English Grammar

2011
DO NOT BE SURPRISED WHEN THOSE WHO IGNORE THE RULES OF GRAMMAR ALSO IGNORE THE LAW. AFTER ALL, THE LAW IS JUST SO MUCH GRAMMAR
Anil Kumar Verma IIPM, Bangalore 8553015701

Anil

2 PARTS OF SPEECH TABLE

This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*. You can find more detail if you click on each part of speech. part of speech Verb function or "job" example words (to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John a/an, the, 69, some, good, big, red, well, interesting quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really I, you, he, she, some to, at, after, on, but example sentences EnglishClub.com is a web site. I like EnglishClub.com.

action or state

Noun

thing or person

This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

Adjective

describes a noun

My dog is big. I like big dogs. My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly. Tara is Indian. She is beautiful. We went to school on Monday. I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats. Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.

Adverb

describes a verb, adjective or adverb replaces a noun links a noun to another word joins clauses or sentences or words short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence

Pronoun Preposition

Conjunction

and, but, when

Interjection

oh!, ouch!, hi!, well

* Some grammar sources categorize English into 9 or 10 parts of speech. At EnglishClub.com, we use the traditional categorization of 8 parts of speech. Examples of other categorizations are: Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech: Lexical Verbs (work, like, run)

Auxiliary Verbs (be, have, must) Determiners may be treated as a separate part of speech, instead of being categorized under Adjectives
PARTS OF SPEECH EXAMPLES

Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech: verb Stop! noun John verb works. noun animals. noun English noun John verb is noun Animals verb working. verb like adjective kind noun people. adjective noun English.

pronoun She noun Tara pronoun She pron. She

verb loves

verb speaks verb ran verb likes

adverb well.

noun Tara

verb

speaks good noun adverb

preposition adjective to the noun snakes

station quickly. verb hate pron.

adj. big

conjunction pron. but I

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech: interjection pron. Well, she conj. adj. and young noun John verb walk prep. noun to adverb

school slowly

Words with More than One Job

Many words in English can have more than one job, or be more than one part of speech. For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun; "but" can be a conjunction and a preposition; "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives. To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this word doing in this sentence?" In the table below you can see a few examples. Of course, there are more, even for some of the words in the table. In fact, if you look in a good dictionary you will see that the word "but" has six jobs to do: verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjuction!
WORD PART OF SPEECH EXAMPLE

work

noun verb conjunction preposition adjective

My work is easy. I work in London. John came but Mary didn't come. Everyone came but Mary. Are you well? She speaks well. Well! That's expensive! We ate in the afternoon. We had afternoon tea.

but

well

adverb interjection

afternoon

noun noun acting as adjective

Parts of Speech Quiz

I bought a beautiful dress at the mall.(adverb, preposition, adjective, noun) What did she
conjunction

Click for answ er

ask you to do?

Click for answ er

(verb, conjunction, preposition, pronoun) 3 I left my shoes under the kitchen table.(adverb adjective, preposition, pronoun) If we finish our work quickly we can go to the movies. (adverb adjective, preposition, pronoun) On Saturdays I work from nine to five. (verb, conjunction, preposition, pronoun) I want to go to a university in the United States. (adverb, preposition, adjective, noun) I'm sure I have met your girlfriend before. (verb, conjunction, preposition, pronoun) Well, I don't think I will be here to answer the phone. (verb, conjunction, preposition, interjection) Andy knocked on the door but nobody answered. (verb, conjunction, preposition, pronoun) After lunch let's go out for a coffee. (verb, conjunction, preposition, pronoun)

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

10

Click for answ er

VERBS

What Are Verbs? Verb Classification | Quiz helping verbs: primary/modal main verbs: transitive/intransitive, linking, dynamic/stative, regular/irregular Verb Forms | Quiz to sing, sing, sings, sang, sung, singing Tenses I sing, I am singing, I have sung, I have been singing, I sang, I was singing English Tense System What is Tense? Tense & Time Basic Tenses Regular Verbs Irregular Verbs Be Present tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous Past tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous Future tenses Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous Phrasal Verbs | Quiz put out, look after, get on with Conditionals | Quiz if I win, if I won, if I had won Modal Verbs can, shall, must...

Gerunds (-ing) | Quiz fishing is fun, I hate working Questions | Quiz Do you like me?, Why do you like me?, Do you like me or him? Tag Questions | Quiz You like me, don't you? Subjunctive | Quiz She insists that he come Active Voice, Passive Voice | Quiz Cats eat mice, Mice are eaten by cats Infinitive or -ing? | Quiz I like to do, I like doing Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects the company do, the company does Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses | Quiz Am I being silly? Used to do / Be used to | Quiz I used to do it, I am not used to it Going to I am going to do it Future Time | Quiz I will do it, I am going to do it, I am doing it, I do it For & Since for Time | Quiz for two days, since 1st April
Present Tense I do do, I do Present Continuous Tense I am doing, I am doing tomorrow Present Perfect Tense I have done Present Perfect Continuous Tense I have been doing

8 Past Tense I did do, I did Past Continuous Tense I was doing Past Perfect Tense I had done Past Perfect Continuous Tense I had been doing Future Tense I will do Future Continuous Tense I will be doing Future Perfect Tense I will have done Future Perfect Continuous Tense I will have been doing Tense and Time

It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time. For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time: I hope it rains tomorrow. "rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow) Or a past tense does not always refer to past time: If I had some money now, I could buy it. "had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now) The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about different times.

TENSE

TIME past present I want a coffee. She likes I am having dinner. They are living I have finished. in future I leave tomorrow. coffee. I am taking my exam next month. London.

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous

I have seen ET. I have been playing tennis.

We have been working for four hours. I finished one hour ago. I was working at 2am this morning. I had not eaten for 24 hours. We had been working for 3 hours. If I had been working now, I would have missed you. Hold on. I'll do it now. If I had been working tomorrow, I could not have agreed. I'll see you tomorrow. I will be working at 9pm tonight. I will have finished If she loved you now, she would marry you. If you came tomorrow, you would see her.

Past Simple

Past Continuous Past Perfect Simple

Past Perfect Continuous

Future Simple Future Continuous Future Perfect

10

Simple

by 9pm tonight. We will have been married for ten years next month. They may be tired when you arrive because they will have been working. In 30 minutes, we will have been working for four hours.

Future Perfect Continuous

Basic Tenses

For past and present, there are 2 simple tenses + 6 complex tenses (using auxiliary verbs). To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using modal auxiliary verbs will/shall). This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice. Another 12 tenses are available in the passive voice. So now we have 24 tenses. 24 Tenses simple tenses ACTIVE past past past perfect past continuous complex tenses formed with auxiliary verbs PASSIVE past perfect continuous past past perfect past continuous past perfect continuous present present present perfect present continuous present perfect continuous present present perfect present continuous present perfect continuous future* future future perfect future continuous future perfect continuous future future perfect future continuous future perfect continuous

Some grammar books use the word progressive instead of continuous. They are exactly the same. The use of tenses in English may be quite complicated, but the structure of English tenses is actually very simple. The basic structure for a positive sentence is:

11

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb. An auxiliary verb is used in all tenses. (In the simple present and simple past tenses, the auxiliary verb is usually suppressed for the affirmative, but it does exist for intensification.) The following table shows the 12 tenses for the verb to work in the active voice. structure auxiliary simple normal intensive do have base past participle present participle ing present participle ing main verb

past I worked I did work I had worked I was working I had been working

present I work I do work I have worked I am working I have been working

future* I will work

perfect

I will have worked I will be working I will have been working

continuous

be

continuous perfect

have been

* Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The examples are included here for convenience and comparison.
Basic Tenses: Regular Verb

This page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?). The basic structure is:

+ subject + auxiliary verb + main verb negative: - subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
positive:

These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses: base verb past past participle present participle -ing

12

work

worked

worked past

working present I do work I work I do not work Do I work? I have worked I have not worked Have I worked? I am working I am not working Am I working? I have been working I have not been working Have I been working? future I will work I will not work Will I work? I will have worked I will not have worked Will I have worked? I will be working I will not be working Will I be working? I will have been working I will not have been working Will I have been working?

SIMPLE do + base verb (except future: will + base verb)

+ ? +

I did work I worked I did not work Did I work? I had worked I had not worked Had I worked? I was working I was not working Was I working? I had been working I had not been working Had I been working?

SIMPLE PERFECT have + past participle

? +

CONTINUOUS be + ing

? +

CONTINUOUS PERFECT have been + ing

Basic Tenses: Irregular Verb

Irregular verbs list This page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb sing. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).

13

The basic structure is:

+ subject + auxiliary verb + main verb negative: - subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
positive:

These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses: base verb sing past past participle present participle -ing singing past SIMPLE do + base verb (except future: will + base verb) present I do sing I sing I do not sing Do I sing? I have sung I have not sung Have I sung? I am singing I am not singing Am I singing? I have been singing I have not been singing Have I been future I will sing I will not sing Will I sing? I will have sung I will not have sung Will I have sung? I will be singing I will not be singing Will I be singing? I will have been singing I will not have been singing Will I have been

sang sung

+ ? + ? +

I did sing I sang I did not sing Did I sing? I had sung I had not sung Had I sung? I was singing I was not singing Was I singing? I had been singing I had not been singing Had I been

SIMPLE PERFECT have + past participle

CONTINUOUS be + -ing

? +

CONTINUOUS PERFECT have been + -ing

14

singing?

singing?

singing?

The basic structure of tenses for regular verbs and irregular verbs is exactly the same (except to be). The only difference is that with regular verbs the past and past participle are always the same (worked, worked), while with irregular verbs the past and past participle are not always the same (sang, sung). But the structure is the same! It will help you a great deal to really understand that.
Basic Tenses: Be

This page shows the basic tenses with the verb be. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?). The basic structure is:

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb negative (-): subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb question (?): auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
positive (+): But for simple past and simple present tenses, the structure is not the same. In fact, it's even easier. There is no auxiliary verb. Here is the structure:

subject + main verb negative (-): subject + main verb + not question (?): main verb + subject
positive (+): These are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the tenses:

15

base be

past simple past participle present participle present simple was, were been being am, are, is

past SIMPLE present simple or past simple (except future: will + be) + ? I was I was not Was I?

present I am I am not Am I? I have been I have not been Have I been? I am being I am not being Am I being? I have been being I have not been being Have I been being?

future I will be I will not be Will I be? I will have been I will not have been Will I have been? I will be being I will not be being Will I be being? I will have been being I will not have been being Will I have been being?

+ I had been SIMPLE PERFECT have + been ? I had not been Had I been?

+ I was being CONTINUOUS be + being ? + CONTINUOUS PERFECT have been + being ? I was not being Was I being? I had been being I had not been being Had I been being?

16

In the following table, we see be conjugated for 12 basic tenses. SIMPLE I singular you he/she/it we plural you they PERFECT I singular you he/she/it we plural you they CONTINUOUS I singular you he/she/it we plural you they past was were was were were were past had been had been had been had been had been had been past was being were being was being were being were being were being present am are is are are are present have been have been has been have been have been have been present am being are being is being are being are being are being future will be will be will be will be will be will be future will have been will have been will have been will have been will have been will have been future will be being will be being will be being will be being will be being will be being

17

CONTINUOUS PERFECT past I singular you he/she/it we plural you they had been being had been being had been being had been being had been being had been being

present have been being have been being has been being have been being have been being have been being

future will have been being will have been being will have been being will have been being will have been being will have been being

Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs

Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken English. A multiword verb is a verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with". For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs". The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. "Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up" are two different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these examples. You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb: single-word verb prepositional verbs multiword verbs phrasal verbs phrasallook look after direct your eyes in a certain direction take care of search for and find information in a reference book anticipate with You must look before you leap. Who is looking after the baby? You can look up my number in the telephone directory. I look forward to

look up look

18

prepositional verbs

forward to

pleasure

meeting you.

In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Phrasal Verbs Prepositional Verbs Phrasal-prepositional Verbs Phrasal Verbs Quiz
Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasalprepositional verbs. On this page we look at phrasal verbs proper. Phrasal verbs are made of: verb + adverb Phrasal verbs can be: intransitive (no direct object) transitive (direct object) Here are some examples of phrasal verbs: examples meaning direct object I don't like to get up. He was late because his car broke down. We will have to put off the meeting.

phrasal verbs get up break down put off

intransitive phrasal verbs transitive phrasal

rise from bed cease to function postpone

19

verbs

turn down

refuse

They turned down

my offer.

Separable Phrasal Verbs When phrasal verbs are transitive (that is, they have a direct object), we can usually separate the two parts. For example, "turn down" is a separable phrasal verb. We can say: "turn down my offer" or "turn my offer down". Look at this table: They They turned turned my offer down down. my offer.

transitive phrasal verbs are

separable

However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must separate the phrasal verb and insert the pronoun between the two parts. Look at this example with the separable phrasal verb "switch on": direct object pronouns must go between the two parts of transitive phrasal verbs John John John John switched switched switched switched the radio it on on. on. on it. This is not possible. the radio. These are all possible.

Prepositional Verbs

Prepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. On this page we look at prepositional verbs. Prepositional verbs are made of: verb + preposition

20

Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct objects. Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:

prepositional verbs meaning believe in look after talk about wait for have faith in the existence of take care of discuss await

examples direct object I believe in He is looking after Did you talk about John is waiting for God. the dog. me? Mary.

Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the direct object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look after the baby". We cannot say "look the baby after": Who is looking after the baby? Who is looking the baby after? This is possible. This is not possible.

prepositional verbs are

inseparable

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you learn a new prepositional verb, like this: believe in something/somebody look after sthg/sby

Phrasal-prepositional Verbs

Phrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. On this page we look at phrasalprepositional verbs. Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:

21

verb + adverb + preposition Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs: examples meaning direct object He doesn't get on with I won't put up with I look forward to We have run out of his wife. your attitude. seeing you. eggs.

phrasal-prepositional verbs

get on with put up with look forward to run out of

have a friendly relationship with tolerate anticipate with pleasure use up, exhaust

Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always a direct object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs cannot be separated. Look at these examples: We We ran out of ran out of fuel. it.

phrasal-prepositional verbs are

inseparable

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasal-prepositional verb, like this: get on with somebody put up with sthg/sby run out of something This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

22

Phrasal Verbs Quiz

Why do we always talk the weather about?

Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 2 My mother switched the radio off this morning.

Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 3 I will look your letter forward to.

Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 4 He was nice, but we turned down him.

Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 5 I believe in ghosts, don't you?

Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 6 We will have to wait the bus for at the corner.
Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 7 Melissa is going to look after the children.

Click for answ er

(Correct, incorrect) 8 I have to put the baby down while I sweep the floor. (Correct, incorrect) Why don't you switch the music over while you wait? 9 (Correct, incorrect) 10 Can you go to the store before we run milk out of. (Correct, incorrect)
Click for answ er Click for answ er Click for answ er

23

English Conditionals

There are several structures in English that are called conditionals. "Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens. If y = 10 then 2y = 20 If y = 3 then 2y = 6 There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more conditionals that we do not use so often. In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the so-called zero conditional. We'll finish with a quiz to check your understanding. People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence. Structure of Conditional Sentences First Conditional Second Conditional Third Conditional Zero Conditional Summary Quiz
First Conditional: real possibility

We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?

24

IF

condition

result

present simple WILL + base verb If it rains I will stay at home.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?): IF condition present simple If If If If If I see Mary Tara is free tomorrow they do not pass their exam it rains tomorrow it rains tomorrow IF result WILL + base verb I will tell her. he will invite her. their teacher will be sad. will you stay at home? what will you do? condition present simple if if if if if I see her. she is free tomorrow. they do not pass their exam. it rains tomorrow? it rains tomorrow?

result WILL + base verb I will tell Mary He will invite Tara Their teacher will be sad Will you stay at home What will you do

Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight.

25

Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible. IF condition past simple If I won the lottery result WOULD + base verb I would buy a car.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples: IF condition past simple If If If If I married Mary Ram became rich result WOULD + base verb I would be happy. she would marry him.

it snowed next July would you be surprised? it snowed next July what would you do? IF condition past simple if if I married Mary. he became rich.

result WOULD + base verb I would be happy She would marry Ram

26

Would you be surprised What would you do

if if

it snowed next July? it snowed next July?

Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working. Third Conditional
Third Conditional: no possibility

The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true. Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-( condition Past Perfect If I had won the lottery result WOULD HAVE + Past Participle I would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now. Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won. Look at some more examples in the tables below:

27

IF

condition past perfect

result WOULD HAVE + past participle I would have told her. I would have invited her. their teacher would have been sad. would you have stayed at home? what would you have done? IF condition past perfect if if if if if I had seen her. she had been free yesterday. they had not passed their exam. it had rained yesterday? it had rained yesterday?

If If If If If

I had seen Mary Tara had been free yesterday they had not passed their exam it had rained yesterday it had rained yesterday

result WOULD HAVE + past participle I would have told Mary I would have invited Tara Their teacher would have been sad Would you have stayed at home What would you have done Zero Conditional
Zero Conditional: certainty

We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact.Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not. IF condition result

present simple present simple If you heat ice it melts.

Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense

28

to talk about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result. We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss my bus.Look at some more examples in the tables below: IF condition present simple If If If If I miss the 8 o'clock bus I am late for work people don't eat you heat ice IF result present simple I am late for work. my boss gets angry. they get hungry. does it melt? condition present simple if if if if I miss the 8 o'clock bus. I am late for work. they don't eat. you heat it?

result present simple I am late for work My boss gets angry People get hungry Does ice melt

29

Summary
Conditionals: Summary

Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not take the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you. probability 100% 50% 10% 0% conditional zero conditional first conditional second conditional third conditional example If you heat ice, it melts. If it rains, I will stay at home. If I won the lottery, I would buy a car. If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car. time any time future future past

30

Conditionals Quiz

What would you do if it (would rain, will rain, rained)

on your wedding day?

Click for answ er

If she comes I (will, would, would have)

call you.
Click for answ er

If I eat peanut butter I (get, would have gotten, would get)

sick.
Click for answ er

What will you do if you (fail, you would fail, you will fail)

the history exam?

Click for answ er

If they had not (taken, take, would take)

the car I would have driven you.

Click for answ er

If it snows

still drive to the coast?

Click for answ er

(will you, would you have, would you) 7 He would have (gone, go, going) 8 If I won a million dollars I my own airplane.( would buy, will buy, would have bought) If I forget her birthday Andrea (gets, would have gotten, would get) 10 Jacob will pick you up at school if it (will rain, rains, rained)
w ill rain Click for answ er

with you if you had asked him.

Click for answ er

upset.
Click for answ er

Click for answ er

31

Reset

Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries) Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to"). Can, Could, Be able to | Quiz CAN and COULD are modal auxiliary verbs. BE ABLE TO is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb BE as a main verb). We include BE ABLE TO here for convenience. Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't | Quiz MUST is a modal auxiliary verb. HAVE TO is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb HAVE as a main verb). We include HAVE TO here for convenience. Shall versus Will | Should versus Would People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between SHALL and WILL , or even that today nobody uses SHALL (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). They say the same thing about SHOULD, but it's not really true. Would | Quiz WOULD is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use WOULD mainly to talk about the past, talk about the future in the past and express the conditional mood. Should | Quiz SHOULD is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use SHOULD mainly to give advice or make recommendations, talk about obligation or talk about probability and expectation. Can, Could, Be able to Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience. In this lesson we look at these three verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Can Could Be able to Can, Could, Be able to Quiz

32

Can Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to: talk about possibility and ability make requests ask for or give permission Structure of Can subject + can + main verb The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). subject auxiliary verb can cannot can't you main verb play play play tennis. tennis. tennis?

+ ?

I He Can

Notice that: Can is invariable. There is only one form of can. The main verb is always the bare infinitive. The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We cannot say:

Use of Can can: Possibility and Ability We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do: She can drive a car. John can speak Spanish.

33 I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.) Can you hear me? Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability. Can you help me with my homework? (present) Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future) can: Requests and Orders We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family): Can you make a cup of coffee, please. Can you put the TV on. Can you come here a minute. Can you be quiet! can: Permission We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something: Can I smoke in this room? You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden. (Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.) COULD Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to: talk about past possibility or ability make requests Structure of Could subject + could + main verb The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

34

subject

auxiliary verb could could not couldn't your grandmother

main verb swim. walk. swim?

+ ?

My grandmother She Could

Notice that: Could is invariable. There is only one form of could. The main verb is always the bare infinitive. The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:

Use of Could could: Past Possibility or Ability We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do: I could swim when I was 5 years old. My grandmother could speak seven languages. When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.) Could you understand what he was saying? We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples: Past General + My grandmother could speak Spanish. My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish. Specific Occasion A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him. A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

35 could: Requests We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal): Could you tell me where the bank is, please? Could you send me a catalogue, please? Be able to Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could. We use be able to: to talk about ability Structure of Be able to The structure of be able to is: subject + be + able + infinitive be main verb am is not isn't you able adjective able able able

subject

infinitive to drive. to drive. to drive?

+ ?

I She Are

Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example: I was able to drive... I will be able to drive... I have been able to drive... Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form: I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

36 Use of Be able to Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are modal auxiliary verbs. be able to: ability We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses - but "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples: I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect) You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple) I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive) GERUNDS (-ING) When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same. When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund: Fishing is fun. When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle: Anthony is fishing. I have a boring teacher. Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns". In this lesson, we look at how we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement Gerunds after Prepositions Gerunds after Certain Verbs Gerunds in Passive Sense Gerunds Quiz

37 Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is because there is sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a present participle Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form. Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence: Smoking costs a lot of money. I don't like writing. My favourite occupation is reading. But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence. Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money. I don't like writing letters. My favourite occupation is reading detective stories. Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners): pointless questioning a settling of debts the making of Titanic his drinking of alcohol But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object: a settling of debts (not a settling debts) Making "Titanic" was expensive. The making of "Titanic" was expensive. Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb). My favourite occupation is reading.

38

My favourite niece is reading. Hide answer reading as gerund (noun) My favourite occupation My favourite occupation reading as present participle (verb) My favourite niece My favourite niece
Gerunds after Prepositions

Main Verb is is Auxiliary Verb is has

Complement reading. football. Main Verb reading. finished.

This is a good rule. It has no exceptions! If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say: I will call you after arriving at the office. Please have a drink before leaving. I am looking forward to meeting you. Do you object to working late? Tara always dreams about going on holiday. Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns: I will call you after my arrival at the office. Please have a drink before your departure. I am looking forward to our lunch. Do you object to this job? Tara always dreams about holidays.

39

The above rule has no exceptions! So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2? I am used to driving on the left. I used to drive on the left. Hide answer to as preposition I am used I am used to as infinitive I used I used
Gerunds after Certain Verbs We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for example: I want to eat. But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example: I dislike eating. This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form: admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand Look at these examples: She is considering having a holiday. Do you feel like going out? I can't help falling in love with you.

Preposition to to Infinitive to drive to smoke. on the left driving on the left. animals.

40 I can't stand not seeing you. Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start I like to play tennis. I like playing tennis. It started to rain. It started raining. Gerunds in Passive Sense We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a passive sense. I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed) This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed) The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted) The expression "something wants doing" is not normally used in American English.

41 Gerunds Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I dislike We started I can't imagine I used time.

to the movies by myself. dinner without you. my own house. that television show all of the

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

I always eat breakfast before When do you practise My grandmother prefers books. You need I am used to

to school. the piano? science fiction

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

harder this year. her in a bad mood.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Have you talked to the dentist about your teeth?

Click for answ er

Questions or Interrogative What is a question? A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence that asks for information. Questions are also called "interrogative". Statement: Question: I like EnglishClub.com. Do you like EnglishClub.com?

A written question in English always ends with a question mark: ? In this lesson we look at basic questions in English, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

42 Basic Question Structure Basic Question Types Questions Quiz Basic Question Structure

The basic structure of a question in English is very simple: auxiliary verb + subject + main verb auxiliary verb Do Are Will Have subject you they Anthony you main verb like playing go seen Mary? football? to Tokyo? ET?

Exception! For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an auxiliary verb. We simply reverse the positions of be and subject: Statement: He Question: Is is he German. German?

Basic Question Types There are 3 basic types of question: Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No") Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information") Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question") 1. Yes/No Questions auxiliary verb subject main verb Answer Yes or No

43

Do Can Has Did

you you she they

want drive? finished go

dinner?

Yes, I do. No, I can't.

her work? home?

Yes, she has. No, they didn't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past Is Was 2. Question Word Questions question word Where When Who Why auxiliary verb do will did hasn't subject you we she Tara main verb live? have meet? done it? lunch? Answer Information In Paris. At 1pm. She met Ram. Because she can't. Anne Ram French? at home? Yes, she is. No, he wasn't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past Where How 3. Choice Questions auxiliary verb Do Will Did subject you we she main verb want meet go tea John to London OR or or or coffee? James? New York? Answer In the question Coffee, please. John. She went to London. is was Bombay? she? In India. Very well.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

44

Is Were

your car they

white $15

or or

black? $50?

It's black. $15.

Now check your understanding These pages show the three basic types of question. There are other types of question, for example tag questions. Basic Question Types There are 3 basic types of question: Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No") Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information") Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question") 1. Yes/No Questions auxiliary verb Do Can Has Did subject you you she they main verb want drive? finished go her work? home? dinner? Answer Yes or No Yes, I do. No, I can't. Yes, she has. No, they didn't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past Is Was 2. Question Word Questions question word Where When auxiliary verb do will subject you we main verb live? have lunch? Answer Information In Paris. At 1pm. Anne Ram French? at home? Yes, she is. No, he wasn't.

45

Who Why

did hasn't

she Tara

meet? done it?

She met Ram. Because she can't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past Where How 3. Choice Questions auxiliary verb Do Will Did subject you we she main verb want meet go tea John to London OR or or or coffee? James? New York? Answer In the question Coffee, please. John. She went to London. is was Bombay? she? In India. Very well.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past Is Were Questions Quiz your car they white $15 or or black? $50? It's black. $15.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Can you swim? Did he go to work or to school?

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Has your class finished? Where is my pen? Who did you visit? Shall we go to your place or mine?

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

46

7 8 9

When will Lucy arrive? Who called here so late? Do you want to watch a movie?

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

10

Have you done the laundry?

Click for answ er

Tag Questions You speak English, don't you? A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag". A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. For example, the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or washing instructions is a tag. We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English. The basic structure is:

+ Positive statement,
Snow is white,

negative tag?
isn't it?

+ Negative statement, positive tag?

You don't like me, do you?

Look at these examples with positive statements: positive statement [+] negative tag [-]
notes:

47

subject

auxiliary

main verb coming, finished, like like coffee, coffee,

auxiliary

not

personal pronoun (same as subject) you? we? you? you? they? I? we? he? you? he?
no auxiliary for main verb be present & past You (do) like... won't = will not

You We You You They I We He You John

are have do

are have do do wo can must harder, English, there, should are was

n't n't n't n't n't 't n't n't n't n't

will can must should

help, come, go, try are was

Look at these examples with negative statements: negative statement [-] subject It We You They They I We He auxiliary is have do will wo can must should n't never n't not n't never n't n't main verb raining, seen like help, report do tell drive us, it right, her, so fast, that, coffee, positive tag [+] auxiliary is have do will will can must should personal pronoun (same as subject) it? we? you? they? they? I? we? he?

48

You John Some special cases: I am right, aren't I? You have to go, don't you? I have been answering, haven't I? Nothing came in the post, did it? Let's go, shall we? He'd better do it, hadn't he? Here are some mixed examples:

are was

n't not

English, there,

are was

you? he?

aren't I (not amn't I) you (do) have to go... use first auxiliary treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements let's = let us he had better (no auxiliary)

But you don't really love her, do you? This will work, won't it? Well, I couldn't help it, could I? But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you? We'd never have known, would we? The weather's bad, isn't it? You won't be late, will you? Nobody knows, do they? Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?" Here are some more examples: You don't know of any good jobs, do you? You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?

49 You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you? Intonation We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real answer: intonation You don't know where my wallet is, It's a beautiful view, Answers to tag questions A question tag is the "mini-question" at the end. A tag question is the whole sentence. How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they do). Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an oposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion! Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question. For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers: tag question Snow is white, isn't it? Snow isn't white, is it? Snow is black, isn't it? Snow isn't black, is it? correct answer Yes (it is). do you? isn't it? / rising \ falling real question not a real question

Yes it is! No it isn't! No (it isn't).

the answer is the same in both cases - because snow IS WHITE!

but notice the change of stress when the answerer does not agree with the questioner

the answer is the same in both cases - because snow IS NOT BLACK!

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!

50 Here are some more examples, with correct answers: The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does. The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes. The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't! Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do! Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't! Men don't have babies, do they? No. The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't. Question tags with imperatives Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders. imperative + question tag invitation Take a seat, won't you? Help me, can you? Help me, can't you? order Close the door, would you? Do it now, will you? Don't forget, will you? Same-way question tags Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-positive, it is sometime possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure. We use same-way question tags to express interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions. So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful! She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance! So you think that's amusing, do you? Think again. notes: polite quite friendly quite friendly (some irritation?) quite polite less polite with negative imperatives only will is possible

51 Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile: So you don't like my looks, don't you? Tag Questions Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

He's still sleeping, You do go to school, Let's go for a walk, We won't be late, Nobody called, They will wash the car, We must lock the doors, I'm correct, So you bought a car, You wouldn't want to invite my Dad, Congratulations!

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Reset

Subjunctive The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English. Structure of the Subjunctive The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"):

52

be (past) I were you were he, she, it were we were you were they were

be (present) I be you be he, she, it be we be you be they be

all other verbs (past & present) I work you work he, she, it work we work you work they work

The subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc). Use of the Subjunctive We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody: wants to happen hopes will happen imagines happening Look at these examples: The President requests that you be present at the meeting. It is vital that you be present at the meeting. If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy. The subjunctive is typically used after two structures: the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest + that the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital + that Here are some examples with the subjunctive: The manager insists that the car park be locked at night. The board of directors recommended that he join the company. It is essential that we vote as soon as possible. It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.

53 Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples: Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation. Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation. Present: It is essential that she be present. Past: It was essential that she be present. The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English than in English, where should + infinitive is often used: The manager insists that the car park should be locked at night. It was essential that we should vote as soon as possible. We usually use the subjunctive were instead of "was" after if (and other words with similar meaning). Look at these sentences: If I were you, I would ask her. Suppose she were here. What would you say? Why do we say "I were", "he were"? We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were here, he would tell you". Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was. But the if I were you structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb "to be". It uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples, you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was" after: if as if wish suppose Formal (The were form is correct at all times.) If I were younger, I would go. Informal (The was form is possible in informal, familiar conversation.) If I was younger, I would go.

54

If he weren't so mean, he would buy one for me. I wish I weren't so slow! I wish it were longer. It's not as if I were ugly. She acts as if she were Queen. If I were you, I should tell her.

If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for me. I wish I wasn't so slow! I wish it was longer. It's not as if I was ugly. She acts as if she was Queen. Note: We do not normally say "if I was you", even in familiar conversation.

Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples: Long live the King! God bless America! Heaven forbid! Be that as it may, he still wants to see her. Come what may, I will never forget you. We are all citizens of the world, as it were. Subjunctive Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6

It is essential that she If I

at the meeting.

Click for answ er

you I would call her tonight. a uniform.

Click for answ er

It is necessary that every student I hope that he

Click for answ er

his homework on time. a holiday.

Click for answ er

The doctors recommended that she The boss asks that you work.

Click for answ er

early for your first day of

Click for answ er

55

7 8

If you

feeling better we would go. home as soon as we

Click for answ er

It is important that we arrive. The landlord requested that John apartment. We want the windows

Click for answ er

9 10

out of the

Click for answ er

washed before Friday.

Click for answ er

Reset

Active Voice, Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice: Active voice Passive voice The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb: subject verb active Cats > eat fish. object

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb: subject verb passive < Fish are eaten by cats. object

56

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: subject active passive Everybody Water verb drinks is drunk object water. by everybody.

Passive Voice The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it. Construction of the Passive Voice The structure of the passive voice is very simple: subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle) The main verb is always in its past participle form. Look at these examples: subject Water 100 people I We Are auxiliary verb (to be) is are am are they not main verb (past participle) drunk employed paid paid paid by everyone. by this company. in euro. in dollars. in yen?

Use of the Passive Voice We use the passive when: we want to make the active object more important we do not know the active subject subject verb object

57

give importance to active object (President Kennedy) active subject unknown

President Kennedy My wallet

was killed has been stolen.

by Lee Harvey Oswald.

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats). Look at this sentence: He was killed with a gun. Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer". Conjugation for the Passive Voice We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example: present simple: It is made present continuous: It is being made present perfect: It has been made Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses: infinitive present simple past future conditional present continuous past future conditional to be washed It is washed. It was washed. It will be washed. It would be washed. It is being washed. It was being washed. It will be being washed. It would be being washed.

58

present perfect simple past future conditional present perfect continuous past future conditional Active or Passive Quiz

It has been washed. It had been washed. It will have been washed. It would have been washed. It has been being washed. It had been being washed. It will have been being washed. It would have been being washed.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I ate a piece of chocolate cake. The librarian read the book to the students. The money was stolen. They are paid on Fridays. The movie is being made in Hollywood. I washed my car three weeks ago. His hair was cut by a professional. I will introduce you to my boss this week. It would have been fixed on the weekend. The national anthem is being sung by Jason this time.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Infinitive or -ing?

59 Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its: -ing form (doing, singing) or infinitive form (to do, to sing). For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one? I dislike working late. (???) I dislike to work late. (???) When to use the infinitive The infinitive form is used after certain verbs: - forget, help, learn, teach, train - choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like - agree, encourage, pretend, promise - allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse I forgot to close the window. Mary needs to leave early. Why are they encouraged to learn English? We can't afford to take a long holiday. The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example: - disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised I was happy to help them. She will be delighted to see you. This includes too + adjective: The water was too cold to swim in. Is your coffee too hot to drink? The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough: He was strong enough to lift it. She is rich enough to buy two.

60 When to use -ing The -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause: Swimming is good exercise. Doctors say that smoking is bad for you. The -ing form is used after a preposition: I look forward to meeting you. They left without saying "Goodbye." The -ing form is used after certain verbs: - avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise I dislike getting up early. Would you mind opening the window? Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the infinitive without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start. It started to rain. It started raining. I like to play tennis. I like playing tennis. Infinitive or -ing Quiz

1 2 3 4 5

We like I might want My father hates We can't afford The company was pleased you letter.

our grandmother on Sundays. your Science notes. a tie to work. a vacation this summer. your thank-

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

61

6 7 8

Would you mind My suitcase is light enough She cannot leave the table without dinner. The music will continue off.

a window? this time. her

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

until you turn it

Click for answ er

10 My little brother dislikes

Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects

his hair brushed.

Click for answ er

We often use singular nouns that refer to groups of people (for example: team, government, committee) as if they were plural. This is particularly true in English and less true in USA English. This is because we often think of the group as people, doing things that people do (eating, wanting, feeling etc). In such cases, we use: plural verb they (not it) who (not which) Here are some examples: The committee want sandwiches for lunch. They have to leave early. My family, who don't see me often, have asked me home for Christmas. The team hope to win next time. Here are some examples of words and expressions that can be considered singular or plural: choir, class, club, committee, company, family, government, jury, school, staff, team, union, the BBC, board of directors, the Conservative Party, Manchester United, the Ministry of Health But when we consider the group as an impersonal unit, we use singular verbs and pronouns:

62

The new company is the result of a merger. An average family consists of four people. The committee, which was formed in 1999, is made up of four men and four women. Notice that this is often a question of style and logic. The important thing is to be consistent. Using a plural verb with singular subject is less common in American English
Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses There are some verbs that we do not normally use in the continuous tense. And there are other verbs that we use in the simple tense with one meaning and in the continuous tense with another meaning. In this lesson we look at various uses of continuous tenses, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses Verbs with Two Meanings Be and Continuous Tenses Continuous Tense Verb Quiz Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses There are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. We usually use the following verbs with simple tenses only (not continuous tenses): hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember, suppose, understand belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe, own, possess appear, resemble, seem, hear, see Here are some examples: I want a coffee. not I am wanting a coffee.

63

I don't believe you are right. Does this pen belong to you? It seemed wrong. I don't hear anything.

not I am not believing you are right. not Is this pen belonging to you? not It was seeming wrong. not I am not hearing anything.

Notice that we often use can + see/hear: I can see someone in the distance. (not I am seeing someone in the distance.) I can't hear you very well. (not I am not hearing you very well.) Verbs with Two Meanings With verbs that we don't use in the continuous tense, there is no real action or activity. Compare "to hear" and "to listen". "To hear" means "to receive sound in your ears". There is no real action or activity by you. We use "to hear" with simple tenses only. But "to listen" means "to try to hear". You make an effort to hear. There is a kind of action or activity. We can use "to listen" with simple or continuous tenses. Verbs with Two Meanings

Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must use a simple tense. For the other sense we can use a continuous or simple tense. For example, the verb to think has two different senses: to believe, to have an opinion I think red is a sexy colour. to reflect, to use your brain to solve a problem I am thinking about my homework. In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called "dynamic". When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the dynamic sense, we can use a simple or continuous tense, depending on the situation. Look at the examples in the table below:

64

Stative sense (no real action) Simple only I think she is beautiful. I don't consider that he is the right man for the job. This table measures 4 x 6 feet. Does the wine taste good? Mary has three children.

Dynamic sense (a kind of action) Continuous Be quiet. I'm thinking. We are considering your job application and will give you our answer in a few days. She is measuring the room for a new carpet. I was tasting the wine when I dropped the glass. Please phone later. We are having dinner now. Simple I will think about this problem tomorrow. We consider every job application very carefully. A good carpenter measures his wood carefully. I always taste wine before I drink it. We have dinner at 8pm every day.

If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is there any real action or activity?"
Be and Continuous Tenses

The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main verb (Marie is French). On this page we look at the verb be as a main verb. Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example, we say: London is the capital of the UK. (not London is being the capital of the UK.) Is she beautiful? (not Is she being beautiful?) Were you late? (not Were you being late?) Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This is when the real sense of the verb be is "act" or "behave". Also, of course, the action is temporary. Compare the examples in the table below:

65

Mary is a careful person. (Mary is always careful - it's her nature.) Is he always so stupid? (Is that his personality?) Andrew is not usually selfish. (It is not Andrew's character to be selfish.)

John is being careful. (John is acting carefully now, but maybe he is not always careful - we don't know.) They were being really stupid. (They were behaving really stupidly at that moment.) Why is he being so selfish? (Why is he acting so selfishly at the moment?)

Notice that we also make a difference between "to be sick" and "to be being sick": She is sick (= she is not well) She is being sick (= she is vomiting) Here is the structure of the verb be in the continuous present tense: I am being You are being He, she, it is being We are being They are being
Continuous Tense Verb Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

I I Maria The baby Please be quiet. I Does your dinner Why

what my teacher said. the bus just down the road. this Math homework is easy. 21 inches long. . delicious? so selfish about this? ?

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Was he on time or was he She is with a cold.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

66

10 Is she always
Used to do & Be used to

with children?

Click for answ er

These two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely different. In this lesson we look at the structure and use of both expressions, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Used to do Be used to Used to do or Be used to Quiz Used to do We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for the past only. Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have different meanings. Structure of Used to do The structure is: auxiliary did main verb use used did you not use use

subject

not

infinitive to do. to do. to do?

+ ?

I I Did

Used or use? when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d) when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d) Use of Used to do We use the used to do expression to talk about:

67 an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit) a situation that was true in the past I used to smoke. ////// past present Look at these examples. the past She used to work in a shop. He used to watch a lot of TV. They used to be married. There used to be a cinema here. I didn't use to go swimming. Did you use to smoke? Be used to Be used to something Be used to doing Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to Thailand", it is like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand." Do not confuse be used to with with the special construction used to do. They have different meanings. Structure of Be used to The structure is: the present Now she works in a bank. Now he doesn't watch much TV. Now they are divorced. Now there is a supermarket here. Now I go swimming.

future

subject + be + used to + object

subject main verb be am not used to used to object horses.

68

He We Are

is aren't you

not

used to used to used to

horses. horses. horses?

If the object invoves a verb, we use the -ing form: I He We Are am is aren't you not used to used to used to used to being lied to. working late. taking the bus. cooking?

Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use -ing for a verb after a preposition - and the to is a preposition. Use of Be used to The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar to us or easy for us. For example: I am used to driving on the left. It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the USA, but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because "I am used to it". Look at these examples. I am used to hard work. I am used to working hard. He is not used to New York. He isn't used to living in New York. Are you used to fast food? Are you used to eating quickly? Tenses

69 We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the tense that we need. Look at these examples: When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather. I have been used to snakes for a long time. You will soon be used to living alone Used to do or Be used to Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

My mother Didn't you use to I didn't use to You will Allison used to I used to I was used to Are you used to My brother is used to

cook on Sundays. ? this much TV. noisy children soon. my best friend. 10 cigarettes a day. sunshine in Hawaii. spicy food? early for school.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

10 Did you
Future Time

to eat meat?

Click for answ er

The future is uncertain. We know the past. We know the present. We do not know the future. We can be 100% sure or certain about the past and the present. But we can never be 100% certain about the future. In English there are several structures and tenses to talk about the future. It is usually the degree of certainty about the future that decides our choice of structure or tense. Although we often talk about "future tenses", technically there are no future tenses in English - only different ways of talking about the future, using special constructions, other tenses or modal verbs. In this lesson we look at four of the most common ways to talk about the future, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

70 Will for No Plan, Prediction & Be Going to for Intention & Prediction Present Continuous for Plan Present Simple for Schedules Summary Future Time Quiz Will One of the most common ways to talk about the future is with will, for example: I will call you tonight. We often call this the "future simple tense", but technically there are no future tenses in English. In this construction, the word will is a modal auxiliary verb. Here are the three main ways that we use will to talk about the future. No plan We use will when there is no prior plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision at the time of speaking. Look at these examples: Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight. In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision was made at the time of speaking. We often use will with the verb think: I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I'll have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car. Prediction We often use will to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples: It will rain tomorrow.

71 People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job? Be The verb be is an exception with will. Even when we have a very firm plan, and we are not speaking spontaneously, we can use will with be. Look at these examples: I will be in London tomorrow. There will be 50 people at the party. The meeting will be at 9.30 am. The verb be is always exceptional! Going to Intention We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples: I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV. We're not going to see my mother tomorrow. When are you going to go on holiday? In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision was made before we spoke. Prediction We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are some examples: The sky is very black. It is going to snow. It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train! I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy! In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car) gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.

72 We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.) We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence: "It's going to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.) Present Continuous for Plan

We often use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. Of course, we normally use the present continuous to talk about action happening in the present, but if we add a future word, we can use it to talk about the future. (By "future word" we mean words or expressions like tomorrow, next week, in June. The future word may be clearly expressed or understood from the context.) Sometimes there is no real difference between an intention (going to) and a plan (present continuous). In this case, it doen't matter which we use. We're going to paint the bedroom tomorrow. We're painting the bedroom tomorrow. We use the present continuous only when a plan exists before we speak. Look at these examples: Mary is taking her music exam next year. They can't play tennis with you tomorrow. They 're working. We're going to the theatre on Friday.
Present Simple for Schedules

When an event is on a schedule or timetable (for example, the take-off time for a plane), we often use the present simple to express the future. We usually also use a future word (expressed or understood) like tomorrow, at 6.30pm, next week. Only a few verbs are used in this way, for example: be, open, close, begin, start, end, finish, arrive, come, leave, return Look at these sentences: The train leaves Detroit at 9pm tonight. John starts work next week.

73

Tomorrow is Thursday.
Future Time: Summary

When we speak, we choose the tense that we use. This is important in English, because the tense we choose expresses more than just a simple fact. When we speak about the future, the tense we choose can express how we "see" the future, even our personal feelings about the future. It certainly expresses what we believe to be the probability (the chance, the reality) of something happening or whether we have already decided to do it. This table gives a simple scale of probability for each structure. It is not exact because language is not a science, and there are many variables. This table should help you to think about the "concept" of the future in English. This concept does not exist in all languages, but it is rather important in English. % probability before speaker speaks of event happening 0% 70% 90% 99.999%

structure will going to present continuous present simple

used for no plan intention plan schedule

example Don't get up. I'll answer the phone. We're going to watch TV tonight. I'm taking my exam in June. My plane takes off at 6.00am tomorrow.

It is impossible in English to express the future with 100% certainty. (The speakers of any language that can do this must all be billionaires!)
Future Time Quiz

1 2 3 4

Maybe I think

out for dinner tonight. the dog for a walk now. visit my mother. snow.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

I have 3 days off next week. The clouds are very black.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

74

5 6 7 8 9

We Alexander The bus Tomorrow Don't get up.

the laundry tomorrow. taking his driver's test next week. at 7:30 sharp. the weekend. the phone. at 3:00 PM on Sunday.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

10 My plane
For and Since for Time

Click for answ er

We often use for and since when talking about time. for + period A period is a duration of time, for example: 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. For means "from the beginning of the period until the end of the period." For can be used with all tenses. since + point A point is a precise moment in time, for example: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday. Since means "from a point in the past until now." Since is normally used with perfect tenses. for a period (from start to end) since a point (up to now)

>===<

x===>|

for 20 minutes for three days for 6 months for 4 years for 2 centuries for a long time for ever etc all tenses

since 9am since Monday since January since 1997 since 1500 since I left school since the beginning of time etc perfect tenses only

For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:

75 They study for two hours every day. They are studying for three hours today. He has lived in Bangkok for a long time. He has been living in Paris for three months. I worked at that bank for five years. Will the universe continue for ever? For is NOT used with "all day", "all the time" etc. I was there all day. (not *for all day) Since is normally used with perfect tenses: He has been here since 9am. He has been working since he arrived. I had lived in New York since my childhood. Since can also be used in the structure "It is [period] since...": It is a year since I saw her. How long is it since you got married? Now check your understanding Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time. Here are some examples: This is for you. Is this the train for London? Since you ask, I'll say yes. Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam. For or Since Quiz

My grandparents walk

twenty minutes a day.

Click for answ er

76

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

How long is it We have been dating

you wrote to your penpal? a long time. noon.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

That lady has been waiting for the bus I studied for this test My family has lived here She has worked there I have been calling you

Click for answ er

three days straight. last March. she finished college. half an hour. a long time. last Monday.
NOUNS

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Lisa and Jill have been at the library

Click for answ er

10 My teacher has been sick

Click for answ er

It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are "actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb). What are Nouns? The simple definition is: a person, place or thing teacher, school, book Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns Why is this important? Why do some nouns have no plural? dog/dogs, rice, hair(s) Proper Nouns (Names) Do we say "Atlantic Ocean" or "the Atlantic Ocean"? Should I write "february" or "February"? Shirley, Mr Jeckyll, Thailand, April, Sony Possessive 's Adding 's or ' to show possession. John's car, my parents' house Noun as Adjective Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun is "acting as" an adjective. love story, tooth-brush, bathroom

77 Compound Nouns A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. tennis shoe, six-pack, bedroom Countable and Uncountable Nouns English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable". In this lesson we look at: Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Nouns that can be Countable & Uncountable Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable nouns: dog, cat, animal, man, person bottle, box, litre coin, note, dollar cup, plate, fork table, chair, suitcase, bag Countable nouns can be singular or plural: My dog is playing. My dogs are hungry. We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns: A dog is an animal. When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it: I want an orange. (not I want orange.)

78

Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?) When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone: I like oranges. Bottles can break. We can use some and any with countable nouns: I've got some dollars. Have you got any pens? We can use a few and many with countable nouns: I've got a few dollars. I haven't got many pens. "People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people: There is one person here. There are three people here.
Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns: music, art, love, happiness advice, information, news furniture, luggage rice, sugar, butter, water electricity, gas, power money, currency We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:

79

This news is very important. Your luggage looks heavy. We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of: a piece of news a bottle of water a grain of rice We can use some and any with uncountable nouns: I've got some money. Have you got any rice? We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns: I've got a little money. I haven't got much rice. Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns". Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns: Countable dollar song suitcase table battery bottle report tip Uncountable money music luggage furniture electricity wine information advice

80

journey job view

travel work scenery

When you learn a new word, it's a good idea to learn whether it's countable or uncountable
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning. Countable There are two hairs in my coffee! There are two lights in our bedroom. Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. Have you got a paper to read? (= newspaper) Our house has seven rooms. We had a great time at the party. Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works. hair light noise paper Uncountable I don't have much hair. Close the curtain. There's too much light! It's difficult to work when there is too much noise. I want to draw a picture. Have you got some paper?

room Is there room for me to sit here? time work Have you got time for a coffee? I have no money. I need work!

Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example): Two teas and one coffee please.
Proper Nouns (Names) A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person, place or organization, like John, Marie, London, France or Sony. A name is a noun, but a very special noun - a proper noun. Proper nouns have special rules.

81

common noun man, boy woman, girl country, town company shop, restaurant

proper noun John Mary England, London Ford, Sony Maceys, McDonalds

month, day of the week January, Sunday book, film War & Peace, Titanic

In this lesson we look at the uses of proper nouns, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns Proper Nouns without THE Proper Nouns with THE Proper Nouns Quiz Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns

We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name). This includes names of people, places, companies, days of the week and months. For example: They like John. (not *They like john.) I live in England. She works for Sony. The last day in January is a Monday. We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema
Proper Nouns without THE

We do not use "the" with names of people. For example:

82

first names

Bill (not *the Bill) Hilary Clinton Gates Hilary Gates

surnames full names

We do not normally use "the" with names of companies. For example: Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishClub.com General Motors, Air France, British Airways Warner Brothers, Brown & Son Ltd If the full (registered) name of a company starts with "The", then we use "The" if we use the full name, for example: The Post Publishing Public Co., Ltd We do not normally use "the" for shops, banks, hotels etc named after a founder or other person (with -'s or -s). For example: shops banks hotels, restaurants Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys Barclays Bank Steve's Hotel, Joe's Cafe, McDonalds

churches, cathedrals St John's Church, St Peter's Cathedral We do not normally use "the" with names of places. For example: towns Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo

states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe countries continents islands mountains England, Italy, Brazil Asia, Europe, North America Corsica Everest

83

Exception! If a country name includes "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc, we use "the": states the United States, the US, the United States of America, the USA

kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK republic the French Republic We do not use "the" with "President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name": the president, the king President Bush (not *the President Bush)

the captain, the detective Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo the doctor, the professor Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill Mr Gates (not *the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton, Miss Black Look at these example sentences: I wanted to speak to the doctor. I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown. Who was the president before President Kennedy? We do not use "the" with "Lake/Mount + Name": the lake Lake Victoria

the mount Mount Everest Look at this example sentence: We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic view across the lake. We do not normally use "the" for roads, streets, squares, parks etc: streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue

squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens

84

Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (for example, Kennedy Airport). If the first word is the name of a person or place, we do not normally use "the": people Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Paul's Cathedral places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle
Proper Nouns with THE

We normally use "the" for country names that include "States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc: States the United States of America/the USA

Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK Republic the French Republic We normally use "the" for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans: canals rivers seas the Suez Canal the River Nile, the Nile the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean

oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific We normally use "the" for plural names of people and places: people (families, for example) the Clintons countries island groups mountain ranges Look at these sentences: I saw the Clintons today. It was Bill's birthday. Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies. Mount Everest is in the Himalayas. We normally use "the" with the following sorts of names: the Philippines, the United States the Virgin Islands, the British Isles the Himalayas, the Alps

85

hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant banks cinemas, theatres museums buildings newspapers organisations the National Westminster Bank the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema the British Museum, the National Gallery the White House, the Crystal Palace the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union

We normally use "the" for names made with "of": the Tower of London the Gulf of Siam the Tropic of Cancer the London School of Economics the Bank of France the Statue of Liberty
Proper Nouns Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6

Let's have lunch at McDonalds There are 12 months My favourite movie is Greece Lisa works as a programmer at Microsoft I live in a small town My cousin lives in . in a year. .

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

in England.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

86

7 8 9 10

I want to visit Call me when you arrive at I have a check-up with We saw whales in

when I finish school. . on Friday. Ocean.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Reset

Possessive 's When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we usually add 's to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a plural noun, for example:

the boy's ball (one boy) the boys' ball (two or more boys)
Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the possessor and not the possessed. one ball one boy more than one ball

the boy's ball the boy's balls

more than one boy

the boys' ball the boys' balls

The structure can be used for a whole phrase: the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door) the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of England) Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use possessive 's. The following phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is more usual and natural: the boyfriend of my sister

87 my sister's boyfriend Proper Nouns (Names) We very often use possessive 's with names: This is Mary's car. Where is Ram's telephone? Who took Anthony's pen? I like Tara's hair. When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add 's: This is Charles's chair. But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the apostrophe ': Who was Jesus' father? Irregular Plurals Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). To show possession, we usually add 's to the plural form of these nouns: singular noun my child's dog the man's work the mouse's cage plural noun my children's dog the men's work the mice's cage

a person's clothes people's clothes Noun as Adjective As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a noun: adjective noun clever small black teacher office horse

88 Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective. noun as adjective noun history ticket race teacher office horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about: a race horse is a horse that runs in races a horse race is a race for horses a boat race is a race for boats a love story is a story about love a war story is a story about war a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles The "noun as adjective" is singular Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form. Right boat race toothbrush shoe-lace boat races toothbrushes shoe-laces Wrong NOT boats race, boats races NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarette packet cigarette packets NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only. A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged:

89 a news reporter, three news reporters one billiards table, four billiards tables an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers Exceptions: When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form: clothes shop, clothes shops sports club, sports clubs customs duty, customs duties accounts department, accounts departments arms production How do we write the "noun as adjective"? We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways: two separate words (car door) two hyphenated words (book-case) one word (bathroom) There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster) How do we say the "noun as adjective"? For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word: shoe shop boat-race bathroom Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"? Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together. Look at these examples:

90 car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars noun as noun as adjective adjective

noun costs

production costs car production costs

England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that plays football for England noun as noun as noun as adjective adjective adjective noun coach team football team England football team coach coach coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other dictionaries do not. government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government noun as adjective noun as noun as noun as adjective adjective adjective noun centre research centre accident research centre road government road accident research centre accident research centre

Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this example: BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS.

91 Note, too, that we can still use a real ADJECTIVE to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:
EMPTY coffee jar HONEST car salesman DELICIOUS dog food RISING car production costs FAMOUS England football team coach

Noun as Adjective As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a noun: adjective noun clever small black teacher office horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective. noun as adjective noun history ticket race teacher office horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about: a race horse is a horse that runs in races a horse race is a race for horses a boat race is a race for boats a love story is a story about love a war story is a story about war a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis

92 tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles The "noun as adjective" is singular Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form. Right boat race toothbrush shoe-lace boat races toothbrushes shoe-laces Wrong NOT boats race, boats races NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarette packet cigarette packets NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only. A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged: a news reporter, three news reporters one billiards table, four billiards tables an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers Exceptions: When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form: clothes shop, clothes shops sports club, sports clubs customs duty, customs duties accounts department, accounts departments arms production How do we write the "noun as adjective"? We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways: two separate words (car door)

93 two hyphenated words (book-case) one word (bathroom) There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster) How do we say the "noun as adjective"? For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word: shoe shop boat-race bathroom Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"? Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together. Look at these examples: car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars noun as noun as adjective adjective

noun costs

production costs car production costs

England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that plays football for England noun as noun as noun as adjective adjective adjective noun coach team football team England football team coach coach coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all

94 dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other dictionaries do not. government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government noun as adjective noun as noun as noun as adjective adjective adjective noun centre research centre accident research centre road government road accident research centre accident research centre

Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this example: BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS. Note, too, that we can still use a real ADJECTIVE to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:
EMPTY coffee jar HONEST car salesman DELICIOUS dog food RISING car production costs FAMOUS England football team coach

Compound Nouns A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound noun is usually [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], but there are other combinations (see below). It is important to understand and recognize compound nouns. Each compound noun acts as a single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns. There are three forms for compound nouns: open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe) hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)

95 closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (bedroom) Here are some examples of compound nouns: bus stop noun + noun fire-fly football full moon adjective + noun blackboard software breakfast verb(-ing) + noun washing machine sunrise noun verb noun + verb(-ing) + preposition + prepositional phrase haircut train-spotting check-out mother-in-law underworld truckful Is this the bus stop for the number 12 bus? In the tropics you can see fire-flies at night. Shall we play football today? I always feel crazy at full moon. Clean the blackboard please. I can't install this software on my PC. We always eat breakfast at 8am. Put the clothes in the red washing machine.

swimming pool What a beautiful swimming pool! I like to get up at sunrise. You need a haircut. His hobby is train-spotting. Please remember that check-out is at 12 noon. My mother-in-law lives with us. Do you think the police accept money from the underworld? We need 10 truckfuls of bricks.

preposition + noun noun + adjective

Pronunciation Compound nouns tend to have more stress on the first word. In the phrase "pink ball", both words are equally stressed (as you know, adjectives and nouns are always stressed). In the compound noun "golf ball", the first word is stressed more (even though both words are nouns, and nouns are always stressed). Since "golf ball" is a compound noun we consider it as a single noun and so it has a single main stress - on the first word. Stress is important in compound nouns. For example, it helps us know if somebody said "a GREEN HOUSE" (a house which is painted green) or "a GREENhouse" (a building made of glass for growing plants inside). British/American differences Different varieties of English, and even different writers, may use the open, hyphenated or closed form for the same compound noun. It is partly a matter of style. There are no definite rules. For example we can find: container ship container-ship containership

96 If you are not sure which form to use, please check in a good dictionary. Plural forms of compound nouns In general we make the plural of a compound noun by adding -s to the "base word" (the most "significant" word). Look at these examples: singular a school teacher one assistant headmaster the sergeant major a mother-in-law my toothbrush a woman-doctor a doctor of philosophy a passerby, a passer-by plural three school teachers five assistant headmasters some sergeants major two mothers-in-law our toothbrushes four women-doctors two doctors of philosophy two passersby, two passers-by

an assistant secretary of state three assistant secretaries of state

Note that there is some variation with words like spoonful or truckful. The old style was to say spoonsful or trucksful for the plural. Today it is more usual to say spoonfuls or truckfuls. Both the old style (spoonsful) and the new style (spoonfuls) are normally acceptable, but you should be consistent in your choice. Here are some examples: old style plural (very formal) truckful bucketful cupful 5 trucksful of sand 2 bucketsful of water 4 cupsful of rice new style plural

teaspoonful 3 teaspoonsful of sugar 3 teasponfuls of sugar 5 truckfuls of sand 2 bucketfuls of water 4 cupfuls of rice

Some compound nouns have no obvious base word and you may need to consult a dictionary to find the plural: higher-ups also-rans go-betweens has-beens good-for-nothings grown-ups

97 Note that with compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the first noun is like an adjective and therefore does not usually take an -s. A tree that has apples has many apples, but we say an apple tree, not apples tree; matchbox not matchesbox; toothbrush not teethbrush. With compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the second noun takes an -s for plural. The first noun acts like an adjective and as you know, adjectives in English are invariable. Look at these examples: long plural form becomes 100 trees with apples 20 boxes for tools 10 stops for buses 4,000 wheels for cars Top of Form Compound noun quiz Using compound nouns, can you shorten the following phrases?
a storeroom

plural compound noun [noun + noun] 100 apple trees 20 tool boxes 10 bus stops 4,000 car wheels

1,000 cables for telephones 1,000 telephone cables

1. a room for stores

2. a tape for measuring up to 300 cms the assistant manager of the restaurant

3.

4. a station for express trains

5. size of cables

6. reduction in cost

7. two periods of three months

98

8. plugs with 3 pins

9. two steel boxes for the tools 10 the husband of my daughter .

Clear everything and start again

ADJECTIVES An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog). Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady). It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This is because, very often, if we use the precise noun we don't need an adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large, impressive house" (2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun). Determiners the, a/an, this, some, any Adjective Order (with Quiz) beautiful, long, dark brown Comparative Adjectives richer, more exciting Superlative Adjectives the richest, the most exciting Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives | Quiz see also: Noun as Adjective coffee cup, bus station, research centre Determiners

99 Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase. Articles: a, an, the Possessive Adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose Other determiners: each, every either, neither some, any, no much, many; more, most little, less, least few, fewer, fewest what, whatever; which, whichever both, half, all several enough Determiners Quiz

Determiners Quiz

1 2

Lisa saw

shooting star yesterday. sun.

Click for answ er

Don't look directly at

Click for answ er

100

3 4 5 6 7 8

Is there any milk left in I need to pack The dogs were

fridge? apple for my lunch. given a bone. suspect. wrist. problem. is coming to the party, except

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

The police spoke separately to She was wearing a bracelet on She got her license without I don't think Judy and Stan. I always keep emergencies.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

10

money in my wallet for

Click for answ er

Reset

Adjective Order There are 2 basic positions for adjectives: before the noun after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste) adj. noun 1 I like big 2 cars. My car is big. verb adj.

In this lesson we look at the position of adjectives in a sentence, followed by a quiz to check your understanding: Adjective before noun Adjective after certain verbs

101 Adjective order quiz Adjective Before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun: I like big black dogs. She was wearing a beautiful long red dress. What is the correct order for two or more adjectives? 1. The general order is: opinion, fact: a nice French car (not a French nice car) ("Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely true about something.) 2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, material, origin: a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table 3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives: articles (a, the) possessives (my, your...) demonstratives (this, that...) quantifiers (some, any, few, many...) numbers (one, two, three) Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives: adjectives fact noun deteropinion miner age shape colour two nice old round red candles

When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":

102

Many newspapers are black and white. She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress. The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order of adjectives. But these rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the order for emphasis. Consider the following conversations: Conversation 1 A "I want to buy a round table." B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?" Conversation 2 A "I want to buy an old table". B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?"
Adjective After Certain Verbs An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: BE, BECOME, FEEL, GET, LOOK, SEEM, SMELL,
SOUND

Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb. Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective Ram is English. Because she had to wait, she became impatient. Is it getting dark? The examination did not seem difficult. Your friend looks nice. This towel feels damp. That new film doesn't sound very interesting. Dinner smells good tonight. This milk tastes sour. It SMELLS bad.

103 These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change of state, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that some verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and dynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money). The above examples do not include all stative verbs. Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the adjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun. Now check your understanding Adjective Order Quiz

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Andrea had a She lost a I bought We met The clown was wearing a The cookies that you Is it The course you are My uncle wore a Have you met that ? .

in her hair yesterday.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

oranges. people at the conference. hat. .

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

. to the wedding. next door?

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Reset

Comparative Adjectives

104 When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences. We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things). In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":

A1

A2

A1 is bigger than A2. In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them: Formation of Comparative Adjectives Use of Comparative Adjectives Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective: short adjectives: add "-er" long adjectives: use "more" Short adjectives 1-syllable adjectives 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y Normal rule: add "-er" Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant old, fast happy, easy old older late later big bigger

105

Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i Long adjectives 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y all adjectives of 3 or more syllables

happy happier

modern, pleasant expensive, intellectual modern more modern expensive more expensive

Normal rule: use "more"

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more': quiet quieter/more quiet clever cleverer/more clever narrow narrower/more narrow simple simpler/more simple Exception The following adjectives have irregular forms: good better well (healthy) better bad worse far farther/further
Use of Comparative Adjectives

We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things). Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than". Look at these examples: John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.

106

America is big. But Russia is bigger. I want to have a more powerful computer. Is French more difficult than English? If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as shown in the table below: Earth Diameter (km) Distance from Sun (million km) Length of day (hours) Moons Surface temperature (degrees Celcius) 12,760 150 24 1 22 Mars 6,790 228 25 2 -23 Mars is smaller than Earth. Mars is more distant from the Sun. A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth. Mars has more moons than Earth. Mars is colder than Earth.

Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things. Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains. Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).
Superlative Adjectives A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things. In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":

BC

107

A is the biggest. In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives, and then at how we use them: Formation of Superlative Adjectives Use of Superlative Adjectives We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things (not two things). Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective: short adjectives: add "-est" long adjectives: use "most" We also usually add 'the' at the beginning. Short adjectives 1-syllable adjectives 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y Normal rule: add "-est" Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i Long adjectives 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y all adjectives of 3 or more syllables modern, pleasant expensive, intellectual modern the most modern expensive the most expensive old, fast happy, easy old the oldest late the latest big the biggest happy the happiest

Normal rule: use "most"

108

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most': quiet the quietest/most quiet clever the cleverest/most clever narrow the narrowest/most narrow simple the simplest/most simple Exception The following adjectives have irregular forms: good the best bad the worst far the furthest
Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or more things. Look at these examples: John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest. Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest. Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world. If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlative adjectives as shown in the table below:

Earth Diameter (km) Distance from Sun (million km) Length of day (hours) 12,760

Mars 6,790

Jupiter 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest. Jupiter is the most distant from the Sun. Jupiter has the shortest day.

150 24

228 25

778 10

109

Moons Surface temp. (degrees Celcius)

1 22

2 -23

16 -150

Jupiter has the most moons. Jupiter is the coldest.

When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the": England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest) My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most generous)
Comparative Adjectives When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences. We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things). In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":

A1

A2

A1 is bigger than A2. In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them: Formation of Comparative Adjectives Use of Comparative Adjectives Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective: short adjectives: add "-er" long adjectives: use "more"

110

Short adjectives 1-syllable adjectives 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y Normal rule: add "-er" Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i Long adjectives 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y all adjectives of 3 or more syllables modern, pleasant expensive, intellectual modern more modern expensive more expensive old, fast happy, easy old older late later big bigger happy happier

Normal rule: use "more"

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more': quiet quieter/more quiet clever cleverer/more clever narrow narrower/more narrow simple simpler/more simple Exception The following adjectives have irregular forms: good better well (healthy) better bad worse far farther/further

111 Use of Comparative Adjectives

We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things). Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than". Look at these examples: John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John. America is big. But Russia is bigger. I want to have a more powerful computer. Is French more difficult than English? If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as shown in the table below: Earth Diameter (km) Distance from Sun (million km) Length of day (hours) Moons Surface temperature (degrees Celcius) 12,760 150 24 1 22 Mars 6,790 228 25 2 -23 Mars is smaller than Earth. Mars is more distant from the Sun. A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth. Mars has more moons than Earth. Mars is colder than Earth.

Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things. Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains. Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).
Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives Adjectives describe qualities (characteristics) of nouns.

112 Some qualities can vary in intensity or grade (for example: rather hot, hot, very hot; hot, hotter, the hottest). The adjective HOT is gradable. Other qualities cannot vary in intensity or grade because they are: extremes (for example: freezing) absolutes (for example: dead) classifying (for example: nuclear) The adjectives FREEZING , DEAD and NUCLEAR are non-gradable. Gradable Adjectives A gradable adjective can be used with "grading adverbs" that vary the adjective's grade or intensity. Look at these examples: grading adverbs gradable adjectives a little, dreadfully, extremely, fairly, hugely, angry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep, fast, friendly, + immensely, intensely, rather, reasonably, good, happy, high, hot, important, long, popular, slightly, unusually, very rich, strong, tall, warm, weak, young A gradable adjective can also have comparative and superlative forms: EC Tip: "Gradable adjectives" are also called "qualitative adjectives". "Grading adverbs" are also called "submodifiers". big, bigger, the biggest hot, hotter, the hottest important, more important, the most important Look at these example sentences: My teacher was very happy with my homework. That website is reasonably popular. But this one is more popular. He said that Holland was a little cold and Denmark was rather cold. But Sweden was the coldest.

113 EC Tip: The adjective DEAD is non-gradable because it is an absolute. Dead is dead. We cannot be more or less dead. One person cannot be "deader" than another. Other absolutes include: CORRECT, UNIQUE , PERFECT Non-gradable Adjectives A non-gradable adjective cannot be used with grading adverbs: It was rather freezing outside. The dog was very dead. He is investing in slightly nuclear energy. Non-gradable adjectives do not normally have comparative and superlative forms: freezing, more freezing, the most freezing dead, deader, the deadest nuclear, more nuclear, the most nuclear Often, non-gradable adjectives are used alone: EC Tip: Don't try to learn lists of gradable and non-gradable adjectives! It's better to understand what makes an adjective gradable or non-gradable. This is a matter of logic and common sense. Most native-speakers have never heard of gradable and non-gradable adjectives. They just "feel" that it doesn't make sense to say "fairly excellent" or "very unique". You probably have the same idea in your language. It was freezing outside. The dog was dead. He is investing in nuclear energy. However, a non-gradable adjective can be used with "non-grading adverbs" (which usually just give the adjective extra impact), for example: non-grading adverbs non-gradable adjectives absolutely utterly completely totally awful excellent terrified dead absolute extreme

114

nearly virtually essentially mainly almost

impossible unique chemical digital domestic classifying

Here are some example sentences with non-gradable adjectives: Her exam results were absolutely awful. She will have to take the exam again. Is there anything like it in the world? It must be virtually unique. It starts an essentially chemical reaction. Adjectives that can be gradable and non-gradable Some adjectives may have more than one meaning or sense. It's possible for the same adjective to be gradable with one sense and non-gradable with another sense. For example: adjective He's got a very old car. I saw my old boyfriend yesterday. He has some dreadfully common habits. "The" is a very common word in English. gradable common = not young

non-gradable former, exgradable gradable vulgar prevalent

The two countries' common border poses problems. non-gradable shared Adverbs used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives The adverbs really (very much) and fairly and pretty (both meaning "to a significant degree, but less than very") can often be used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives: gradable non-gradable

Please don't forget! It's really important. He was really terrified. He's a fairly rich man. He's pretty tall. It's a fairly impossible job. It's pretty ridiculous when you think about it.

"Quite" with gradable and non-gradable adjectives

115 The meaning of the adverb "quite" changes according to the type of adjective we use it with: adjective It's quite warm today. gradable quite = fairly, rather

Are you quite certain? non-gradable completely, absolutely Reference Non-gradable adjectives Although we don't recommend that you learn lists of non-gradable adjectives, here are some for reference. You can decide for yourself whether they are extreme, absolute or classifying. alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic, enormous, environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge, immediately, impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect, pregnant, principal, ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique, unknown, white, whole Non-grading adverbs Again, no need to learn lists. Here are a few examples. There are many more. Remember that you cannot use all non-grading adverbs with all non-gradable adjectives. Some collocate (go together). Some don't. absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, exclusively, fully, largely, mainly, nearly, perfectly, practically, primarily, utterly, virtually

Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives Quiz

1 2

I am The cat was

happy to see you. dead when the vet arrived.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

116

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

To make tea, the water should be Well done! Your homework is Don't see that film! It's The I am reading a Are you sure? - Yes, I'm It's

boiling. excellent. awful!

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

terrified people ran for their lives. good book. certain.

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

cold outside. In fact, it's nearly freezing. ridiculous situation. I laugh

Click for answ er

The world is in a so much!

Click for answ er

Reset

Noun as Adjective As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a noun: adjective noun clever small black teacher office horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective.

noun as adjective noun history ticket race teacher office horse

117 The "noun as adjective" always comes first If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about: a race horse is a horse that runs in races a horse race is a race for horses a boat race is a race for boats a love story is a story about love a war story is a story about war a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles The "noun as adjective" is singular Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form. Right boat race toothbrush shoe-lace boat races toothbrushes shoe-laces Wrong NOT boats race, boats races NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarette packet cigarette packets NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only. A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged: a news reporter, three news reporters one billiards table, four billiards tables an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers Exceptions: When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:

118 clothes shop, clothes shops sports club, sports clubs customs duty, customs duties accounts department, accounts departments arms production How do we write the "noun as adjective"? We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways: two separate words (car door) two hyphenated words (book-case) one word (bathroom) There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster) How do we say the "noun as adjective"? For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word: shoe shop boat-race bathroom Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"? Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together. Look at these examples: car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars noun as noun as adjective adjective noun costs production costs car production costs

119 England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that plays football for England noun as noun as noun as noun adjective adjective adjective coach team football team England football team coach coach coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other dictionaries do not. government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government noun as adjective noun as noun as noun as noun adjective adjective adjective centre research centre accident research centre road government road accident research centre accident research centre

Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this example: BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS. Note, too, that we can still use a real ADJECTIVE to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:
EMPTY coffee jar HONEST car salesman DELICIOUS dog food RISING car production costs

120
FAMOUS England football team coach

Adverbs Adverbs are an important part of speech. They usually answer questions such as how?, where?, when?, how often? and how much? What is an Adverb? What do adverbs do? What's their job? Adverb Form How do we make adverbs? Kinds of Adverbs What are the main kinds of adverbs? Adverb Position Where do we place the adverb in a sentence? Adverbs of Frequency hourly, weekly, once a year... always, sometimes, never... Adverbs Quiz See also adverb vocabulary: Adverbs of Manner List Adverbs of Place List Adverbs of Time List Adverbs of Degree List What is an Adverb?

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics. John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?) Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?) Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)

121

But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples: Modify an adjective: - He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?) - That was extremely kind of you. Modify another adverb: - She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?) - He drives extremely fast. Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can: Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything. Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.
Adverb Form

We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example: quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb) careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb) beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb) There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:

Adjective ending

do this

adjective quick nice sole careful

adverb quickly nicely solely carefully

most adjectives

add -ly

122

-able or -ible -y -ic

change -e to -y change -y to -ily change -ic to -ically

regrettable horrible happy economic

regrettably horribly happily economically

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The words friendly, lovely, lonely and neighbourly, for example, are all adjectives. And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples: well, fast, very, never, always, often, still Note that the form of an adverb can also change to make it comparative or superlative.
Kinds of Adverbs Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs. Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs. He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?) They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?) James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?) We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs. He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily. She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.

Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs. Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)

123 They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?) Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?) Adverbs of Time Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs. They can answer the question "when?": He came yesterday. (When did he come?) I want it now. (When do I want it?) Or they can answer the question "how often?": They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?) We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?) Adverbs of Degree Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?) Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?) He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?) See also adverb vocabulary: Adverbs of Manner List Adverbs of Place List Adverbs of Time List Adverbs of Degree List Adverb Position When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or

124 clause: 1. FRONT - before subject 2. MID - between subject + verb 3. END - after verb/object I I read books Now often carefully. I will read a book. read books.

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example: adverb She gave him a really adverb We quite adjective dirty adverb often study English. look.

The position of an adverb often depends on the kind of adverb (manner, place, time, degree). The following table gives you some guidelines for placement based on the kind of adverb. Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete. There are many exceptions. kind of adverb mainly modifies sentence adverb She stroked his hair He was working He finished the job We I degree verbs, adjectives and adverbs It was He works gently. here. yesterday. often nearly terribly really go to Paris. died. funny. fast. usual position END END END MID MID before adjective before adverb

manner place definite time frequency

verbs verbs

verbs

125

Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Frequency are Adverbs of Time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples: daily, weekly, yearly often, sometimes, rarely You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency. We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the sentence. In this lesson we will look in more detail at: Adverbs of Definite Frequency Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency followed by an Adverbs of Frequency Quiz to check your understanding Adverbs of definite frequency Examples: hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly every second, once a minute, twice a year once, twice, once or twice, three times Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position. Look at these examples: Most companies pay taxes yearly. The manager checks the toilets every hour.

126 The directors meet weekly to review progress. Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go at the FRONT, for example: Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads. Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency See also adverb vocabulary: adverbs of frequency lists Adverbs of indefinite frequency Examples: never, seldom, sometimes, often, always Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the main verb (except the main verb "to be"): We usually go shopping on Saturday. I have often done that. She is always late. Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence: Sometimes they come and stay with us. I play tennis occasionally. 0% 50% 100% always, constantly usually, normally frequently, regularly often sometimes occasionally rarely, infrequently seldom hardly ever never

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"): We see them rarely. John eats meat very seldom. Adverbs of Frequency Quiz Adverbs of Frequency Quiz

Nancy and I [30%] together.

go out for coffee

Click for answ er

127

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Andrea lives next door so we We meet My doctor It [0%]

see her.

Click for answ er

at the Annual General Meeting. checks my health rains here in the summer. we take the dog off his leash at the beach. .

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

My sister

two days of school in a row.

Click for answ er

My boyfriend and I take vacations together quite . Andy [10%] cousins. I went to college gets to visit with his

Click for answ er

9 10

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

Reset

Adverbs Quiz

1 2 3

My grandfather walks extremely Your roommate is quite We rarely weekends.

-

slowly. shy, isn't she?

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

go to the movies on the

-

Click for answ er

4 5 6 7

Our house is practically the highway. My niece reads well

-

on

Click for answ er

for a five-year-old.
-

Click for answ er

Your friend Robert drives a fast I never

-

car.

Click for answ er

buy fruit at the grocery store.

Click for answ er

128

8 9

My
-

go dancing on Fridays. bake a batch of cookies.

-

Click for answ er

Click for answ er

10 Please shopping.
Reset

so that we can go

Click for answ er

PRONOUNS Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like: Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous. With pronouns, we can say: Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous. Personal Pronouns I, me, you, he, him, she... Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, these, those Possessive Pronouns mine, yours, his... Interrogative Pronouns who, what, which... Reflexive Pronouns myself, yourself, himself... Reciprocal Pronouns each other, one another Indefinite Pronouns another, much, nobody, few, such... Relative Pronouns who, whom, which...

129 Pronoun Case subjective, objective, possessive That's Not My Job! This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

My Job! This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:

130

number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we) person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he) gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it) case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us) We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on. Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences: personal pronouns number person 1st 2nd singular 3rd gender male/female male/female male female neuter 1st plural 2nd 3rd male/female male/female male/female/neuter subject I you he she it we you they object me you him her it us you them

Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun): I like coffee. John helped me. Do you like coffee? John loves you.

131

He runs fast. Did Ram beat him? She is clever. Does Mary know her? It doesn't work. Can the engineer repair it? We went home. Anthony drove us. Do you need a table for three? Did John and Mary beat you at doubles? They played doubles. John and Mary beat them. When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples: This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation. The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage. My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife. Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia. For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this: If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal. If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal. If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

132

We often use it to introduce a remark: It is nice to have a holiday sometimes. It is important to dress well. It's difficult to find a job. Is it normal to see them together? It didn't take long to walk here. We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance: It's raining. It will probably be hot tomorrow. Is it nine o'clock yet? It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.
Demonstrative Pronouns

demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things: near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those) near singular plural this these far that those

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration: This tastes good. Have you seen this?

133

These are bad times. Do you like these? That is beautiful. Look at that! Those were the days! Can you see those? This is heavier than that. These are bigger than those.

Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun. That smells. (demonstrative pronoun) That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

134

Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples: This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary? That sounds like John.
Possessive Pronouns We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things). We use possessive pronouns depending on: number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours) person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his) gender: male (his), female (hers) Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can: be subject or object refer to a singular or plural antecedent number person 1st singular 2nd 3rd 1st plural 2nd 3rd gender (of "owner") male/female male/female male female male/female male/female male/female/neuter possessive pronouns mine yours his hers ours yours theirs

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture) I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers) I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)

135 My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers) All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay) John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport) John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes) Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car) Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos) Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books) I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your garden) These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children) John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car) Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's, your's, their's Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples: There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was. This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it? Interrogative Pronouns We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about). There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). subject person thing person/thing who what which object whom

136

person

whose

(possessive)

Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal, spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers would say (or even write): "Who did you see?" Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold. question Who told you? Whom did you tell? What's happened? What do you want? Which came first? Which will the doctor see first? There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find? answer John told me. I told Mary. An accident's happened. I want coffee. The Porsche 911 came first. The doctor will see the patient in blue first. John's (car) hasn't arrived. subject object subject object subject object

subject

I found John's (keys).

object

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples: Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing? Whatever did he say to make her cry like that? They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose? Reflexive Pronouns reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror

137 We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural). There are eight reflexive pronouns: reflexive pronoun myself yourself himself, herself, itself ourselves yourselves themselves

singular

plural

Look at these examples: reflexive pronouns the underlined words are NOT the same person/thing John saw me. Why does he blame you? David sent him a copy. David sent her a copy. My dog hurt the cat. We blame you. Can you help my children? They cannot look after the babies. Intensive pronouns Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples: the underlined words are the SAME person/thing I saw myself in the mirror. Why do you blame yourself? John sent himself a copy. Mary sent herself a copy. My dog hurt itself. We blame ourselves. Can you help yourselves? They cannot look after themselves.

138 I made it myself. OR I myself made it. Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself? The President himself promised to stop the war. She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me. The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible. Never mind. We'll do it ourselves. You yourselves asked us to do it. They recommend this book even though they themselves have never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have never read it themselves. Reciprocal Pronouns

reciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; [grammar] expressing mutual action We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say: A and B are talking to each other. The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog. There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words: each other one another When we use these reciprocal pronouns: there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and they must be doing the same thing Look at these examples: John and Mary love each other.

139

Peter and David hate each other. The ten prisoners were all blaming one another. Both teams played hard against each other. We gave each other gifts. Why don't you believe each other? They can't see each other. The gangsters were fighting one another. The boats were bumping against each other in the storm. You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above than one another. That's because in general we use each other more often than one another, which sounds a little formal. Also, some people say that we should use one another only for three or more people or things, but there is no real justification for this.
Indefinite Pronouns

That's Not My Job! This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody. An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns are: all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in the following sentences: He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun) I'd like another drink, please. (adjective) Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural. Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples:

140

Each of the players has a doctor. I met two girls. One has given me her phone number. Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement: Many have expressed their views. pronoun singular another anybody/anyone an additional or different person or thing no matter what person That ice-cream was good. Can I have another? Can anyone answer this question? The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours. Each has his own thoughts. Do you want tea or coffee? / I don't mind. Either is good for me. Enough is enough. We can start the meeting because everybody has arrived. They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake. "Less is more" (Mies van der Rohe) Little is know about his early life. Much has happend since we met. meaning example

anything

no matter what thing every one of two or more people or things, seen separately one or the other of two people or things as much or as many as needed all people

each

either enough everybody/everyone

everything

all things

less little much

a smaller amount a small amount a large amount

141

neither nobody/no-one nothing

not one and not the other of two people or things no person no single thing, not anything

I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me. I phoned many times but nobody answered. If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing. Can one smoke here? | All the students arrived but now one is missing. One was tall and the other was short. Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide. Listen! I just heard something! What could it be? And you can see why.

one

an unidentified person a different person or thing from one already mentioned an unspecified or unknown person an unspecified or unknown thing an unidentified person (informal)

other somebody/someone something you plural both few fewer many others several they

two people or things, seen together a small number of people or things a reduced number of people or things a large number of people or things other people; not us more than two but not many people in general (informal)

John likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good. Few have ever disobeyed him and lived. Fewer are smoking these days. Many have come already. I'm sure that others have tried before us. They all complained and several left the meeting. They say that vegetables are good for you.

142

singular or plural all any the whole quantity of something or of some things or people no matter how much or how many a greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or things the majority; nearly all All is forgiven. All have arrived. Is any left? Are any coming? There is more over there. More are coming. Most is lost. Most have refused. They fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap? I invited five friends but none have come.* Here is some. Some have arrived. He was a foreigner and he felt that he was treated as such.

more

most

none

not any; no person or persons

some

an unspecified quantity of something; an unspecified number of people or things of the type already mentioned

such

* Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb, even when talking about countable nouns (eg five friends). They argue that "none" means "no one", and "one" is obviously singular. They say that "I invited five friends but none has come" is correct and "I invited five friends but none have come" is incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of years with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context and the emphasis required.
Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. Here is an example: The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. In the above example, "who": relates to "person", which it modifies introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"

143

There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that* Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information). Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female. Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses: example sentences S=subject, O=object, P=possessive - The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. - The person that phoned me last night is my teacher. - The car which hit me was yellow. - The cars that hit me were yellow. - The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher. - The people who I phoned last night are my teachers. - The person that I phoned last night is my teacher. - The person I phoned last night is my teacher. - The car which I drive is old. - The car that I drive is old. - The car I drive is old. - The student whose phone just rang should stand up. - Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra. - The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked. Of which is usual for things, but whose is sometimes

notes

That is preferable

That is preferable

Whom is correct but very formal. The relative pronoun is optional.

defining

That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun is optional.

144

- The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked. - Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher. S - The car, which was a taxi, exploded. - The cars, which were taxis, exploded. - Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher. - Mr and Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, are my teachers. - The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught fire. - My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor. P - The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed. - The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.

possible

Whom is correct but very formal. Who is normal.

O nondefining

Of which is usual for things, but whose is sometimes possible

*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun. **Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use "who/whom"; there is no good reason for such a claim.
Pronoun Case

Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their function in the sentence. Their function can be: subjective (they act as the subject) objective (they act as the object) possessive (they show possession of something else) The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.

145

subjective case personal pronouns singular 1st I

objective case me you him her it us you them whom whomever

possessive case mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs whose

2nd you he 3rd she it plural 1st we

2nd you 3rd they relative/interrogative pronouns who whoever

which/that/what which/that/what indefinite pronouns everybody everybody everybody's

A problem of case: Mary and I or Mary and me? Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me) The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I) In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case ("I"). In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case ("me"). An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say "I am delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say "The letter was addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?
English Prepositions A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in: She left before breakfast. What did you come for? (For what did you come?) Short List of Common Prepositions

146 A Simple Rule for Prepositions Prepositions of Place at the bus stop, in the box, on the wall Prepositions of Time at Christmas, in May, on Friday Prepositions List - full list with example sentences Prepositions Short List A short list of 70 common English prepositions Here is a list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage. See also Prepositions List for a complete list of all prepositions with example sentences. Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, anti, around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, concerning, considering, despite ,down ,during, except ,excepting ,excluding, following, for, from, in, inside ,into, like, minus, near, of, off, on, onto, opposite, outside, over, past ,per, plus, regarding, round, save, since, than, through, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, versus, via, with, within, without, Prepositions of Place

This diagram shows some of the more common prepositions of place and indicates their meaning. There follows a sample sentence for each preposition shown.

147

There is a cup on the table. The helicopter hovered above the house. The police placed a sheet over the body. He stood in front of the door and rang the bell. Ram sat beside Tara in the cinema. A small stream runs below that bridge. He put the key under the doormat. He put his hands behind his back.
Some Prepositions of Time

148

He has coffee in the morning, tea in the afternoon and wine in the evening. I work during the morning/afternoon/evening/day/night. Lets meet at 6pm. The clock strikes twelve at midday/noon/midnight. The condemned man was shot at sunrise/dawn. The street lights come on at sunset/dusk. We can see the stars at night.
English Prepositions A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in: She left before breakfast.

149 What did you come for? (For what did you come?) Short List of Common Prepositions A Simple Rule for Prepositions Prepositions of Place at the bus stop, in the box, on the wall Prepositions of Time at Christmas, in May, on Friday Prepositions of Place: at, in, on In general, we use: at for a POINT in for an ENCLOSED SPACE on for a SURFACE at POINT at the corner at the bus stop at the door at the top of the page at the end of the road at the entrance at the crossroads at the front desk in ENCLOSED SPACE in the garden in London in France in a box in my pocket in my wallet in a building in a car on SURFACE on the wall on the ceiling on the door on the cover on the floor on the carpet on the menu on a page

Look at these examples: Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop. The shop is at the end of the street.

150 My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late. When will you arrive at the office? Do you work in an office? I have a meeting in New York. Do you live in Japan? Jupiter is in the Solar System. The author's name is on the cover of the book. There are no prices on this menu. You are standing on my foot. There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall. I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London. Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions: at at home at work at school at university at college at the top at the bottom at the side at reception in in a car in a taxi in a helicopter in a boat in a lift (elevator) in the newspaper in the sky in a row in Oxford Street on on a bus on a train on a plane on a ship on a bicycle, on a motorbike on a horse, on an elephant on the radio, on television on the left, on the right on the way

See also Prepositions of Time: at, in, on English Preposition Rule

151

There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions. Rule A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb. By "noun" we include: noun (dog, money, love) proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary) pronoun (you, him, us) noun group (my first job) gerund (swimming) A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form. Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible, according to the above rule: I would like to go now. She used to smoke. Here are some examples: Subject + verb The food is She lives Tara is looking The letter is Pascal is used She isn't used I ate preposition "noun" on in for under to to before the table. Japan. you. your blue book. English people. working. coming.

152

Answer to Quick Quiz: In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It is part of the infinitive ("to go", "to smoke").
Prepositions beginning with A One-word prepositions aboard We went aboard the boat. Is there a doctor aboard the plane? about What do you think about Mary? Let's talk about something different. I've just read a book about President Kennedy. The lion was pacing about its cage. above We are flying above the clouds. We live in the hills, 1,000 metres above sea-level. It's only two degrees above freezing point. [+2C] Who came above you in the test results? across We drove across the desert. The dog ran across the road. There is a bridge across the river. She lives in the house across the street. It's nearly opposite mine. after (also conjunction) We had lunch [1pm] after the meeting [11am]. Let's meet the day after tomorrow.

153 against Did you vote for or against the suggestion? He put his bicycle against the wall. along We walked along the beach for two miles. There are trees along the road. The toilet is along the corridor. alongside Their boat came alongside our boat. Team A worked alongside Team B during construction. amid | amidst (poetic) I couldn't hear her amid the noise. We were lost amidst the trees. among | amongst (mainly British English) Is there a doctor among us? There were secret police among the crowd. I was amongst strangers. I didn't know anyone. anti He seems to be anti my idea. Some people are anti everything. around We walked around the town for an hour. They all sat around the camp fire. There is a big fence around the house.

154 He was born around 1570. Let's meet around 7pm. as (also conjunction) He is working as a waiter. The risk is as nothing compared to the profit. Ram is as tall as Anthony. astride She sat astride the horse. at He is at school. We first met at a party. Let's start the meeting at 9 o'clock. He started work at 17 (years of age). We are aiming at sales of $1,000,000. atop (poetic) The church is situated atop a hill. Complex prepositions according to According to John, Mary was late. I believe John. ahead of Anthony is ahead of Rachel in the race. He'll win. We have a long day ahead of us. Let's get going! la (from French) It's a TV show la CNN. Same style, similar content.

155 along with Do you want some pork along with the chicken? apart from Nobody objected apart from you, so we did it. as for As for Matt, he will arrive later. aside from I have another car aside from this one. Both are red. as per We must work strictly as per the law. as to As to your behaviour, I think you were wrong. as well as You should telephone as well as write, just to be sure. away from The cat ran away from the dog and escaped. Prepositions beginning with B One-word prepositions bar Everyone came bar Angela. He is the best bar none. barring Barring rain, we'll play tennis tomorrow. before (also conjunction)

156 We had lunch [1pm] before the meeting [3pm]. We met the day before yesterday. She was before me in the queue. I would rather die before doing that. behind There is a police car behind us. It's following us. We have a garden behind our house. The child was hiding behind the tree. I am behind your project. I will support it. Vonica finished behind Shirley in the race. She is behind the other children in her class. below Much of Holland is below sea-level. There is a family in the flat below us. The temperature is 5 degrees below freezing point. [-5C] I came below Vonica in the test. You can buy it if it's below $50. beneath Our garage is beneath our house. The tunnel runs beneath the sea. Laurence is beneath the General Manager. It was beneath his dignity to do that. beside The river runs beside our house.

157 James was sitting beside Miriam. besides What shall we have besides coffee? between Tara was sitting between Ram and Ati. Between you and me, I think she's crazy. I can meet you between 1pm and 2pm. beyond Can you see someone in the distance, beyond that house? This is too difficult. It's beyond me. The meeting continued beyond midnight. but (also conjunction) Everyone came but Andrea. by We came by car. Fireworks were invented by the Chinese. He was shot by a professional killer. It happened by accident. He lost the race by five seconds. The room is 10 metres by 6 metres. We must finish by Tuesday. We were sitting by the window. By my calculation he must be 73.

158 Complex prepositions because of We can't play tennis because of the rain. but for It's your fault! But for you, I'd have been on time. by means of You open a door by means of its handle. Prepositions beginning with C One-word prepositions circa He died circa 1270. concerning Your teacher talked to me concerning your homework. I have some questions concerning your decision. considering Considering the poor quality, I think the price is too high. I think I must be going, considering the time. counting There were four people, or five counting the baby. That makes $70, not counting the tax. cum I have a study-cum-bedroom. She is a kind of secretary-cum-receptionist.

159 Complex prepositions close to My car is close to your car. About two cars away. contrary to Contrary to expectations, the euro fell in value.

Prepositions beginning with D One-word prepositions despite We went swimming despite the cold water. He passed the test despite being ill. down They ran down the hill. The post office is down the road. They have had many wars down the years. during He fell asleep during the meeting. I want to go swimming during the weekend. I was bored during the whole film. Complex prepositions depending on We'll play tennis tomorrow, depending on the rain.

160 due to The cancellation was due to the rain. There was no other reason. Prepositions beginning with E One-word prepositions except You can have any colour except blue. There is no more blue. They all came except Stephen. He didn't want to come. excepting I can eat anything excepting pork. It makes me sick. Excepting Jo, everyone was present. No-one knew where Jo was. excluding It costs $70, excluding $10 for delivery. (Total = $80.) We open every day excluding Christmas Day. On Christmas Day we have a holiday. Complex prepositions except for Everyone was present, except for Mary. She stayed at home. Prepositions beginning with F One-word prepositions following We had coffee following lunch. He couldn't work following his illness. for (also conjunction) This is for you. Do you want to go for a walk?

161 You use a corkscrew for opening bottles. Cigarettes are bad for you. I'm saving for a new car. Is this the road for Rome? They passed me over for John. Is this the train for Cambridge? I bought it for $10. We worked for three hours. Keep walking for two kilometres. from Where do you come from? This letter is from my wife. I bought this car from Henry. They prevented me from entering. My car is different from yours. We worked from Monday to Wednesday. Paper is made from wood. It can cost anything from $5 to $15. The police took my driving licence from me. He died from overwork. Complex prepositions forward of He was sitting forward of me in the plane. I could just see the back of his head. further to

162 Further to your letter, I have spoken to Mr Brown. Prepositions beginning with G One-word prepositions given He is in very good health, given his age. He's at least 95. Given the time, you ought to leave now. gone (mainly British English) It's certainly gone 11 o'clock. It must be 11.30. He's gone 50. He must be nearly 60 years old. Prepositions beginning with I One-word prepositions in Monkeys live in the jungle. John is the man with his hand in his pocket. I live in an apartment. She lives in Bangkok. Tara was born in 1977. Trains were invented in the nineteenth century. I'll come back in two weeks. Let's meet in the morning. There are 60 seconds in a minute. including The price is $70 including $10 for delivery. (Total = $70.) There were four of us, including the baby.

163 inside It was dark inside the tunnel. My modem is inside my computer. It's an internal modem. into John went into that shop. If you heat ice it turns into water. We cut the cake into ten pieces. Five into ten makes two. Complex prepositions in addition to There were two people in addition to me. So that made three of us. in between He is in between the two opinions. He wants to compromise. in case of You can phone me in case of need. Day or night. in face of He reacts bravely in face of danger. in favour of I am not in favour of your idea. It won't work. in front of You can park your car in front of my house. I couldn't see the film because the woman in front of me was wearing a big hat. in lieu of I don't have any dollars. Can I pay euro in lieu of dollars?

164 in spite of We went swimming in spite of the cold water. instead of We don't have any tea. Would you like coffee instead of tea? in view of In view of your illness, we will wait for a week. Prepositions beginning with L One-word prepositions less 10 less 3 = 7. like She is like her sister. She sings like a bird. It's not like John to complain. Do it like this. I feel like swimming. It looks like rain. I want something cold, like iced-coffee. Prepositions beginning with M One-word prepositions minus 10 minus 3 = 7. The temperature is minus 30 degrees centigrade. Prepositions beginning with N

165 One-word prepositions near The school is near the post office. It's 20 December. We are very near Christmas Day. notwithstanding Notwithstanding the low price, I don't want it. They went swimming, notwithstanding the rain. They went swimming, the rain notwithstanding. Complex prepositions near to There is a restaurant near to my office. Just two minutes away. next to The school is next to the bank. Between the hotel and the bank. Prepositions beginning with O One-word prepositions of I live in the house at the end of the road. Where is the key of the car? Do you like the work of Shakespeare? What was the cost of this book? He lives in the City of Westminster. It was kind of you to help me. This is the cause of the problem.

166 He died of cancer. Most tables are made of wood. Can I have a cup of coffee? I know some of these people. I don't know any of these people. He lives south of London. He lives in the south of London. off Please take your shoes off the table. Keep off the grass. It fell off the table and broke. They live in a street off Fifth Avenue. on Please don't put your shoes on the table. The picture is on page 7. We live on a busy road. It's very noisy. She is sunbathing on the beach. Is there water on the Moon? I need a book on bio-chemistry. My birthday is on Monday. I start work on 7 May. Let's meet on the weekend. (American English) I'll see you on Christmas Day.

167 You must be on time. He broke his leg on getting out of the car. onto (mainly American English) see on to The cat jumped onto the chair. The police are onto us. (slang) Complex prepositions on account of Don't worry on account of me. Think about yourself. on behalf of I'm calling you on behalf of Mr Brown. I represent him in legal matters. on board Is there a doctor on board this plane? on to (mainly British English) see onto The cat jumped on to the chair. on top of The cat is sitting on top of the television. opposite to There is a tree opposite to the house. Straight across the road. other than Sorry, we're out of whisky. But we have every drink other than whisky. out of Take your hands out of your pockets and help me! He went out of the room to smoke a cigarette.

168 We're out of eggs. Shall I buy some? outside of They stopped outside of the city to check the map before entering. owing to We didn't go swimming, owing to the cold weather. Prepositions beginning with P One-word prepositions past I saw you yesterday when we drove past your school. The post office is just past the police station. Don't work past your bed-time. This is difficult. It's past me. It's nearly ten minutes past five. 5.09 to be precise. pending We cannot supply you pending payment. Pending his return, we can do nothing. There were many arguments pending the negotiations. per The speed limit is 70 miles per hour. The carpet costs $10 per square metre. plus 2 plus 2 = 4. There will be three of us, plus the baby. So that's four in total.

169 pro Are you pro capital punishment or against it? He is very modern. He is generally pro new ideas. Complex prepositions preparatory to I made a graph preparatory to the meeting, so everything was ready. prior to I never spoke French prior to living in France. But I learned quickly after coming to France.

Prepositions beginning with R One-word prepositions Re: your letter dated 21 May I want to talk you re the proposed meeting. regarding I would like to speak to you regarding my homework. Regarding John, let's talk later. respecting I would like to speak to you respecting my homework. I am writing to you respecting our latest products. round I live round the corner. They all sat round the fire. There is a hedge round the house.

170 Complex prepositions regardless of I don't want it, regardless of the price. Even if it's free, I just don't want it. Prepositions beginning with S One-word prepositions save (formal) All save Mrs Jones were present. saving (formal) Saving yourself, nobody thanked me. since (also conjunction) I haven't seen Josef since Monday. Mr Brown has worked in a bank since 1985. Complex prepositions save for Everyone came, save for Lek who had to work. Prepositions beginning with T One-word prepositions than (also conjunction) He is a writer than whom there is no finer. Your car is bigger than my car. through (also thru - American English) The train goes through a tunnel. I can see light through the keyhole. You have been through a difficult experience.

171 You went thru a red light. The error occurred through my own stupidity. They worked Monday through Thursday. (American English) throughout It is raining throughout the whole country. He worked throughout the day, and most of the night. till (also conjunction) I work from 9am till 5pm. Please wait till I come. to Could you give this to Kob? My car does 10 miles to the litre. To his surprise, the door was open. The museum is open from Monday to Friday. The time is ten to five. [4.50] touching Touching your homework, I think we need to speak. towards (mainly British English), toward (mainly American English) He drove off toward(s) the mountain. I'd better go. It's getting toward(s) midnight. He contributed $100,000 toward(s) the new building. It's the first step toward(s) peace. He has a positive attitude toward(s) his work. Complex prepositions

172 thanks to Thanks to Shirley, we arrived on time. together with I'd like chicken please, together with vegetables. Prepositions beginning with U One-word prepositions under The mouse ran under the chair. The bucket is under the sink. Submarines can travel under water. We drove under a bridge. I have a T-shirt under my pullover. Who do you work under? Who is your boss? I am under orders from the President. What is the subject under discussion? Under the company rules, we can't do that. Please buy it if it's under $50. underneath The nurse put a pillow underneath his head. There is a big cellar underneath our house. unlike That's very unusual. It's unlike Andrea to be so rude. This problem is unlike any we have met before. until (formal; also conjunction)

173 They continued the meeting until 11pm. Please wait until I come. up Jack and Jill ran up the hill. There is a post office up the street. upon (formal) Please don't put your shoes upon the table. There are now no dinosaurs upon Earth. I need a book upon bio-chemistry. We met upon a Monday. He broke his leg upon getting out of the car. Complex prepositions up against We are up against a powerful enemy. up to There was a shop here up to 1990. But it closed that year. up until We worked up until they came. Then we stopped. Prepositions beginning with V One-word prepositions versus He was the judge in the case of Gore versus Bush. We should choose peace versus war. via

174 We flew from Paris to Bangkok via Dubai. Complex prepositions vis--vis (from French) I prefer Jaguar cars vis--vis BMW cars. I need to speak to you vis--vis your homework. Prepositions beginning with W One-word prepositions with Do you live with your parents? He's been with EnglishClub.com for two years. I discussed it with her. With your permission, I'd like to go. If you mix red with yellow you get orange. Muriel is the girl with black hair. Do you want to come with us? I made this chair with my own hands. You'll forget her with time. within There is a modem within the computer. I will finish within 30 minutes. He lives within 10 miles of his work. It's not within my power to help you. without I want trousers without buttons.

175 I came without my wife because she is working. He watched without speaking. worth This car is worth $10,000. Complex prepositions with reference to With reference to your comments, I'll reply soon. I am writing with reference to your order. with regard to I'd like to speak to you with regard to your work. Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence. Here are some example conjunctions: Coordinating Conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so Subordinating Conjunctions although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects. Form Conjunctions have three basic forms: Single Word for example: and, but, because, although Compound (often ending with as or that) for example: provided that, as long as, in order that Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective) for example: so...that Function

176 Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs": Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example: - Jack and Jill went up the hill. - The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming. Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example: - I went swimming although it was cold. Position Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause. In this lesson we will look in more detail at: Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions": and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]: I like [tea] and [coffee]. [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee]. Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction: I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

177 However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential: She is kind so she helps people. When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional: He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum. He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum. The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell: F
For

A
And

N
Nor

B
But

O
Or

Y
Yet

S
So

Now look at Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

Look at this example: main or independent clause Ram went swimming subordinate or dependent clause although subordinating conjunction A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming." it was raining.

178

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible: Ram went swimming although it was raining. Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.
INTERJECTIONS

Hi! That's an interjection. :-) Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written. Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning. The table below shows some interjections with examples. interjection meaning expressing pleasure ah expressing realization expressing resignation expressing surprise alas dear expressing grief or pity expressing pity expressing surprise asking for repetition eh expressing enquiry expressing surprise example "Ah, that feels good." "Ah, now I understand." "Ah well, it can't be heped." "Ah! I've won!" "Alas, she's dead now." "Oh dear! Does it hurt?" "Dear me! That's a surprise!" "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." "What do you think of that, eh?" "Eh! Really?"

179

inviting agreement er hello, hullo expressing hesitation expressing greeting expressing surprise calling attention expressing surprise, joy etc expressing greeting expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement expressing surprise oh, o expressing pain expressing pleading ouch uh uh-huh um, umm well expressing pain expressing hesitation expressing agreement expressing hesitation expressing surprise introducing a remark
A, AN OR THE?

"Let's go, eh?" "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." "Hello John. How are you today?" "Hello! My car's gone!" "Hey! look at that!" "Hey! What a good idea!" "Hi! What's new?" "Hmm. I'm not so sure." "Oh! You're here!" "Oh! I've got a toothache." "Oh, please say 'yes'!" "Ouch! That hurts!" "Uh...I don't know the answer to that." "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." "85 divided by 5 is...um...17." "Well I never!" "Well, what did he say?"

hey hi hmm

When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk only about singular, countable nouns.) The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite" like this: Articles Definite Indefinite the a, an

We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.

180

We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general. When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about one thing in general, we use a or an. Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we would say: I saw the moon last night. I saw a star last night. Look at these examples: the The capital of France is Paris. I have found the book that I lost. Have you cleaned the car? There are six eggs in the fridge. a, an I was born in a town. John had an omelette for lunch. James Bond ordered a drink. We want to buy an umbrella.

Please switch off the TV when you finish. Have you got a pen? Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the situation, not the word. Look at these examples: We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.) Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for our umbrella, a particular umbrella.) This little story should help you understand the difference between the and a, an: A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street. The woman saw a dress that she liked in a shop. She asked the man if he could buy the dress for her. He said: "Do you think the shop will accept a cheque? I don't have a credit card."