are part of our life. We use sodium chloride and monosodium glutamate or MSG in our food preparation, ammonium nitrate and urea fertilisers, mercury (II) chloride and copper (II) sulphates in pesticides, sodium benzoate and sodium nitrate as preservatives in our food. How do we make salts? What preparations are available to us? Four basic methods for preparing salts are described on this page, with annotated diagrams.

Method (a) Making a salt by neutralising a soluble acid with a soluble base (alkali). Method (b) Preparing a salt by reacting an acid with a metal or with an insoluble base .

Method (c) Preparing an Insoluble Salt. Method (d). Making a salt by directly combining its constituent elements

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SALTS
Salt is an ionic compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from acid is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion, NH4+ In the preparation of salts, we must identify the type of salt. This can be done by analysing the cations and the anions that are present in salts. Two types of salts

Soluble salt salts that can be dissolve in water at room temperature Insoluble salt salts cannot be dissolve in water at room temperature Solubility in water

Type of salt Sodium salts Potassium salts Ammonium salts Nitrate salts All dissolves in water

All dissolves in water All dissolves in water, Except: Lead(II) chloride, PbCl2 Silver chloride, Mercury chloride, All dissolves in water AgCl HgCl

Chloride salts

Except: Lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4 Barium sulfat, Calcium sulfat, BaSO4 CaSO4 Na2CO3 K2CO3

Sulphate salts

All did not dissolves in water, Except: Sodium carbonate, Carbonate salts Potassium carbonate,

Ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3

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[HBSC2103] November 14, 2012 Use of salts;

Item Use Example Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Flavor Sodium chloride Sodium chloride Food preparation Preservatives Sodium benzoate - sauce Sodium nitrite Baking powder Agriculture Nitrogen fertilizers Sodium nitrate Copper(II) sulphate Pesticide Iron(II) sulphate Reduce stomach acidic (gastric) Medicine Sniff salt (fainted) Calcium carbonate Calcium hydrogen carbonate Ammonium carbonate - processed meat, burger - salted fish

Sodium hydrogen carbonate Potassium nitrate

Plaster of Paris (cement to Calcium sulphate support broken bone)

A. Preparation of Salt The procedure of preparation salt depends to the type of salt. a. Insoluble salt is prepared through precipitation reaction.

b. Soluble salt is prepared by one of these reactions; i. ii. Acid and alkali Acid and metal [HBSC2103] November 14, 2012
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iii. iv. v.

Acid and metal oxide Acid and metal carbonate Acid and reactive metal

a. Insoluble Salts i. Preparing Insoluble Salts

Insoluble salts can be prepared through precipitation reactions or double decomposition reactions.

Precipitation or double decomposition reaction involves;

two aquoues solutions/soluble salts were mix together one of the solutions contains the cations of the insoluble salt. one of the solutions contains the anions of the insoluble salt. the ions of the two aqueous solutions above interchange to produce two new

compound which is insoluble salt or precipitate, and aqueous solution. the precipitate produced is obtained by filtration. The residue left in the filter paper is the insoluble salt. The filtrate is soluble salt.
the residue/precipitate (insoluble salt) then rinsed with distilled water to remove

any other ions as impurities.

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Cation (Metal ion)

Anion (Non-metal ion)

Ionic equation:

Pb2+ + 2Cl- PbCl2

Na+ ions and NO3- ions do not Pb2+ ions combined with Cl- ions to form white precipitate PbCl2

Na NO3-

Na

take part in the reaction and are free to move in the solution

NO3-

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Glass rod Mixture of solutions

Filter paper

Residue/precipitate (Insoluble salt)

Retort stand Filtrate (Soluble salt)

Chemical and ionic equations Chemical equation : MX(aq) + NY(aq) solution solution MY(s) precipitate + NX(aq) solution

Ionic equation

M+(aq) +

Y-(aq)

MY(s)

In the formation of the precipitate of barium sulphate, BaSO4, the chemical equation can be written: BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Ions

Ba2+ + Cl- + Na+ + SO42- BaSO4 + Na+ + Cl-

Ionic equation : Ba2+ + SO42- BaSO4 (Shows the ions that take part in the reaction to form precipitate/insoluble salts) Page 8

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More examples; Insoluble Salt ZnCO3 AgCl BaSO4 PbCl2 PbSO4 CaCO3 Ions Zn2+ , CO32Ag+ , ClBa2+ , SO42Pb2+ , ClPb2+ , SO42Ca2+ , CO32Ionic equation Zn2+ + CO32- ZnCO3 Ag+ + Cl- AgCl Ba2+ + SO42 BaSO4 Pb2+ + Cl- PbCl2 Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4 Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3

ii. Preparation and purification of insoluble salts Preparation of Plumbum(II) iodide Chemical equation Ionic equation Step 1: Preparation : Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq) : Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) PbI2 (s)

( Diagram below )

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20 cm3 20 cm3 Lead(II) nitrat 0.1 mol dm-3 potassium iodide

0.1 mol dm-3

1. 20 cm3 lead(II) nitrate 0.1 mol dm-3 solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml,

and poured into a beaker.

2. 20 cm3 potassium iodide 0.1 mol dm-3 solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml

and poured into a beaker contains lead(II) nitrate solution. 3. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod. A yellow precipitate is formed.

Glass rod Mixture of solutions Filter paper Precipitate of lead(II) iodide(yellow) Filter funnel Retort stand Beaker Sodium nitrate solution
4. The mixture is filtered to obtain the yellow solids of lead (II) iodide as the residue.

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[HBSC2103] November 14, 2012 Step 2: Purification

Distilled water

Glass rod

Precipitate of lead(II) iodide

5. The residue is rinsed with distilled water to remove other ions in it.

Precipitate of lead(II) iodide

Filter paper

6. The yellow solid is dried by pressing between two pieces of filter paper. b. Soluble Salt

( Diagram below )

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i.

Preparing Soluble Salt

Sodium salts Potassium salts Ammonium salts Acid + alkali salts + water

Soluble Salts Acid + metal oxide

-

salts +

water

Others salts

Acid + reactive metal salts + hydrogen gas Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon

a. Sodium, potassium or ammonium salts prepared from acid and alkali reaction. Salt NaCl K2SO4 NH4NO3 CH3COONa Alkali NaOH KOH NH3/NH4OH NaOH HCl H2SO4 HNO3 CH3COOH Acid Chemical equation NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O 2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3 + H2O NaOH + CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O

b. Soluble salt (except sodium, potassium and ammonium salt) is prepared using these methods - Acid and metal - Acid and metal oxide - Acid and metal carbonate

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Name of Salt ZnCl2 Mg(NO)3 CuSO4 Pb(NO3)2

Acid that must be used HCl HNO3 H2SO4 HNO3

Substance that can be use to react with acid Metal Zn Mg Metal oxide ZnO MgO CuO PbO Metal carbonate ZnCO3 MgCO3 CuCO3 PbCO3

ii. Preparation and purification of soluble salts A. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid and alkali. Preparation of Soluble Sodium, Potassium and ammonium Salts Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium can be prepared by the reaction between an acid and alkali. Acid (aq) + alkali (aq) Salt (aq) + Water (l) Procedure :

Using pipette, 25 cm3 of alkali solution is measured and transferred into a conical flask.

Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the alkali solution. Dilute acid is place in a burette. The initial reading is recorded. Acid is added slowly into the alkali solution while shaking the conical flaks, until the pink solution turn colourless.

The final reading of the burette is recorded. The volume of acid added, V cm3 is calculated.

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The experiment is repeated by adding V cm3 of acid to 25 cm3 of alkali solution in a beaker without using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish. The mixture is heated until saturated and the saturated solution is allowed to cool at room temperature. Salt crystals formed are filtered and rinsed with a little of cold distilled water. Salt crystals are dried by pressing it between filter papers (or in oven)

Step 1: Preparation (Titration)

Burette Retort stand Hydrochloric acid

Conical flask 25 cm3 NaOH + phenolphthalein indicator

1. 25.0 cm3 sodium hydroxide solutions is pipette into conical flask.

2. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added into conical flask. The colour of solution is recorded.
3. A 50 cm3 burette is filled with hydrochloric acid. The initial burette reading is recorded.

4. Hydrochloric acid is added gradually from a burette into conical flask and swirling the conical flask.
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[HBSC2103] November 14, 2012 5. Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless. The final burette reading is recorded. 6. The volume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated by adding hydrochloric acid (known volume) to 25.0 cm3

sodium hydroxide in a beaker without using phenolphthalein. Step 2: Preparation (Crystallization)

Evaporating dish Salt solution Bunsen burner

8. The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish. 9. The colourless solution is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated or to about one-third (1/3) of the original volume. 10. The saturated solution is then cooled to allow crystallization to occur. Step 3: Purification

( Diagram below )

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Distilled water

Glass rod

Copper(II) sulphate Filter funnel

10. The white crystals formed are then filtered, rinsed with a little distilled water and dried by pressing between filter paper. B. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid i. Metal oxide. ii. Metal iii. Metal carbonate

Procedure to Prepare a Soluble Salt (not Na, K or NH4+)

50 cm3 of acid is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a beaker. The acid is heated slowly. Using a spatula, metal / metal oxide / metal carbonate powder is added a little at a time while stirring the mixture with a glass rod. The addition of the solid powder is stopped when some solids no longer dissolve anymore. (the solid is excess and all the acid is completely neutralised by the solid)

A c id

M etal oxid e P ow d erM etal carb on ate of : M etal

H e a tin g
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The mixture is filtered to remove the excess solid powder.

Excess of solid powder

Filtrate (Salt solution)

The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish. The filtrate is heated until saturated. (The filtrate is evaporated to about one-third (1/3) of the original volume) The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature and the salt crystals are formed. The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water. Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.

F iltr a te H e a tin g
Example: Preparing copper(II) sulphate

S a tu r a te d s o lu tio n C r y sta ls

(Sulphuric acid and copper(II) oxide powder)

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Step 1: Preparation

Spatula Stir Copper(II) oxide Glass rod Beaker Wire gauze

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

50 cm3 sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm-3

Tripod

Bunsen burner

1. 50 cm3 sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 is put in a beaker and is heated.

2. Using spatula copper(II) oxide powder is added a little at a time to the hot sulphuric acid while stirring continuously with glass rod. 3. The addition of copper(II) oxide is stopped when solids powder remain undissolved.

Glass rod Reactant mixture

Excess copper(II) oxide

Copper(II) sulphate solution

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[HBSC2103] November 14, 2012 4. The mixture is filtered to remove the excess copper(II) oxide. 5. The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.

Copper(II) sulphate solution

Evaporating dish

Bunsen burner

6. The filtrate is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated, or to about one-third (1/3) of the original volume. 7. The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature.

Step 3: Purification

Glass rod Distilled water

Copper(II) sulphate

8. The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water. 9. Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.
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B. Physical Characteristics of Crystals. All crystals have these physical characteristics: a) Reqular geometry shapes, such as cubic or hexagonal.
b) Flat faces, straight edges and sharp angles.

c) Same angle between adjacent faces.

d) All crystals of the same salt have the same shape although the sizes may be different.

The solubility of a salt in water depends on the types of cations and anions present. Salt Sodium, potassium and ammonium salts (Na+, K+, NH4+) Nitrate salt (NO3-) Chloride salt (Cl -) Sulphate salt (SO42-) Carbonate salt (CO32-) Solubility in water

All are soluble

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All are soluble All chloride salts are soluble in water except

C. Qualitative Analysis of Salts In the qualitative analysis of salts, we need to identify the ions that are present in salts. This can be done by analysing

PbCl2, AgCl and HgCl2

All sulphate salts are soluble in water

except PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4 Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3

All carbonate salts are insoluble except

their physical and chemical properties. Page 20

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Observations on the physical properties of salts 1. Colour and solubility in water Certain physical properties of salts such colour and solubitity in water are observed to help us infer certain cations and anions that are present in salts. The table shows the colour of salts in solid , in aqueous solution and the solubility of salts in water

Salt 1. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 2. Ammonium nitrateNH4(NO3)3 3. Calcium carbonate CaCO3 4. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 5. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 6. Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 7. Zinc sulphate Zn SO4 8. Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2 9. Lead(II) chloride , PbCl2 10. Lead(II) sulphate , PbSO4 11. Lead(II) carbonate , PbCO3 12. Copper(II) chloride , CuCl2 13 Copper(II) sulphate , PbSO4 14. Copper(II) carbonate , PbCO3 15. Iron(II) sulphate , FeSO4 16. Iron(III) chloride , FeCl3 17. Sodium nitrate , NaNO3 18, Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 19. Potassium nitrate , KNO3
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Colour in solid white white white white white white white white white white white Blue Blue Green Green Brown / Yellow white white white

Solubility in water soluble soluble insoluble soluble soluble insoluble soluble soluble insoluble insoluble insoluble soluble soluble insoluble soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble

Colour in Aqueous solution colourless colourless colourless colourless colourless colourless Blue Blue Pale green Brown/Yellow/ Yellowish brown colourless colourless colourless Page 21

20. Potassium carbonate , K2CO3

white

soluble

colourless

The table shows the colour of different cations in the solid form or in aqueous solution Observation Blue solution Pale green solution Yellow/Yellowishbrown/brown solution Green solid Brown solid White solid Colourless solution Inference Ion copper (Cu2+ ) present Ion Iron(II) Fe2+ present Ion Iron (III) Fe3+ present Hydrated Fe 2+, CuCO3 Hydrated Fe 3+ salt Salts of Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ Al 3+ , Zn 2+, Pb 2+ (If the anions are colourless Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ , Al 3+ , Zn 2+, Pb 2+

The table shows the solubility of different types of salts in water

Compounds Sodium salts Potassium salts Ammonium salts Nitrate salts

Solubility in water

All are soluble

All are soluble All are soluble except AgCl, HgCl and PbCl2 (soluble in hot water)

Chloride salts

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Sulphate salts

All are soluble except BaSO4, PbSO4 and CaSO4 All are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate

Carbonate salts

2. Tests for gases

Gases are often produced from reactions carried out during laboratory tests on salts. By identifying the gases evolved, it is possible to infer the types of cations and anions that are present in a salt.

The table shows the test and the result of different gases

Gas Oxygen gas, O2

Test Test with a glowing wooden splinter Test with a lighted wooden splinter Bubble the gas produced into lime water Test with moist red litmus paper Test with moist blue litmus paper Test with a drop of concentrated ammonia NH3 solution

Result Wooden splinter is rekindled /lighted

Hydrogen gas , H2 Carbon dioxide gas , CO2 Ammonia gas, NH3

Gas explodes with a pop sound

Lime water turns milky

Moist red litmus paper turns blue Moist blue litmus paper turns red and then turns white

Chlorine gas, Cl2

Hydrogen chlorine gas , HCl

Dense white fumes

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Sulphur dioxide gas , SO2

Bubble the gas produced into purple acidified potassium manganate (VII), KMnO4 solution Test with moist blue litmus paper

Purple acidified potassium manganate (VII),KMnO4 solution decolourises

Nitrogen dioxide gas , NO2

moist blue litmus paper turns red

3.

Action of heat on salts

Effect of heat on carbonate salts

Carbonaate salt

Colour of salt before heating

Colour of residue Hot Black powder cold Black powder

Effect on lime water The gas liberated turns lime water milky/chalky The gas liberated turns lime water milky/chalky The gas liberated turns lime water milky/chalky No change The gas liberated turns lime water milky/chalky No change The gas liberated turns lime water milky/chalky Page 24

Copper (II) carbonate, CuCO3 Zinc carbonate , ZnCO3 Lead(II) carbonate, PbCO3

Green powder

White solid

Yelow solid

White solid

White solid

Brown sold

Yelow solid

Sodium carbonate, White solid Na2CO3 Calcium carbonate, CaCO3 Potassium carbonate, K2CO3 Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3 White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

White solid

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Effect of heat on nitrate salts

Nitrate Salt

Colour of salt before heating

Colour of residue Hot cold Test on gases liberated A brown gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter A browan gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter A browan gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter A colourless gas that rekindles a glowing splinter is liberated A browan gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter A colourless gas that rekindles a glowing splinter is liberated A browan gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Copper (II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2

Blue solid

Black powder

Black powder

Zinc nitrate, Zn(NO3)2

White solid

Yellow solid

White solid

Lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2

White solid

Brown solid

Yellow solid White solid

Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

White solid

White solid

Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2

White solid

White solid

White solid

Potassium nitrate, KNO3

White solid

White solid

White solid

Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2

White solid

White solid

White solid

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Iron(II) nitrate, Fe(NO3)2

Pale Green solid

Pale Green solid

Pale Green solid

A browan gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter A browan gas that turns blue litmus paper red is liberated. The gas liberated also ignites a glowing splinter

Iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3

ReddishBrown solid Brown solid

ReddishBrown solid

The table shows the comparison of the effect of heat on carbonate and nitrate salts

Metal Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Tin Lead Copper Mercury Silver Gold

Effect of heat on carbonate salt Are not decomposed by heat

Effect of heat on nitrate salt Decompose to nitrite salt and oxygen gas.

Decompose to metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas.

Decompose to metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.

Decompose to metal, carbon dioxide gas and oxygen gas.

Decompose to metal , nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.

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Most sulphate salts are not decomposed by heat. Only a few sulphate such as iron (II) sulphate, zinc sulphate and copper sulphate decompose to sulphur dioxide or sulphur trioxide gas when heated. All chloride salts are stable when heated except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes and decomposes to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.

The table shows the deduction of the types of ion present based on the gas produced Type of gas produced CO2 O2 NO2 SO2 NH3 Type of ion present(anion) Carbonate ion (CO3 2- ) present except Na2CO3 and K2CO3 Nitrate ion (NO3-) present Nitrate ion (NO3-) present except NaNO3 and KNO3 Sulphate ion (SO4 2- ) present Ammonium ion (NH4+) present

Tests for anions Reagent / Condition Observation Anion Ionic Equation (if any)

2 cm3 the unknown solution + dilute hydrochloric acid / nitric acid / sulphuric acid pour into a test tube gas liberated is immediately bubbled through lime water.

Effervescence. Colourless gas turns lime water milky.

CO32- ion

CO32- + 2H+ CO2 + H2O

2 cm3 of nitric acid + 2 cm3 of the unknown solution pour into a test tube + 2 cm3 silver nitrate solution

White precipitate is formed.

Cl- ion

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

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2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid / nitric acid + 2 cm3 of the unknown solution pour into a test tube + 2 cm3 of barium chloride / barium nitrate solution shake well

White precipitate is formed.

SO42- ion

Ba2+ + SO42 - BaSO4

2 cm3 of the unknown solution pour into a test tube 2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid + 2 cm3 of iron(II) sulphate solution shake well. Then drop carefully and slowly a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid along the side of a slanting test tube into the mixture without shaking it.

Brown ring is formed at the boundary between the concentrated H2SO4 (top layer) and aqueous solution of the mixture (bottom layer)

NO3- ion

Tests for cations

Confirmatory Test for Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, NH4+ Ions

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Confirmatory Test for Fe2+ Reagent Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution Potassium thiocyanate solution Observation Pale blue precipitate Dark blue precipitate Dark blue precipitate Greenish-brown solution Pale red colouration Blood red colouration Conclusion Fe2+ ion is present Fe3+ ion is present Fe2+ ion is present Fe3+ ion is present Fe2+ ion is present Fe3+ ion is present

Confirmatory Test for Pb2+ Method Observation Ionic Equation

Using aqueous solution of chloride - 2 cm3 of any solution of Cl- + 2 cm of any solution of Pb
3 2+

- A white precipitate is formed

Pb2+ + 2Cl- PbCl2

When heated dissolve in water to form colourless solution

dilute with 5 cm3 of distilled water heat until no further change occurs allow the content to cool to room temperature using running water from the tap

When cooled white precipitate reappear

Using aqueous solution of iodide - 2 cm3 of any solution of I- +

- A yellow precipitate is formed

Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2

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2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+ dilute with 5 cm3 of distilled water heat until no further change occurs allow the content to cool to room temperature using running water from the tap When cooled yellow precipitate reappear When heated dissolve in water to form colourless solution

Confirmatory Test for NH4+ Method Observation

2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 of NaOH / KOH / Ca(OH)2 heat put a piece of moist red litmus paper at the mouth of the test tube

- Moist red litmus paper turns blue

Reaction with Nesslers Reagent

- A brown precipitate is formed

2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 of Nesslers Reagent shake well

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REFERENCE S Brady, J.E & Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its change ( 4
Willey & Sons, Inc.
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th

ed. ). New York: John

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Brown, T.L., Lemay, H.E., & Burnsten, B.E (2000). Chemistry: The central science (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kots. J.C., Treichel, P.M., & Weaver, G.C. (2006). Chemistry: The chemical reactivity (2nd ed.). Victoria, Australia: Thomson Learning. McMurray, J., & Fay, R.C. (2001). An introduction to general, organic, and biological chemistry (9th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson-Benjamin Cummings. Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M. L., & Stanley, G.G (2010). Chemistry (9th ed.). Belmont: Books/ Cole

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