DECLARATION I declare that this project is done by me and has never been submitted the best of my knowledge, any

where for any certificate. All literature sighted have been acknowledged through the references.

.. .. Students Date sign

CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this project titled Design and construction of an aquarium probe meets the standard set for a project in Physics department in partial fulfillment for the award of B.Sc. Hons . . Project Date supervisor

. .. Head Date of Department

DEDICATION This project work is dedicated to my entire family especially my parents for their maximum cooperation and support throughout the period of writing this research work, and those who contributed to the success of this work. God bless you all (ameen).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to give my profound thanks to God Almighty who made it possible to reach this level of life and give me power to produce this piece of work. My sincere thanks also goes to my helpful lecturer in person of Mal. Muazu and Mal sokoto state Samaela of electrical electronics department

ply technic, who helped me greatly in doing this work. I am also grateful to the Head of department and all other lecturers for helping me in various ways during my stay as a student in the department. I also say thank you to all my friends and colleagues in the department, your assistances are well appreciated. Finally, I thank anybody that assisted indirectly to accomplish this work.

ABSTRACT The circuit of aquatic probe described here can monitor the temperature of water and indicate the rise in temperature through audiovisual indicators. A readily available signal diode 1N34 is used in the circuit as the temperature sensing probe. The resistance of the diode depends on the temperature in its vicinity. Typically, the diode can generate around 600 mV when a potential difference is applied to its terminals. For each degree centigrade rise in temperature, the diode generates 2 mVoutput voltage. That is, at 5C, it is 10 mV, which rises to 70 mV when the temperature is 35C.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT The aim of this project is to design, construct and test an Aquarium Probe that can be used in detecting the temperature level in an aquarium and generating a warning alarm when the temperature is very high. 1.2 PROJECT MOTIVATION The main motivation for carrying out this work comes up with a simple device that can assist in knowing the temperature of Aquarium at any time. The temperature of water has profound effect because fish cannot breed above or below the critical temperature limits. Temperature between 24C and 33C is found to be the best to induce spawning in fishes. This particular temperature range is also necessary for the healthy growth of nursery fish fries (young fishes). Rise of water temperature due to sunlight may adversely affect the fish rearing process. 1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scope of this project is the design of the circuit of the aquarium probe, constructing the designed circuit and testing the ability of the constructed circuit to work. The designed circuit should be able to work as an approximate indicator of the aquarium temperature by rising alarm when the temperature is high. 1.4 PROBLEM DEFINATION AND METHODOLOGY The actual problem that this project is expected to solve is that of designing an aquarium probe circuit that could be used for helping us to know the level of temperature. The methodology that would be used for achieving the goals is as follows; Designing the comparator circuit. Designing the LM3915 circuit Constructing the whole circuit Packaging the whole system

1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW Some people carried out projects in this area of sound generation as well as switching due to trigger signal from a given source. In1996, Baba Hassan (ABU) designed and constructed temperature sensor circuit that can produce an audio alarm to show rise in body temperature. Also in the year 2001, Jonathan Benjamin (ABU) designed and constructed a comparator circuit that compares a variable signal from the conductivity of material and a fixed voltage to produce an output that switch on a siren.

Furthermore, Ibrahim Umar designed and constructed a fire and burglar alarm which gives an alarm as a result of change in temperature or opening of door by a burglar. Therefore, this work of design and construction of stress meter is another version of comparator circuit that can help us have an idea about the temperature of aquarium. 1.6 PROJECT OUTLINE

This project report should be arranged in five different chapters, which are as follows; Chapter one would deal with basic introduction on the project. Chapter two would cover the general theoretical background on which the project lies. Chapter three will deal with the design procedure of the whole circuit. Chapter four covers the construction and testing of the circuit. Chapter five gives the conclusion, recommendation for further work and references.

CHAPTEWR TWO THEORITICAL BACKGROUND 2.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter is going to discuss the basic theoretical aspects that are the foundation to this project work of design and construction of Aquarium Probe. We would see the basic principles of the operation of the circuits parts as well as the components used and their characteristics. 2.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (COMPARATOR) An operational amplifier or op-amp is an electronic circuit module, which has a non-inverting input (+), an inverting input (-) and one output. Originally, op-amps were so named because they were used to model the basic mathematical operations addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc in electronic analog computers. In

this sense a true operational amplifier is an ideal circuit element (Stout D.F 1976). The particular op-amp requires either two supply-voltage sources of never more than (18 volts(V) for 741C), (22V for 741, 741A and 741E) each, or a center/centre tapped equivalent voltage source with each half supplying never more than the same voltage. The maximum permitted power dissipation is 500 milli-Watt (mW). The maximum input voltage must never be more than 15V, with the maximum permitted differential voltage being 30 V. The maximum storage temperature range permitted for all these opamps is (-65Oc to +150Oc) +125Oc) for 741 and 741A. A typical circuit symbol for an op-amp looks like this: . The actual operating ambient temperature for 741C and 741E is (OOc to 70Oc), and it is (-55Oc to

Fig: 2.1; operational amplifier Its terminals are: V+: non-inverting input V: inverting input Vout: output VS+: positive power supply VS: negative power supply
10

Often these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit. The input pin polarity is often reversed in diagrams for clarity. In this case, the power supply pins remain in the same position; the more positive power pin is always on the top, and the more negative on the bottom. The entire symbol is not flipped; just the inputs (Malvino A.P 1979).

2.2

OP-AMP

INVERTING

AND

NON-INVERTING

CONFIGURATIONS All the more complicated Op Amp configurations are based on two basic ones the Inverting and Non Inverting configurations. An understanding of these two configurations, makes it much simpler to understand the more advanced configurations (Stout D.F 1976). Inverting Op Amp:

11

Fig:2.2; inverting op-amp The closed loop gain of an Inverting Op Amp is R1 = Rin Af = -Rf/R1 (1)

Input Impedance of this configuration is Zin = Rin (because V is a virtual ground, no current flows into the Op Amp ideally.) To get formula (1) we take a KVL loop with Vin, R1 and the inputs of the Op Amp. This gives Vin =iinR 1 + id (2)

Where vd is v

the voltage between the non-inverting and

inverting inputs. But for ideal Op Amps vd is approximately zero. vd is zero because the input impedance is infinite, which means the current through the impedance must be zero by Ohms law. The zero current means that there is no voltage drop across the impedance. This gives: iin = vin/R1 Using this idea. if = Vout/Rf (4) (3)

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If we take KCL (kirchoffs voltage law) at the inverting input then iin = id - if (5)

For an ideal Op Amp there is no input current because there is infinite resistance. So using equations 3 and 4. -Vin/R1=vout/Rf Since Af=Vout/Vin=-Rf/R1 Non-Inverting Op Amp: The closed loop gain of an Non Inverting Op Amp is Af =1+R2/R1 (8) (7) (6)

The input impedance of this configuration is Zin = (realistically, the input impedance of the Op-Amp itself, 1 M to 1012 ).

Fig: 2.3; non inverting op-amp Ideal Op Amp Derivation

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Take a KVL with the inputs of the Op Amp and R1. V in =Vd + VR1 (9) But Vd is zero since the Op Amp is ideal. Therefore Vin =VR1 According to voltage divider rule VR1 =VoutR1/R1+R2 (11) Substitute equation 11 into 10. Vin = Vout R1/R1+R2 Thus Af =Vout/Vin=1+R2/R1 (13) 2.3 LM 3915 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT The LM3915 is a monolithic integrated circuit that senses analog voltage levels and drives ten LEDs, LCDs or vacuum fluorescent displays, providing a logarithmic 3 dB/step analog display. One pin changes the display from a bar graph to a moving dot display. LED current drive is regulated and programmable, eliminating the need for current limiting resistors. The whole display system can operate from a single supply as low as 3V or as high as 25V. The
14

(10)

(12)

IC contains an adjustable voltage reference and an accurate tenstep voltage divider. The high-impedance input buffer accepts signals down to ground and up to within 1.5V of the positive supply. Further, it needs no protection against inputs of 35V. The input buffer drives 10 individual comparators referenced to the precision divider. Accuracy is typically better than 1 dB. The LM3915s 3 dB/step display is suited for signals with wide dynamic range, such as audio level, power, light intensity or vibration. Audio applications include average or peak level indicators, power meters and RF signal strength meters. Replacing conventional meters with an LED bar graph results in a faster responding, more rugged display with high visibility that retains the ease of interpretation of an analog display.The LM3915 is extremely easy to apply. A 1.2V full-scale meter requires only one resistor in addition to the ten LEDs. One more resistor programs the full-scale anywhere from 1.2V to 12V independent of supply voltage. LED brightness is easily controlled with a single pot. The LM3915 is very versatile. The outputs can drive LCDs, vacuum fluorescents and incandescent bulbs as well as LEDs of any color. Multiple devices can be cascaded for a dot or bar mode display with a range of 60 or 90 dB. LM3915s can also be cascaded with LM3914s for a linear/log display or with LM3916s for an extended-range VU meter (datasheetcatalog.com). Fig 2. 4 gives the pin-out of the Lm 3915.

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Fig: 2.4; pin-out LM3915 Features 3 dB/step, 30 dB range Drives LEDs, LCDs, or vacuum fluorescents Bar or dot display mode externally selectable by user Expandable to displays of 90 dB Internal voltage reference from 1.2V to 12V Operates with single supply of 3V to 25V Inputs operate down to ground
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 Output current programmable from 1 mA to 30 mA Input withstands 35V without damage or false outputs Outputs are current regulated, open collectors Directly drives TTL or CMOS The internal 10-step divider is floating and can be referenced to a wide range of voltages The LM3915 is rated for operation from 0C to +70C. The LM3915N-1 is available in an 18-lead molded DIP package. 2.4 DIODE ( )

A two-terminal semiconductor (rectifying) device that exhibits a nonlinear current-voltage characteristic. The function of a diode is to allow current in one direction and to block current in the opposite direction. The terminals of a diode are called the anode and cathode. There are two kinds of semiconductor diodes: a P-N junction diode, which forms an electrical barrier at the interface between N- and P-type semiconductor layers, and a Schottky diode, whose barrier is formed between metal and semiconductor regions (Jun J.L and Jians S.Y 1998). Semiconductors are crystals that, in their pure state, are resistive (that is, their electrical properties lie between those of conductors and insulators) -- but when the proper impurities are added (this process is called doping) in trace amounts (often measured in parts per billion), display interesting and useful properties. 2.5 TYPES OF DIODES
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Basically there are so many types of diodes.but listed below are the common types used in electronic circuit. i. Silicon Diodes ii. Germanium Diodes iii. Photodiodes iv.Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
v. Zener diodes

Note that the scope of this project is limited to the use of light emitting diodes(LEDs.)

2.6 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDs) A light-emitting diode (LED) observed as early as 1907. All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness. LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection (Ivan. M 2008). is an electronic light source. Luminescence from an electrically stimulated crystal had been

18

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting, automotive lighting and traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.

2.7 VIEW OF PHYSICS IN LIGHT EMITTING DIODES Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.

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The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back in to the material at the material/air surface interface. Therefore Light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development. 2.8 ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODE 2.8.1 Efficiency: LEDs produce more light per watt than

incandescent bulbs (Schubert E. F 2005). 2.8.2 Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards (598 SERIES Datasheet).

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2.8.3

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.

2.8.4

Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate

very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED. 2.8.5 Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours. 2.8.6 Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile. Disadvantages
2.9.1

Temperature environment.

dependence: Over-driving

LED

performance in high

largely ambient

depends on the ambient temperature of the operating the LED temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially important when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must operate over a large
21

range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.

2.9.2

Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.

2.9.3

Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,( James A.W 2007) red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.

2.9.4

Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical light field. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less (Hecht E. 2002). Blue Hazard: There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye

2.9.5

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safety

specifications

such

as

ANSI/IESNA

RP-27.1-05:

Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems (Sciencenews.org. 2006 and Texyt.com. 2007). Applications 2.10.1 Indicators and signs The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of modern LEDs has led to applications as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Large area LED displays are used as stadium displays and as dynamic decorative displays. Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries. The single color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle lighting, ships' lanterns and LEDbased Christmas lights. Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits, submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field, e.g. night time animal watching and military field use. Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been used for automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake lights and turn signals for some time, but many vehicles now use LEDs for their rear light clusters. The use of LEDs also has styling advantages because LEDs are capable of forming much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with
23

parabolic reflectors. The significant improvement in the time taken to light up (perhaps 0.5s faster than an incandescent bulb) improves safety by giving drivers more time to react. It has been reported that at normal highway speeds this equals one car length increased reaction time for the car behind. White LED headlamps are beginning to make an appearance. Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many temporary applications such as glowsticks, throwies, and the photonic textile Lumalive. Artists have also used LEDs for LED art. Weather/all-hazards radio receivers with Specific Area Message Encoding (SAME) have three LEDs: red for warnings, orange for watches, and yellow for advisories & statements whenever issued. 2.10.2 Lighting With the development of high efficiency and high power LEDs it has become possible to incorporate LEDs in lighting and illumination. Replacement light bulbs have been made as well as dedicated fixtures and LED lamps. LEDs are used as street lights and in other architectural lighting where color changing is used. The mechanical robustness and long lifetime is used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles and on bicycle lights. LEDs have been used for lighting of streets and of parking garages. In 2007, the Italian village Torraca was the first place to convert its entire illumination system to LEDs (Sciencenews.org. 2006.)

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LEDs are also suitable for backlighting for LCD televisions and lightweight laptop displays and light source for DLP projectors (See LED TV). RGB LEDs increase the color gamut by as much as 45%. Screens for TV and computer displays can be made increasingly thin using LEDs for backlighting (New York Times 2007). The lack of IR/heat radiation makes LEDs ideal for stage lights using banks of RGB LEDs that can easily change color and decrease heating from traditional stage lighting, as well as medical lighting where IR-radiation can be harmful. Since LEDs are small, durable and require little power they are used in hand held devices such as flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, as opposed to the 250+ volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is particularly applicable to cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-increasing circuitry is undesirable. LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision applications including security cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying in video productions. LEDs are used for decorative lighting as well. Uses include but are not limited to indoor/outdoor decor, limousines, cargo trailers, conversion vans, cruise ships, RVs, boats, automobiles, and utility trucks. Decorative LED lighting can also come in the form of lighted company signage and step and aisle lighting in theaters and auditoriums.
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2.11 TRANSISTORS A transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.Thus, transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems (Ediger L.J 1925). 2.12 TYPES OF TRANSISTORS Basically there are two types of transistor namely; i. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) ii. Field Effect Transistors (FET) 2.12.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with
26

unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices (Gummel H.K and R.C Poon 1970). A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP, and n type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C) (Gummel H.K and R.C Poon 1970). The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus making the resulting value of very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large . A cross section view of a BJT indicates that the collectorbase junction has a much larger area than the emitterbase junction (Gummel H.K and R.C Poon 1970). 2.12.1.1 Structure The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the
27

collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for forwardmode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of and in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collectorbase junction breaks down. The collectorbase junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter base junction must come from the emitter. The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward and backward operation. Small changes in the voltage applied across the baseemitter terminals causes the current that flows between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base.

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Fig: 2.6; structure of transistor 2.12.1.2 Transistor 'alpha' and 'beta' The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region cause many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. The base current is the sum of the holes injected into the emitter and the electrons that recombine in the baseboth small proportions of the emitter to collector current. Hence, a small change of the base current can translate to a large change in electron flow between emitter and collector. The ratio of these currents Ic/Ib, called the current gain, and represented by or hfe, is typically greater than 100 for transistors. Another important parameter is the base transport factor, T-.The base transport factor is the proportion of minority carriers injected from the emitter that diffuse across the base and are swept across the basecollector junction without recombining. This has values usually between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha and beta are related by the following identities (Gummel H.K and R.C Poon 1970):

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(pnp device)

Since the majority and minority current carriers are different for N-type and P-type materials, it stands to reason that the internal operation of the NPN and PNP transistors will also be different. These two basic types of transistors along with their circuit symbols are shown here;

2.13 NPN NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" and "P" refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter (Gummel H.K and R.C Poon 1970).

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The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

Fig: 2.7; the symbol and picture of NPN BipolarJunctionTransistor.

2.12.14 PNP The other type of BJT is the PNP with the letters "P" and "N" referring to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.PNP transistors consist of a layer of Ndoped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter (Gummel H.K and R.C Poon 1970). The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

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Fig:

2.8;

The

symbol

and

picture

of

PNP

BipolarJunctionTransistor. 2.12.2 The Field-Effect Transistor

field-effect transistor (FET), sometimes called a unipolar

transistor, uses either electrons (in N-channel FET) or holes (in Pchannel FET) for conduction. The three terminals of the FET are named source, gate, and drain .

Fig: 2.9;Junction field effect transistor: (a) discrete device cross sectioschematic symbol (c) integrated circuit device cross-section On most FETs, the body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description.
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In FETs, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate source voltage (Vgs) is increased, the drainsource current (Ids) increases exponentially for Vgs below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) (Horowitz P and Hill. W 1989)in the "spacecharge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node (Sansen W.M. C. 2006). For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metaloxidesemiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance,

33

and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage (Sansen W.M. C. 2006). Metalsemiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased PN junction is replaced by a metalsemiconductor Schottky-junction. These, and the HEMTs (high electron mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz). Unlike bipolar transistors, FETs do not inherently amplify a photocurrent. Nevertheless, there are ways to use them, especially JFETs, as light-sensitive devices, by exploiting the photocurrents in channelgate or channelbody junctions (Sansen W.M. C. 2006). FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancementmode types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for N-channel devices and a lower current for P-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode as the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types (Sansen W.M. C. 2006).
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2.13 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSISTORS The transistor is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century (Robert W.P 2004). The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process (fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually-packaged (known as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors produced are in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips) along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors (MOSFETs) (Turley J. 2002). The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function (Turley J. 2002).

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2.14 SIMPLIFIED OPERATION OF TRANSISTOR The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an amplifier. Or, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The size of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE (Ediger L.J 1925).

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CHAPTER THREE GENERAL DESIGN OF THE CIRCUIT 3.0 INTRODUCTION In this chapter the basic design of the circuit is carried out. The general circuit diagram of the circuit is presented together with its principle of operation. Then the basic procedure for the design of the circuit follows. 3.1 GENERAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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The circuit of aquatic probe described here can monitor the temperature of water and indicate the rise in temperature through audiovisual indicators. A readily available signal diode 1N34 is used in the circuit as the temperature sensing probe. The resistance of the diode depends on the temperature in its vicinity. Typically, the diode can generate around 600 mV when a potential difference is applied to its terminals. For each degree centigrade rise in temperature, the diode generates 2 mVoutput voltage. That is, at 5C, it is 10 mV, which rises to 70 mV when the temperature is 35C. This property is exploited in the circuit to sense the temperature variation in aquarium water. Fig. 3.1 shows the circuit diagram of the aquarium probe. Since the output from the diode sensor is too low, a high-gain inverting DC amplifier is used to amplify the voltage. CA3140 (IC1) is the CMOS version op-amp that can operate down to zero-volt output. The highest output available from IC1 is 2.25 V less than the input

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voltage at pin 7. With resistorR4 andVR2, the variation in diode volt a g e c a n be amplified to the required level. ResistorR1 restricts current flow through diode D1 and preset VR1 (1-kiloohm) sets the input voltage at pin 3. IC3 (7805) provides regulated 5 volts to the inputs of IC1, so that the input voltage is stable for accurate measurement of temperature. The output from IC1 is fed to display driver LM3915 (IC2) through preset VR3 (50-kilo-ohm). With careful adjustments, the wiper ofVR3 can provide 0-400 millivolts to the input of IC2. The highly sensitive input of IC2 accepts as low as50 mV if the reference voltage at its pin 7 is adjusted using a variable resistor. To increase the sensitivity of IC2, preset VR4 is connected atone end to reference voltage end pin 7 and its wiper is connected to high end pin 6 of the internal resistor chain. When approximately 70 mV is provided to the input of IC2 by adjusting preset VR3, LED1 (green) lights up to indicate that the temperature is approximately 35C, which is the crossing point. When the input receives 100 mV, LED2 (red) lights up to indicate approximately 50C.Finally, the buzzer starts beeping if the input receives 130 mV corresponding to a temperature of 65C.In short, LED sand the buzzer remain stand by when the temperature of the water is below 35C(normal). With each step increase of 30mV in the input (corresponding to 15Crise in temperature), LEDs and the buzzer become active. Pin 16 of IC2 is used to drive the piezo buzzer through transistor T1. When pin 16 of IC2 becomes low, T1 conducts to beep the piezo

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buzzer. Resistor R7 keeps the base of transistor T1 high to avoid false alarm. IC4 provides regulated 9 V DC to the circuit. 3.2 DESIGN OF THE COMPARATOR STAGE The comparator section was designed base on the circuit configuration shown in fig. 3.2.

The resistor R1 supplies the biasing current of 0.1mA to the diode 1N34. The biasing voltage is from the regulator IC3 and is 5 V. Its value is calculated as follows; R1 = V/ID1 = 5/0.1mA = 50k A 47k resistor was used as the R1 to allow the current go a bit above the minimum value. The IC CA3140 is given a reference voltage through a voltage divider network made by resistors R2 and R3 together with a variable resistor VR1. The voltage is calculated using the relation; V = VCC R3/(R2 +R3) Where the VCC = 5V, R2 = 47k, R3 = 470. V = 5 x 470 / (470+470000) = 0.0495V = 49.5mV

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When the variable resistor of 1k is used the voltage can be changed to maximum value of 0.151V or 151mV. The variable voltage from the temperature sensor is delivered to the IC through a resistor R4. The value of this resistor is calculated by knowing the maximum possible voltage from the sensor and the safe current needed to the IC. The Internal voltage reference for the IC is from 1.2V to 12V. But here since the supply voltage is 5V the value can not go beyond that. The Maximum allowed current of the IC is 50A. The resistor is calculated as; R4 = V/I = 5/50A = 100k 3.3 DESIGN OF THE LM3915 UNIT The circuit diagram of fig. 3.3 is the configuration Lm3915 unit.

The IC needs regulated DC voltage of 9 V through the VCC terminal pin-3.

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The reference is designed to be adjustable and develops a nominal 1.25V between the REF OUT (pin 8) and REF ADJ (pin 7) terminals. The equations below are used calculate the reference voltage and the current to the LED. (J. D and Ryder 1989) VREF =1.25 V(1+VR4/R6) + VR4 80 A LED = 12.5V/R6 +VREF/2.2 k In this, R6 = 1 k and VR4 = 4.7 k. The VREF is calculated as follows; VREF = 1.25 x (1 + 4.7 k / 1 k) + 4.7k x 80 A = 7.501V The current to each of the LED is calculated as; ILED = (12.5/1000) + (7.501/2200) = 0.0159 A 16 mA.

CHAPTER FOUR CONSTRUCTION, CASING AND TESTING 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is going to give the basic procedure used in constructing the circuit and casing the constructed work and testing the constructed circuit to confirm its proper operation.

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4.2 TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION OF THE CIRCUIT ON BREADBOARD In the first place the circuit is constructed on a temporary project board to confirm its ability to work according to the design specifications. The components were inserted into the slots on the board and connected accordingly using wires as jumpers. After ensuring that all the wiring is done properly with all components connected with right orientation, the circuit is connected to the mains supply and the outputs at the different terminals gives their respective voltages correctly. After this, the permanent construction was made. Fig. 4.1 shows a typical breadboard.

4.3 PERMANENT CONSTRUCTION OF THE CIRCUIT ON VEROBOARD The circuit is finally constructed on a Vero board after assembling the components on the board and using wires as jumpers to connect some terminals. The whole board is Soldered using soldering iron and lead. Fig 4.1 below gives typical veroboard.

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4.4 DESIGN OF THE CASE The circuit is cased after the permanent construction discussed above. The casing material used is a plastic because it is availability everywhere. It is also easy to bend as well as suitable for casing electronics project because it is an insulator.

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION, SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER WORK AND REFERENCES 5.1 CONCLUSION This project work of design and construction of Aquarium Probe was carried out so as to provide a means of detecting the level of temperature of an Aquarium at any time. At the end of this

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work the actual design aim was achieved because the circuit designed was working properly where it is used to detect level of temperature of aquarium and produces an alarm when the temperature is high. This type of project is very significant since it provides a means of solving some practical problems. In addition, it helps the students to understand practical aspects of design and construction of electronic circuits. 5.2 RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER WORK This project has its own limitations in the area of its applications. The basic limitation to this circuit is the fact that the circuit can only detect the temperature but it can not regulate the temperature when it rises. The following recommendations are made in order to improve the performance of the circuit. The sensitivity of the sensor should be improve to enable the A temperature control section should be included to monitor A digital read out should be included to show the actual circuit detect all changes in temperature. the change in temperature. value of the temperature. If the above recommendations are carried out, a better version of the aquarium probe would be produced.

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REFERENCES Baba H. (1996) Design and Construction of Temperature Sensor undergraduate Project. Electrical Engineering Dept. Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. D.F Stout (1976) Handbook Of Operational Amplifier Circuit Design (McGraw-Hill, ISBN 007061799) pp 1-11

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Edgar L. J (1925) "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" U.S. Patent 1,745,175 Gummel H. K. and R. C. Poon, (1970) "An integral charge control model of bipolar transistors," Bell System Technology Journal, vol. 49, pp. 827--852 Hecht E. (2002). Optics (4th Ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 591. ISBN 0195108183. Horowitz, P. Hill .W (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 115. ISBN 0-521-37095-7. Ibrahim U. (2003) Alarm Design And Construction Of A Fire Burglar Project. Electrical Engineering Dept.

Undergraduate

Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. Ivan Moreno, (2008). "Modeling the radiation pattern of LEDs". Optics Express 16 (3): 1808. doi:10.1364/OE.16.001808. PMID 18542260. Jonathan B. (2001) Design And Construction Of A Comparator Circuit Undergraduate Project. Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. Jun J. L And Jians S. Y (1998) "Semiconductor Device Physics And Simulation Springe"ISBN 0306457245 Malvino A.P,Electronics (1979) Principles (2nd Ed. ISBN 0-07039867-4) pp.476
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New York Times. (2007). In Pursuit of Perfect TV Color, With L.E.D.s and Lasers". http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/business/yourmoney/24nove l.html. Robert W. P (2004). Roadmap to Entrepreneurial Success. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. p. 42. ISBN 9780814471906. http://books.google.com/books? id=q7UzNoWdGAkC&pg=PA42&dq=transistor+inventions-of-thetwentieth-century Ryder J. D (1989) Electronics Fundamentals and application, Prentice Hall of Indian books, Sansen W. M. C. (2006). Analog design essentials. New York ; Berlin: Springer. p. 0152, p. 28. ISBN 0-387-25746-2. http://worldcat.org/isbn/0387257462. Sciencenews.org. (2006) Light Impacts: Science News".. http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20060527/bob9.asp. Schubert E. Fred (2005). "Chapter 4". Light-Emitting Diodes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0819439568. Texyt.com. (2007).Blue LEDs: A health hazard?". http://texyt.com/bright+blue+leds+annoyance+health+risks. Retrieved 2007-09-03. Turley, J. (2002).The Two Percent Solution. Embedded.com.

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http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheets_pdf/1/N/3/4/

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