Sapir - Culture Genuine Spurious

Culture, Genuine and Spurious Author(s): E. Sapir Reviewed work(s): Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 29, No.
4 (Jan., 1924), pp. 401-429 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2764185 . Accessed: 14/01/2013 08:28
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THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
XXIX VOLUIMEE
JANUARY
I924
NUMBER4
CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

Memorial Ontario Victoria Museum, Ottawa, ABSTRACT or definitions culture.The ethnologist's culture-historian's of of use Varying as theterm. Individual ideal. Thegeneral culture a traditional or spirit the"genius" France and Russiaas examples. Genuine ofa national as culture, here civilization; culture be buta spurious of on in defined, possible alllevels civilization; may thing the of no most sophisticated progressive societies.Efficiency measure culture. or of cultural between valuesand neweconomic conditions. Maladjustments Immediate a and ends toward gradual shift emphaends remoter ofhuman of activity.Tendency ends the to sis,theimmediate coming be feltas meanstoward remoter ends,which resulted from play of surplus the of originally energy.Necessity thepsychological at to man'sinability arrive individual to within sphere shift owing modem the mastery of ends. The relation theindividual theculture thegroup. A rich to of of direct neededto enabletheindividual find to cultural himself.The relativity heritage of of values. The cultural utilization thepast. The self, cultural in itself its finding must a cultural environment, be granted primary of reality. The significanceartfor a culture.Thedanger spreading culture a large of over The territory. independence and bounds. The intensive of economic-political cultural of development culture within restricted no bar to internationalism. unsatisfactory a area The condition of America from point viewofa genuine the of culture. contemporary I. THE VARYING CONCEPTIONS OF CULTURE
E. SAPIR
Thereare certain thathave a peculiar terms property. Ostenthatlay claimto sibly,theymark off specific concepts, concepts a rigorously objectivevalidity. In practice,they label vague thatshift narrow widenwiththepointof of or or terrains thought view of whosomakesuse of them, within their embracing gamut that ofsignificances conceptions notonlydo notharmonize are but An in part contradictory. analysisof such termssoon discloses
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thereis a contents the the factthatunderneath clash of varying an for feeling-tone. Whatmakesit possible so discordant unifying precisely to to arrayofconceptions answer thesame call is, indeed, them. Thus, whatis constant halo thatsurrounds thisrelatively " to one man is "'nobility'" another, bothare agreed to yet ''crime category, nobility, that whatever is,is an undesirable it thatcrime, one. In the same way, such a it whatever is, is an estimable but whatever termas art may be made to mean diversthings, and calls it means,the termitselfdemandsrespectful attention an stateofmind, expectation a polished normally, pleasantly forth, of satisfactions.If the particular conception art that is of lofty in of to advancedor thatis implied a work artis distasteful us, we our dissatisfaction saying,"Then I don't like do not express by of art." We say thisonlywhenwe are in a vandalicframe mind. "But that'snot we by Ordinarily get aroundthedifficulty saying, or conventionality," "It's meresentiart,it's onlypretty-pretty material art, for or but mentality," "It's nothing raw experience, on and butnotart." We disagree thevalue ofthings therelations we value of a but enough agreeon the particular of things, often arisesofjust where put the to label. It is onlywhenthequestion begins. These labels-perhapswe had better label, that trouble thrones-are enemies mankind, we have no of yet empty call them our recourse to makepeace withthem. We do thisby seating but war favorite pretenders.The rivalpretenders to the death; the in to thrones which serenely splendid gold. theyaspireremain to I desireto advance the claims of a pretender the throne culture weknowthatit is,oris conis, called"culture." Whatever to to sidered be, a goodthing. I propose givemyidea ofwhatkind culture is. ofa goodthing The word"culture"seemsto be used in threemain sensesor is used by the groupsof senses. Firstof all, culture technically to inherited and any socially ethnologist culture-historianembody elementin the life of man, materialand spiritual. Cultureso savfor with is defined coterminous manhimself, even thelowliest network of by ages live in a socialworldcharacterized a complex conserved habits,usages,and attitudes. The South traditionally Bushman'smethodof hunting African game, the beliefof the
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NorthAmerican Indian in "medicine,"the PericleanAthenian's industrialdynamo modern of and theelectric typeoftragic drama, eachbeing elements culture, of ismareall,equallyandindifferently, effort man,each being of spiritual an outgrowth the collective of resultant and automatic retained a giventimenot as thedirect for of purelyhereditary qualitiesbut by means of the moreor less by imitative processessummarized the terms"traconsciously all dition"and "socialinheritance."Fromthisstandpoint human in though beingsor, at any rate,all humangroupsare cultured, mannersand grades of complexity.For the vastly different variety and an infinite are ethnologist there manytypesof culture of but senseof the of elements culture, no values,in theordinary word,attachto these. His "higher"and "lower,"if he uses the real terms all, refer to a moralscale ofvaluesbut to stages, not at or in an evolutionary scheme. or supposed, a historic in progression sense. I do not intendto use the term"culture"in thistechnical substitute it, wereit not for "Civilization"wouldbe a convenient to and rather themorecomplex sophistiusagelimited by common of with of catedforms thestream culture. To avoidconfusion other involvethe uses of the word"culture,"uses whichemphatically of use necessary, " civiliapplication a scaleofvalues,I shall,where "culture." zation" in lieu of theethnologist's of current. It is The secondapplication theterm morewidely ideal of individualrefinement, refersto a ratherconventional and built up on a certainmodicumof assimilated knowledge of that but reactions have experience madeup chiefly a setoftypical of of thesanction a classand ofa tradition longstanding. Sophistiis demanded theapplicant of in of goods cation therealm intellectual but onlyup to a certain to the titleof "culturedperson," point. of a Far moreemphasis placeduponmanner, certain is preciousness of to colors according thenature the conduct which takesdifferent " that has assimilatedthe " cultured ideal. At its personality from aloofness into the degenerates a scornful worst, preciousness cultural of is themanners tastes thecrowd;this thewell-known and snobbishness.At its most subtle,it developsinto a mild and an that veinof cynicism, amusedskepticism wouldnot whimsical into an unwonted forthe worldfinditself enthusiasm; betrayed
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manner countenance presents moreengaging a thistypeofcultured play onlyrarely getshintsof thediscomfiting to thecrowd, which but it is an attitudeof perhapseven more radical of its irony, of than snobbishness outright.Aloofness some kind is aloofness of generally sinequa nonofthesecondtypeofculture. Another a its indispensable requisitesis intimatecontact with the past. seen in the Presentaction and opinionare, first and foremost, of and glory; illumination a fixed past, a past of infinite richness if at cononlyas an afterthought, all, are suchactionand opinion for strued as instrumentalities the buildingof a future. The of of past,hauntthecultured ghosts thepast,preferably theremote to responsive theirslightest man at everystep. He is uncannily of the as from employment his individuality a touch; he shrinks the creative thing agency. But perhaps mostextraordinary about of treasures the of ideal is its selection theparticular the cultured of which past whichit deemsworthiest worship. This selection, is seembizarreto a mereoutsider, generally justified a by might of endowedwitha philosophic cast, number reasons,sometimes seemto inclineto theview that these but unsympathetic persons ad of are reasons onlyrationalizations hoc,thattheselection treasof to ureshas proceeded chiefly according theaccidents history. this idealis a vesture an air. The vesture and In brief, cultured aboutone'sperson theairhas often and much maydrapegracefully is for but the vesture a ready-made garment all that and charm, the air remainsan air. In Americathe culturedideal, in its is classical form, a moreexotic plantthanin thehalls quintessential whence was imported theserugged it to and ofOxford Cambridge, and of shores,but fragments derivatives it meet us frequently ideal embraces of manyforms, whichthe enough. The cultured one of the most typical. There is classicalOxonianform merely we are also Chineseand talmudicparallels. Wherever find it, itselfto our eyes in the guiseof a spiritual heirloom it discloses intact. thatmust,at all cost,be preserved is The third madeoftheterm theleasteasy to define to use and because thosewho use it are so illustrate perhaps satisfactorily, clear idea of just what they seldomable to give us a perfectly mean by culture. Culturein this thirdsense shares themselves
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an on withour first, technical, conception emphasis the spiritual thanof theindividual. Withour possessions the grouprather of of out it factors ofthe secondconception shares stressing selected a vast wholeof the ethnologist's streamof cultureas intrinsically in morevaluable,morecharacteristic, moresignificant a spiritual sense than the rest. To say that this cultureembracesall the elements civilizaof psychic, contrasted thepurely as with material, tionwouldnotbe accurate, conception partly becausetheresulting would still harbora vast numberof relatively trivialelements, factors mightwell occupy partlybecause certainof the material a decisive as place in thecultural ensemble. To limittheterm, is sometimes and sciencehas again the disdone, to art, religion, advantageof a too rigidexclusiveness.We may perhapscome the conception arenow we nearest mark saying by thatthecultural to trying grasp aims to embracein a singletermthosegeneral of manifestations civilization viewsof life,and specific attitudes, place in the world. that give a particular people its distinctive Emphasisis put not so muchon whatis done and believedby a in functions thewhole peopleas on howwhatis doneand believed it lifeof thatpeople,on whatsignificancehas forthem. The very in of of sameelement civilization be a vitalstrand theculture may in of onepeople, a well-nigh and negligible factor theculture another. in of is The present conception culture apt to cropup particularly of with attemptsto find connection with problems nationality, in of and embodied the character civilization a givenpeople some somedistinguishing thatis strikingly its peculiarexcellence, force, thusbecomes with own. Culture nearly synonymous the"spirit" " for or" genius ofa people, notaltogether, whereas these loosely yet or used terms refer rather a psychological, pseudo-psychological, to of cultureincludeswith this background national civilization, a manifestations whichare believed background seriesof concrete to be peculiarly of then, maybe briefly symptomatic it. Culture, in the as defined civilization so faras it embodies nationalgenius. groundhere. The Evidently are on peculiarly we dangerous current thattheso-called assumption "genius" of a peopleis ultito traitsof a biohereditary matelyreducible certaininherent logicaland psychological naturedoes not,forthemostpart,bear
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enoughwhat is assumed very seriousexamination.Frequently an innateracial characteristic turnsout on closerstudyto to be of historical causes. A modeof thinking, be the resultant purely in of a distinctive ofreaction, itself gets established, thecourse type as as a complex historical development, typical, normal;it serves of then a modelfor working ofnewelements civilization. as the over of or Fromnumerous modesof thinking examples suchdistinctive typesof reaction basic geniusis abstracted. Thereneed be no a of genius longas it so specialquarrel withthisconception a national fetich. Ethnolois not worshiped an irreducible as psychological and concepts. gistsfight ofbroadgeneralizations hazilydefined shy aboutoperating national with spirits Theyaretherefore rather timid of whichsees and geniuses. The chauvinism nationalapologists, in thespirits their peculiar excellences utterly denied of ownpeoples to less blesseddenizens the globe,largely' of justifies timidity this the of thescientific of students civilization.Yet here,as so often, lags somewhat behindthemore precise knowledge the scientist of of and experience naivebutmore powerful insights non-professional of To denyto thegenius a peoplean ultimate psychoimpression. historical it developlogicalsignificance to refer to thespecific and all mentof thatpeopleis not,after is said and done,to analyzeit out of existence. It remainstrue that large groupsof people withestablished tend and everywhere to think to act in accordance whichare in largemeasure peculiar and all but instinctive forms, to it. The question to whether as theseforms, in their that interof are relations constitute genius a people, primarily the explainable or in terms native temperament, historical of of development, of not cause us to but bothis ofinterest thesocialpsychologist, need of muchconcern. The relevance thisquestion notalwaysapparis ent. It is enoughto knowthatin actual factnationalities, using have come to bear the the word withoutpoliticalimplication, in and action of a certainmold and that this impress thought in of elements civilization moldis moreclearly discernible certain of is thanin others. The specific culture a nationality thatgroup ofelements its civilization the in which mostemphatically exhibits the convenient identify to mold. In practiceit is sometimes nationalculture withits genius.
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these or preliminary Anexample twoandweshallhavedonewith we The whole terrain through which arenowstruggling definitions. of for of a field theairing national is a hotbed subjectivism,splendid of conceits. For all that,thereare a largenumber international of characteristics in as agreements opinion to the salientcultural concerned variouspeoples. No one who has even superficially by can culture have failedto be impressed the himself withFrench balance,care in choice lucid systematization, qualitiesof clarity, so of means,and good taste,thatpermeate manyaspectsof the weaker side. We have their nationalcivilization.Thesequalities the timidity are familiar with the overmechanization, emotional emotional restraint), thingfrom or shallowness (quite a different that are the exaggeration mannerat the expenseof content, of spirit. Those of revealed someofthemanifestations theFrench in evidence that give characteristic elements Frenchcivilization of limited of the qualitiesof its geniusmay be said, in our present of the sense,to constitute culture France; or, to put it somewhat in of the significanceanyelement thecivilization differently, cultural genius. Fromthis ofFranceis in thelight shedson theFrench it in such civilizawe standpoint can evaluateculturally traits French tionas theformalism theFrenchclassicaldrama,theinsistence of and in Frencheducation the studyof themother-tongue of its on the in of classics,the prevalence epigram Frenchlifeand letters, in movements France, to cast given aesthetic intellectualist so 6ften absence the French music, relative the lack of turgidity modern in the to of theecstatic notein religion, strong tendency bureaucracy of in French Each and all of theseand hundreds administration. of from civilization Engthe paralleled othertraits couldbe readily I relative culturalsignificance, venture their land. Nevertheless, to think, a lesser inEnglandthanin France. In Francethey one is of moldofits seem to lie moredeeplyin thegrooves the cultural like civilization.Theirstudy wouldyieldsomething a rapidbird'sof culture. eye viewof thespirit French a of Let us turnto Russia, the culture whichhas as definite cast as thatofFrance. I shallmention onlyone,but thatperhaps themostsignificant, as aspectofRussianculture, I seeit-the tendof beings as reprenot encyoftheRussianto see and think human
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of sentatives types, as creatures not thatappeareternally clothed in thegarments civilization, as starkhumanbeingsexisting of but primarily and forthemselves, in onlysecondarily the sake of for civilization. Russiandemocracy as its fundamental less has aim the creation democratic of institutions theeffective than liberation of personality itself. The one thingthat the Russian can take seriously elemental is humanity, elemental and humanity, his in view of the world, obtrudes itself everystep. He is therefore at at sublimely homewithhimself his neighbor and and withGod. Indeed,I have no doubtthattheextremest Russianatheists of is on betterspeaking terms withGod thanare the devoutof other lands, to whomGod is alwayssomething a mystery.For his of in environment, including that termall themachinery civilizaof tion,the Russianhas generally a littlecontempt. The subnot ordination the deeps of personality an institution not of to is readily swallowed himas a necessary by pricefortheblessings of civilization.We can followout this sweepinghumanity, this almostimpertinent of prodding the real selfthat lies swathed in civilization, numberless in forms. In personalrelations may we note the curious of all readiness theRussianto ignore theinstitutionalbarriers whichseparatemanfrom man; on its weaker side, this involvesat timesa personalirresponsibility harbors that no insincerity. The renunciation Tolstoiwas no isolated of phenomenon, it was a symbolof the deep-seated Russianindifference to institutionalism, accreted to the valuesofcivilization.In a spiritual sense,it is easy forthe Russianto overthrow embodiment of any the spiritof institutionalism; real loyaltiesare elsewhere. his The Russianpreoccupation withelemental is humanity naturally most in evidencein the realmof art, whereself-expression has freestrein. In the pages of Tolstoi, Dostoyevski,Turgenev, and Chekhov runsriotin its morbid moments Gorki, personality ofplay withcrime, its depressions apathies, its generous in in and in enthusiasms and idealisms. So many of the figures Russian look out upon lifewitha puzzledand incredulous literature gaze. "This thing thatyou call civilization-is thatall there to life " ? is we hear themask a hundred times. In music too the Russian
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spirit delights unmask to to itself, revelin the criesand gestures of man as man. It speaks to us out of the ruggedaccentsof a Moussorgski outofthewell-nigh as unendurable despair a Tchaiof of kovski. It is hard to think themaincurrent Russianart as of anywhere infected the dryrot of formalism; expectsome by we human or flash cryto escapefrom behindthebars. I have avoidedall attempt construct parallelbetween to a the of civilization thatofRussiancivilization, and spirit French between the culture Franceand the culture Russia. Strictparallels of of forcean emphasis contrasts. I have been content on merely to suggest thatunderlying elements civilization, studyof the of the is of which theprovince theethnologist culture-historian, and is a the culture, adequate interpretation whichis beset withdiffiof cultiesand which often is leftto menof letters.
II. THE GENUINE CULTURE
The secondand thirdconceptions the term"culture" are of what I wish to make the basis of our genuineculture-thepretender thethrone to we whoseclaimsto recognition are to consider. as moldof a We may accept culture signifying characteristic the of nationalcivilization, whilefrom secondconception culture, the thatof a traditional we typeofindividual refinement, willborrow of thenotion idealform. Let mesay at oncethatnothing farther is from mind my thantopleadthecauseofanyspecific ofculture. type be of It would idletopraiseorblameanyfundamental condition our to in civilization, praiseor blameany strand thewarpand woofof its genius. These conditions thesestrands mustbe accepted and as basic. They are slowly to modifiable, be sure,like everything of elsein thehistory man,but radicalmodification fundamentals of for of does not seemnecessary the production a genuine culture, howevermuch a readjustment theirrelationsmay be. In of other in a is conceivable any type words, genuine culture perfectly or stageof civilization, themoldofanynational in genius. It can be conceivedas easilyin termsof a Mohammedan polygamous society,or of an American Indian "primitive"non-agricultural as occidentalsocieties. On the society, in thoseof our familiar
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otherhand,what may by contrast called "spurious" cultures be are justas easilyconceivable conditions general in of enlightenment as in thoseofrelative ignorance squalor. and The genuine culture notofnecessity is either highor low; it is merely inherently harmonious, balanced, self-satisfactory. is the It expression a richly of varied yetsomehow and unified consistent and attitude toward life, attitude an which sees thesignificance any of one element civilization itsrelation all others. It is,ideally of in to speaking, culturein whichnothing spiritually a is meaningless, in which important of thegeneral no part functioning brings with it a sense of frustration, misdirected unsympathetic of or effort. It is not a spiritual hybrid contradictory of patches, water-tight of compartments consciousness avoid participation a harof that in monious synthesis.If the culture necessitates slavery, frankly it admitsit; if it abhorsslavery, feelsits way to an economic it adjustment obviates necessity its employment. does that the of It not make a greatshowin its ethicalideals of an uncompromising opposition slavery, to onlyto introduce what amountsto a slave of intocertain mechanism.Or,if it system portions its industrial builds itselfmagnificent houses of worship, is because of the it necessity feelsto symbolize beautiful it in stonea religious impulse thatis deep and vital; if it is readyto discardinstitutionalized religion, is prepared it also to dispense withthehomesof institutionalized religion. It doesnotlooksheepish whena direct appeal is madetoitsreligious then consciousness, makeamends furtively by of mission. a the donating few dollars toward maintenance an African Nor doesit carefully instruct children whatit knowsto be of in its no use or vitality either themor in its own maturelife. Nor to such otherspiritual does it tolerate thousand a maladjustments as of today. It wouldbe too are patentenough ourAmerican in life of muchto say thateventhepurest examples known a genuine yet of of culture have been free spiritual discords, thedryrotofsocial thosethatwe instinchabit,devitalized. But the greatcultures, such as the tivelyfeelto have been healthy spiritual organisms, Athenian culture theAgeofPericles of and,to a lessextent perhaps, of the Englishculture Elizabethandays,have at least tendedto suchharmony.
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It shouldbe clearlyunderstood that this ideal of a genuine culture has no necessary connection withwhat we call efficiency. A society maybe admirably efficient thesensethatall its activiin utility tiesare carefully planned with reference endsofmaximum to to the societyas a whole,it may tolerate lost motion, it yet no It may well be an inferior organism a culture-bearer. is not as that enoughthat the ends of activities sociallysatisfactory, be each member the community in some dim way thathe is of feel of doinghis bit towardthe attainment a social benefit. This is all verywell so far as it goes, but a genuineculturerefuses to soleraison consider individual a merecog,as an entity the as whose d'etrelies in his subservience a collective to purposethathe is not and conscious or thathas onlya remote of relevancy hisinterests to strivings.The major activities the individualmust directly of his mustalwaysbe satisfy own creative and emotional impulses, morethanmeansto an end. The greatcultural fallacy something of industrialism, developed to the present time,is that in as up harnessing machines our uses it has not knownhow to avoid to the harnessing the majority mankind its machines. The of of to the part of telephone wholendshercapacities, girl during greater theliving of routine thathas day, to themanipulation a technical an eventually to highefficiency but thatanswers no spiritual value needs of her own is an appallingsacrifice civilization.As a to of of she moredismal solution theproblem culture is a failure-the the greater naturalendowment.As withthe telephone her girl, so, it is to be feared, to of withthegreatmajority us, slave-stokers fires thatburnfordemons woulddestroy, we wereit not thatthey Indianwho appearin theguiseofourbenefactors.The American solves the economic withsalmon-spear rabbit-snare and problem but low operateson a relatively level of civilization, he represents an incomparably girl of the highersolutionthan our telephone thatculture to ask of economics. Thereis hereno has questions of of directness, questionof the immediate utility, the effective as economic nor effort, ofanysentimentalizing regrets to thepassing is of the "naturalman." The Indian's salmon-spearinga culturthanthatof the telephone or mill girl ally higher typeof activity frustrais no handsimply becausethere normally senseofspiritual
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tionduring prosecution, feeling subservience tyrannous its no of to yet largely inchoate demands, becauseit works naturally in with all the restof the Indian'sactivities out insteadof standing as a desertpatch of merelyeconomic effort the wholeof life. A in genuine culture cannotbe defined a sumof abstractly as desirable ends,as a mechanism.It mustbe lookedupon as a sturdy plant growth, each remotest and twigofwhich organically by leaf is fed thesap at thecore. And thisgrowth notheremeantas a metais phorforthegrouponly; it is meantto applyas well to theindividual. A culturethat does not build itselfout of the central interests desires its bearers, and of thatworks from general endsto the individual,is an externalculture. The word "external," whichis so often instinctively chosento describe such a culture, is wellchosen. The genuine culture internal, works from the is it individual ends. to We have alreadyseen that thereis no necessary correlation between development civilization therelative the of and genuineness of the culture whichforms spiritual its essence. This requires a wordof further of explanation. By the development civilization is meanttheeverincreasing of of degree sophistication our society and of ourindividual is lives. This progressive sophistication the of inevitable cumulative result thesifting of processes socialexperiof ence,oftheeverincreasing complications ourinnumerable types of organization; of mostof all of our steadily growing knowledge our natural environment and, as a consequence, our practical mastery, economic for thatnatureat once ends,of the resources grants and hidesfrom us us. It is chiefly cumulative the force of thissophistication gives thesenseofwhatwe call"progress." that us Perched theheights an office on of building twenty morestories or tallerthanourfathers everdreamed we feelthatwe are getting of, up in the world. Hurling bodiesthrough our space withan ever on. Undersophisaccelerating velocity, feelthatwe aregetting we ticationI includenot merely intellectual and technical advance, but mostof the tendencies thatmake fora cleanerand healthier a existence. It is exceland, to a largeextent, morehumanitarian lent to keep one's hands spotlessly clean, to eliminate smallpox, to administer our anesthetics.Our growing sophistication, ever
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increasing solicitude obey the dictatesof common to sense,make thesetendencies imperative. It would be sheerobscurantism to wishto staytheir can progress. But there be no stranger illusionand it is an illusion nearly share-thanthis, we all thatbecausethe toolsoflifeare todaymorespecialized morerefined and thanever before,that because the technique brought scienceis more by perfectthan anything the worldhas yet known,it necessarily follows we arein likedegree that attaining a profounder to harmony oflife, a deeper to and moresatisfying culture. It is as though we believed an elaborate that mathematical computation which involved figures sevenand eight of digits couldnotbut result a likefigure. in Yet we knowthatonemillion multiplied zerogivesus zeroquite by as effectivelyonemultiplied zero. The truth thatsophistias by is cation, which whatwe ordinarily is meanby theprogress civilizaof tion, in thelongrun,a merely is, quantitative concept thatdefines theexternal for conditions thegrowth decayofculture. We are or right have faith theprogress civilization.We arewrong to in of to assume thatthemaintenance evenadvance culture a function or of is of suchprogress. A reading thefactsof ethnology culture of and history provesplainly that maximaof culturehave frequently beenreached lowlevelsofsophistication; minima culture in that of havebeenplumbed someofthehighest. Civilization, a whole, in as moveson; culture comesand goes. Everyprofound changein the flowof civilization, particularly to in every change itseconomic aboutan unsettling bases,tends bring of and readjustment culture values. Old culture habitual forms, of the of tendto persist types reaction, through force inertia. The of to newcivilizational habitual reactions their maladjustment these of environment it which with a measure spiritual brings disharmony, feel as lack themoresensitive individuals eventually a fundamental corrects itself with ofculture. Sometimes maladjustment the great for at it as times maypersist generations, in thecase rapidity, other has ofAmerica, a stateofcultural where chronic maladjustment for of life much ourhigher to sterile so longa period reduced externality. for culture subsist a to on It is easier, generally speaking, a genuine of as lower level of civilization;the differentiation individuals is functions so muchless thanin their socialand economic regards
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the higher levelsthat there less dangerof the reduction the is of of individualto an unintelligible fragment the social organism. How to reap the undeniable benefits a greatdifferentiation of of at functions, without the same timelosingsightof the individual as a nucleus livecultural of is and difficult values, thegreat problem of any rapidly civilization.We are farfrom complicating having solvedit in America. Indeed,it may be doubted whether more than an insignificant of minority aware of the existence the are problem. Yet the present world-wide labor unresthas as one of its deepestrootssomesortof perception the cultural of of fallacy thepresent form industrialism. of It is perhapsthesensitive ethnologist has studiedan abowho civilization first at riginal handwhois mostimpressed thefreby of quent vitality culture less sophisticated in levels. He cannot but admirethewell-rounded of theaverageparticipant the life in civilization a typical of American Indian tribe; the firmness with which everypart of that life-economic,social, religious, and aesthetic-isboundtogether a significant to into wholein respect whichhe is farfrom passivepawn; above all, themolding a r6le, oftentimes of definitely creative, that he plays in the mechanism his culture. Whenthepolitical integrity his tribeis destroyed of by contactwith the whitesand the old cultural values cease to have the atmosphere needed for their continuedvitality,the Indian finds himself a stateof bewildered in vacuity. Even if he succeedsin making fairly a satisfactory compromise withhis new in environment, making whathis well-wishers consider greatprogress towardenlightenment, is apt to retainan uneasysenseof he theloss of somevagueand greatgood,somestateofmindthathe wouldbe hardput to it to define, which but gavehima courage and joy thatlatter-day prosperity neverquite seemsto have regained for him. Whathas happened thathe has slipped ofthewarm is out embraceof a culture into the cold air of fragmentary existence. Whatis sad about thepassing theIndianis not thedepletion of of his numbers diseasenor even the contempt by that is too often meted to himin hislifeon thereservation, is thefading out it away of genuinecultures, built thoughtheywereout of the materials ofa low order sophistication. of
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levelsof sophisticato We have no right demandof thehigher functioning, his to tionthattheypreserve theindividual manifold the as but we may well ask whether, a compensation, individual in demandan intensification cultural value, may not reasonably of as heightening, suchfunctions are lefthim. Failing a spiritual in to The limitation this, mustbe admitted have retrograded. he in workschiefly the economic sphere. It is therefore functioning his if is imperative, theindividual to preserve value as a cultured the out himself of the non-economic, being,that he compensate scientific, aesthetic. This religious, spheres-social, non-utilitarian issue, that of idea of compensation bringsto view an important endsofhumaneffort. and theimmediate theremoter is man's onlyfunction to exist; in other As a mereorganism, alive and to propagatehis kind. Hence words,to keep himself for of and and the procuring food,clothing, shelter himself those end of his effort. the on dependent him constitutes immediate in like by Thereare civilizations, thatoftheEskimo, which farthe in of is greater partofman'senergy consumed thesatisfaction these in which mostofhis activities contribute directly immediate ends, of and preparation food and the to or indirectly the procuring for and no materials clothing shelter. Therearepractically civilizaat in is however, which leastsomeoftheavailableenergy not tions, for as ends set free theremoter ends,though, a rule,theseremoter made to seemto contribute to are by a processof rationalization for ones. (A magicalritual, instance, which, when theimmediate seems and to considered psychologically, toliberate giveform powerof elements our nature,is nearlyalways aesthetic ful emotional utilitarian to end-the catching of put in harness somehumdrum of of rabbitsor the curing disease.) As a matter fact,thereare that an civilizations do not consume exceedveryfew"primitive" in inglylarge shareof theirenergies the pursuitof the remoter truethat theseremoter it ends are nearly ends, though remains or interwoven with the always functionally pseudo-functionally ends. Artforart'ssake maybe a psychological on fact immediate not fact. theseless sophisticated levels; it is certainly a cultural the endstendto split On our own levelof civilization remoter from immediate the onesand to assumetheform a of off altogether
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from pursuit thelatter. The separathe of escapeorrefuge spiritual nor tionof thetwoclassesofendsis neverabsolute can it everbe; of driftof the two it is enoughto note the presence a powerful fromeach other. It is easy to demonstrate drift this by away takenout ofourdailyexperience.Whilein mostprimiexamples at the tive civilizations dance is apt to be a ritualactivity least nature,it is associatedwithpurposesof an economic ostensibly and thatnot withus a merely self-consciously activity pleasurable of of off the endsbut onlysplits from sphere thepursuit immediate of to even tendsto assumea position hostility thatsphere. In a a civilization greatchiefdances as a matterof course, primitive a privias honored oftentimes a matterof exercising peculiarly refuses dance at to either lege. Withus the captainof industry of to concession thetyranny all or does so as a half-contemptuous social custom. On the otherhand, the artistof a Ballet Russe of has sublimatedthe dance to an exquisiteinstrument selfin has himself withan adequate, expression, succeeded providing for or morethanadequate,cultural recompense his loss ofmastery ends. The captainofindustry one of the is in therealmofdirect in small class of individualsthat has inherited, comparatively of of over something the feeling control form, vastlycomplicated of the attainment directends that belongsby culturalrightto for man; the ballet dancerhas saved and intensified primitive of the in and himself feeling spontaneous participation creativeness ends that also belongsby culturalrightto the worldof indirect man. Each has saved part of the wreckage a subof primitive for culture himself. merged of and indirect The psychology direct endsundergoes gradual a as levels only modification, partlyconsummated yet,in thehigher of civilization.The immediateends continueto exercisethe of but sametyrannical swayin theordering ourlives, as ourspiritual and developa moreand moreinordinate selvesbecomeenriched of theredevelopsalso an cravingfor subtlerforms experience, of impatience with the solution the moreimmediate of attitude of the endscease to be problems life. In otherwords, immediate become feltas chief endsand gradually but only necessary means, of means,towardthe attainment the moreremoteends. These remoter beinglooked upon as purely ends,in turn,so far from
4I7
incidentalactivitieswhich resultfromthe spillingover of an energy concentrated almost entirely thepursuit theimmediate on of ends,becomethe chiefends of life. This changeof attitudeis impliedin the statement that the art, science,and religion a of highercivilization best express spiritor culture. The transits formation endsthusbriefly of outlined farfrom accomplished is an fact; it is ratheran obscuredrift the history values, an in of of expression thevolition themoresensitive of participants our in culture. Certain temperaments themselves feel impelled along far thedrift, others behind. lag The transformation ofendsis ofthegreatest cultural importance becauseit acts as a powerful for force thepreservation culture of in levels in whicha fragmentary economic functioning the indiof vidual is inevitable. So long as the individual retains senseof a control overthemajorgoodsof life, is able to takehis place in he the cultural patrimony his people. Now that themajorgoods of oflifehave shifted largely so from realmofimmediate that to the of remote ends,it becomes cultural a for necessity all who would not be lookeduponas disinherited sharein thepursuit these of to remoter ends. No harmony depth life, culture, possible and of no is whenactivity well-nigh is of circumscribed thesphere immediate by endsandwhen functioning within sphere sofragmentaryto that is as have no inherent or intelligibility interest. Here lies thegrimmest joke of our present American of civilization.The vast majority of us, deprived any but an insignificant culturally and abortive of are sharein the satisfaction the immediate wantsof mankind, further of to deprived both opportunity stimulation sharein and theproduction non-utilitarian of values. Part of the timewe are of consumers goods drayhorses;therestofthetimewe arelistless which no of have received least impress ourpersonality.In other selves go hungry, the most part,pretty for words,our spiritual muchall ofthetime.
III. THE CULTURED INDIVIDUAL AND THE CULTURAL GROUP
at Thereis no real opposition, last analysis, betweenthe conof cept of a culture the groupand the conceptof an individual culture. The twoare interdependent. healthy A national culture is nevera passivelyacceptedheritage from past, but implies the
4I8
THE AMERICAN JOURNAAL SOCIOLOGY OF
of the creativeparticipation the members the community; of in the of implies, otherwords, presence cultured individuals. An of automatic perpetuation standardized values,not subjectto the of constantremodeling individuals willingto put some part of into the formstheyreceivefrom themselves their predecessors, leads to the dominance impersonal of formulas.The individual is leftout in thecold; theculture a becomes manner rather thana way of life,it ceases to be genuine. It is just as true,however, that theindividual helpless is without cultural a to heritage work on. He cannot, ofhisunaidedspiritual out powers, weavea strong of cultural fabric instinct withtheflush hisownpersonality.Creationis a bending form one's will,not a manufacture form of to of ex nihilo. If thepassiveperpetuator a cultural of tradition gives us merely manner, shellof a lifethatonce was, the creator a the from ofa cultural out wastegivesus hardly morethana gesture or a yawp,thestrident of promise a visionraisedby ourdesires. Thereis a curious notion afloatthat"new" countries espeare soil of ciallyfavorable forthe formation a virileculture. By new is meant something that has been transplanted a backold to ground devoidof historical associations. It wouldbe remarkable if a plant,flourishing heavy black loam, suddenly in acquireda newvirility transplantation a shallowsandysoil. Metaon into thatprovenothing, experience but phorsare dangerous things sugof is geststhe soundness thisparticular metaphor. Indeed,there more tenuous, moreshamelessly and external, nothing imitative less virile and self-joyous, than the cultures so-called"new of countries." The environments thesetransplanted of cultures are are new,thecultures themselves old withthesickly ofarrested age of development.If signs of a genuineblossoming cultureare to it belatedly beginning appearin America, is notbecauseAmerica is stillnew; rather America is of to coming age, beginning feela littleold. In a genuinely country, preoccupation the new the with in immediate ends of existence reduces creativeness the sphereof themore remote endstoa minimum.The netresult a perceptible is of culture. The old stockofnon-material cultural dwarfing goods on lingers without beingsubjectedto vital remodelings, becomes
4I9
progressively impoverished, and ends by being so hopelessly ill-adjustedto the economicand social environment that the moresensitive spirits tendto breakwithit altogether to begin and of anewwitha frank recognition thenewenvironmental conditions. Suchnewstarts invariably are crude; theyare longin bearing the fruits a genuine of culture. It is onlyan apparent paradoxthatthe subtlest and themost decisive of the cultural influences personality, mostfruitful revolts, are discernible thoseenvironments have long and uninin that terruptedly supported richly a streaming culture. So farfrom being suffocated an atmosphere endlessprecedent, in of the creative spirit gainssustenance vigorforits ownunfolding ifit is and and, strong enough, may swingfreeof thatveryatmosphere it witha poise hardlydreamedof by the timidiconodastsof unformed cultures. Not otherwise couldwe understand cultural the history ofmodern soil Europe. Onlyin a mature and richly differentiated could arise the iconoclasms and visionsof an AnatoleFrance,a an at Nietzsche, Ibsen,a Tolstoi. In America, leastin theAmerica ofyesterday, theseiconoclasms thesevisions have and wouldeither in beenstrangled thecradle, had they found to breathe, air or, they would have half-developed a crude and patheticisolation. into is of There no sound vigorous and individual incorporationa cultured ideal without soilofa genuine the communal culture;and no genuinecommunal culture without transforming the energies personaliof ties at oncerobust and saturated withthecultural valuesof their timeand place. The highest is typeof culture thuslockedin the of embrace an endless to of chain, theforging which goesmuch labor, avoidsthe twoextremes of wearyand protracted.Such a culture of surfeit, whichweighsdown the "externality"-theexternality and the externality barrenness.The former the of is individual, is in decay ofAlexandrianism, whichtheindividual no more; the the and latter, combined immaturity decayofan uprooted culture, in whichtheindividual not yet. Both typesofexternality is may be combined the same culture, in in frequently the same person. to who Thus, it is not uncommon findin Americaindividuals have had engrafted a barrenand purelyutilitarian on culture a
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cultural tradition thatapes a gracealreadyembalmed. One surmisesthat thisjuxtaposition incongruous of atmospheres even is in typical certain circles. at Let us look a littlemoreclosely theplace of theindividual in a modern sophisticated culture. I haveinsisted throughout that a genuinecultureis one that gives its bearersa sense of inner a of satisfaction, feeling spiritual mastery. In the higher levels ofcivilization senseofmastery all butwithdrawn, we have this is as the to seen,from economic sphere. It must, then, an evengreater thaninmore extent feed primitive civilizations, on thenon-economic of is or spheres human activity. The individual thusdriven, should be if he would be truly to of cultured, the identification himself of withsome portion the wide rangeof non-economic interests. Fromthestandpoint in this adopted thisstudy, doesnotmeanthat theidentification a purely is casual and acquisitive process; it is, indeed, madenot so muchforits ownsake as in orderto give the its selfthewherewithal develop powers. Concretely to considered, thata mediocre thiswouldmean,forinstance, person moderately his in gifted withthe abilityto express aesthetic instincts plastic form that and exercising giftin his own sincere and humble way all it is (to theneglect, maybe, of practically other interests) ipso endowindividual thana personof brilliant factoa morecultured in mentswho has acquaintedhimself a general way withall the and and but "best" thathas beenthought felt done, whohasnever in of of into succeeded bringing portion hisrange interests direct any of shrine his relation withhis volitional self,withthe innermost for of personality.An individual thelattertype, all his brilliance, cultured. He may, we call "flat." A flatpersoncannotbe truly in senseoftheword of course, highly be cultured theconventional "culture,"but thatis another story. I wouldnot be understood is it thatdirect creativeness essential, as claiming though is highly culture. To a large for of desirable, the development individual to extent is possible gaina senseoftherequired it mastery linkby withthatof thegreatmindsand hearts ingone's ownpersonality creators. Possible, as that societyhas recognized its significant such vicariousexperience, is that is, so long as such linking, the some portionof the effort, fluttering toward attendedby
42I
effort.It is to be from creative all thatis inseparable realization is that thattheself-discipline is hereimplied none however, feared, as practiced. The linking, I have calledit, of selfwith too often into a pleasurableservitude, mastersoul too oftendegenerates the of abnegation one'sownindividuality, moreinsidiintoa facile of judgment. The pleasurable ous thatit has theapproval current still into servitude degenerate further a vice. Thoseofus who may if of blindcan see in certain our acquaintances, are not altogether or in an goodsthat not in ourselves, indulgence aesthetic scientific intoxicants.Both to is strictly comparable the abuse of alcoholic or habit typesof self-ignoringself-submerging are signsof a debiliof to bothare antithetical theformation culture. tatedpersonality; in fastens uponthe to The individual then, aspiring culture, self, not cultural goodsofits society, so muchforthesake accumulated as of acquirement, forthesake of the of thepassivepleasure their and personality of theorientation givento theunfolding stimulus a values. The in derived the world(or better, world)of cultural if conventional it maybe, is necessary onlyto give as orientation, the self a modus vivendiwith societyat large. The individual of muchofthecultural background his society, needsto assimilate of his people,to prevent selfsentiments his manyof the current into social sterility.A spiritual from degenerating expression but he is hardlysociallyso. hermit cultured, may be genuinely culture mustneeds groworganically out To say that individual is thatit must culture farfrom saying oftherichsoilofa communal of tied to that culture the leadingstrings its own by be forever self enoughto strong childhood. Once the individual has grown illuminated its ownlight, not in it travel thepathmostclearly by muchofthescaffolding which has it canbutshould by discard only is thanthepersistence with pathetic madeitsascent. Nothing more to to attempt keep up or whichwell-meaning applicants culture their stimuli whichhave longoutlived significance revivecultural of for the growth personality.To keep up or brushup one's a casesin which knowledge in for Greek, example, thosenumerous relation theneedsof the to of Greekhas ceasedto bear a genuine crime. It is acting"the dog in the is spirit, almosta spiritual in manger"withone's ownsoul. If the traveling thepath of the
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of leads to a positionthat is destructive the self'sillumination different in though very was valuestheself fedon,as happened, very and withTolstoi,it has not in the slightest ways,withNietzsche on have culture. It maywell, thecontrary, with genuine losttouch ofcultural development. ownhighest point possible at arrived its of are types personality. and however, extreme Nietzsche Tolstoi, will humanity Thereis no dangerthat thevast armyof cultured of and positions suchrigor originality. spiritual evercometo occupy by attested dailyexperience, as The real danger, is so abundantly of forces, a common to leveling is in submitting the remorselessly and of the action of averagemind on average heritage cultural will standardization mind. These forces alwaystendto a general so indeed, of and ofboththecontent thespirit culture, powerfully, of personalities effect robust,self-sustaining that the centrifugal with need not be feared. The cautionto conformity tradition, feel so of calledupon the which champions culture often themselves is dispensewith. It is to announce, one that we can generally with ratherthe oppositecaution,the cautionto conformity the that urging.It needs of nature one'sownpersonality, needs essential to to be urgedas a possiblecounter-irritant the flat and tedious the the of outlook, anemicmake-believe, smug sameness spiritual that our ofthechallenging, so imprison American souls. intolerance of and test No greater of thegenuineness bothindividual comcan the adoptedtoward munalculture be appliedthantheattitude of its past,its institutions, treasures art and thought. The genuinely culturedindividualor society does not contemptuously the of rejectthepast. Theyhonor works thepast,butnotbecause not because,beingout of our chance, theyare gemsof historical the glass reach,theymustneedsbe lookedat through enshrining cases. These worksof thepast stillexciteour heartof museum in and may interest sympathy because,and only so faras, they felt of as despite akin, warmly be recognized theexpression a human spirit of all differences outward garb,to our own. This is verynearly thatthepast is ofcultural to interest onlywhen equivalent saying or thepresent may yetbecomethe future. Paradoxical it is still of has the as it mayseem, historical spirit alwaysbeensomething an actedin somemeasure an unwitting has as anticultural force, always of of deterrent the culturalutilization the past. The historical
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and that spirit says,"Beware,thosethoughts thosefeelings you so rashly think embody thewarpand woofofyourownspiritto in issuefrom alien place and they theyare ofothertimeand ofother them youdo but obscure withthe motives. In bending overthem is mood shadowofyourownspirit." This coolreserve an excellent forthemaking historical of science; its usefulness thebuilding to in is of culture the present doubtful. We knowimmensely more in about Hellenicantiquity thesedays thandid the scholars and thatour artistsof the Renaissance;it wouldbe follyto pretend of accurately we merely as know liveutilization theHellenic spirit, the to that stimulus, those it,is comparable theinspiration, creative from fragmentary garbled obtained its and menoftheRenaissance of to of tradition. It is difficult think a renaissance that typeas in of thriving the critical atmosphere today. We shouldwalk so on in fear gingerly thepathsofthepastfor ofstepping anachronisms, we sink withfatigue, should finally intoa heavydoze, that,wearied of clatter thepresent. It may to be awakened onlyby theinsistent stateof sophistication a spirit critisuch of be thatin ourpresent is but for cism,of detachment, not onlyunavoidable essential the of The past is now more preservation our own individualities. of a past than ever before. Perhapswe shouldexpectless of it thaneverbefore. Or rather expectno moreofit thanit holdits in it wideopen,thatwe mayenter and despoil ofwhatbits portals we choose forour prettymosaics. Can it be that the critical whichgalvanizesthe past into scientific is sense of history, life, to whatis destined slayit forthelifeofculture? Moreprobably, of is currents today are running so happening that the spiritual to that fast,so turbulently, we findit difficult get a culturally of is left vitalperspective thepast,which thus,forthetimebeing, in as a glorified mummy the handsof the pundits. And,forthe neither as timebeing,thoseothersof us who take theirculture nor but knowledge as manner, as life,will ask of thepast not so much"what?" and "when?" and "where?" as "how?" and the in withthe accentof their"how" will be modulated accordance of that to to needsofthespirit each,a spirit is free glorify, transform, and to reject. in of To summarize placeoftheindividual ourtheory culture, the of culture two types we may say thatthepursuit genuine implies
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for The selfseeksinstinctively mastery. In the ofreconciliation. thatis not crudebut proa processof acquiring senseof mastery properto our time,the portioned the degreeof sophistication to a to an and selfis compelled suffer abridgment to undergo molding. of of function whichtheprogress man differentiation The extreme menacesthe spirit; we have no has forced upon the individual of withgood graceto thisabridgment our recourse to submit but of not be allowedto clip thewings thespirit activity, it must but reconciliation-the and mostimportant unduly. This is the first of satisfactions within straight the finding a fullworldof spiritual economicactivity. The self confined limitsof an unwontedly at mustset itself a pointwhereit can, if not embracethe whole life at of spiritual ofits group, least catchenough its raysto burst the into lightand flame. Moreover, selfmustlearnto reconcile its own strivings, own imperious necessities, withthe general its life of the community.It must be contentto borrow spiritual of and consciousness thatcommunity from spiritual the sustenance to ofits past,not merely thatit mayobtainthewherewithal grow where power, its will greator little, be at all, but thatit maygrow to life concern to brought bear on a spiritual thatis of intimate to the reconciliations, selfhas a right all other wills. Yet, despite whose spiritual growth, feelthatit grows an integral, as self-poised, rest whosesacrifices compensaand ultimate justifications in itself, to of tionsmustbe justified itself. The conception the selfas a the of instrument toward attainment communal whether mere ends, of state or othersocial body,is to be discarded leadingin the as absurdities and to spiritualslavery. long run to psychological if thatconcedes, there tobe anyconcession. Spiritual is It is theself now is freedom, whatthere ofit,is notalmsdispensed, indifferently, now grudgingly, the socialbody. That a different philosophy by of to of the relation theindividual his groupis now so prevalent, of to on primacy necessary insist thespiritual makesit all themore theindividual soul. of fact thereis discussion It is a noteworthy that wherever is placed upon art. This applies emphasis instinctively culture, as wellto individual to communal as culture. We applytheterm in to "cultured" only withreserve an individual whoselife the
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moment aesthetic playsno part. So also,ifwe wouldcatchsomeof of the thing thespirit, genius, a bygone periodor of an exotic to civilization, turnfirst we and foremost its art. A thoughtless on but analysis wouldsee in this nothing theemphasis thebeautiful, of thedecorative, thatcomports withtheconventional conception cultureas a life of traditionaLly molded refinement. more A For penetrating analysisdiscardssuch an interpretation. it the of highestmanifestations culture,the very quintessence the of rest geniusof a civilization, necessarily in art,forthe reasonthat of in art is the authentic expression, satisfying form, experience; not and experience as logically ordered science, as directly by but intuitively presented us in life. As culturerests,in essence, to on theharmonious development thesenseofmastery of instinctively soughtby each individual soul, thiscan onlymean that art, the in of is form consciousness which impress theself mostdirect, of the is least hampered outward by necessity, above all other undertakculture. To relateour ingsof the humanspirit bound to reflect our of that lives,ourintuitions, passing moodsto forms expression conviction others makeus live againin theseothers to is carry and we the highest satisfaction knowof,the highest welding spiritual of one's individuality with the spiritof his civilization.Were in it art everreaLly perfect expression, wouldindeedbe immortal. ofthedross conventionality, of Even thegreatest however, full art, is of theparticular of sophistications its age. As thesechange,the of of in directness expression anywork art tendsto be increasingly feltas hampered a something fixed and alien,untilit gradually by fallsinto oblivion. Whileart lives,it belongsto culture;in the of it of thatit takeson thefrigidity death, becomes interest degree (and only to the studyof civilization.Thus all art appreciation that for has production, thatmatter) twofaces. It is unfortunate to the face directed civilization so oftenconfounded is withthat on is which fixed culture.
IV. THE GEOGRAPHY OF CULTURE
of is of An oft-noted peculiarity the development culture the in fact that it reachesits greatest small, heights comparatively if autonomous groups. In fact,it is doubtful a genuineculture
426
a to group, group everproperly belongs morethansucha restricted of the between members whichtherecan be said to be something like direct intensivespiritualcontact. This direct contact is of on the cultural heritage which minds all enriched thecommon by of swift by and pregnant the thousands are fed; it is rendered and ideas that are tacitlyassumedand that constantly feelings autonomous in glimmer the background.Such small,culturally Age,theRomeofAugustus, of groups weretheAthens thePericlean of city-states Italy in late medievaltimes,the the independent centuries. days, and theParisofthelastthree LondonofElizabethan of certain thesegroupsand of their of to It is customary speak or widely as wereidentical with, represented, they cultures though large extentsuch extended groupsand cultures. To a curiously of of substitutions a part forthe usagesare reallyfigures speech, for is astonishing, instance, how much the so-called whole. It is activof the of literature" really history literary "history French a localizedculture ityin thecityofParis. True enough, narrowly far does, spreadits influence beyondits properly may,and often it nationalrestricted sphere. Sometimes setsthepace fora whole only at the empire. It can do so, however, ity, fora far-flung in its expenseof diluting spiritas it movesaway from home,of If more into attitudinizing. we realized degenerating an imitative to of whattherapidspreador imposition a culture entails, keenly the what an extentit conquersby crushing germsof healthier we uniformizautonomous growths, wouldbe less eagerto welcome less of in ing tendencies, readyto think themas progressive character. A culturemay well be quickenedfrom but its without, ornot,is no cultural whether gain. superior supersession another, by or Whether not it is attended a political gaindoes not concern by to us here. That is whythe deliberate attempt imposea culture no and speedily, matter how backed by good will,is an directly affront thehuman to is not spirit. When suchan attempt backed, by it conceivable ruthlessness,is thegreatest goodwill, bymilitary but it crime againstthehumanspirit, is theverydenialof culture. our Does thismeanthatwe mustturn back on all internationalin istic tendencies and vegetateforever our nationalisms?Here thatinternationalism we are confronted theprevalent is fallacy by
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of development autonomous in spiritopposed to the intensive a to from failure realizethatinterproceeds cultures. The fallacy and localism are formsthat can be nationalism, nationalism, discuss intergiven various contents. We cannot intelligently we nationalism before knowwhat it is that we are to be interby we about. Unfortunately are so obsessed theidea nationalistic to all of of subordinating forms humanassociation the state and of as of with the ofregarding range all types activity conterminous for the thatit is difficult us to reconcile idea boundaries, political of national autonomy culturewith a of a local or restrictedly and purelypoliticalstate-sovereignty with an economic-political internationalism. outcome to whatis destined be thelarger No one can see clearly rather than of thepresent worldconflicts.They may exacerbate the animosities thustendto strengthen and allaynational-political resultcannotwell be of prestige the state. But this deplorable thatthewar otherthana passingphase. Even nowit is evident and, has, in moreways thanone,paved theway foran economic All internationalism. thosespheres a as a corollary, semi-political of ends,which, thatrelateto thesatisfaction immediate ofactivity but fromthe vantage point that we have gained,are nothing functions.However means, will tend to become international in will they theinternationalizing processes shapethemselves detail, of of be impatience willat bottom but thereflection thatgrowing with I ends,which withthepreoccupation direct thehumanspirit as problems the distribution spokeof before. Such transnational of the of economic goods,the transportation commodities, control must eventually the others, of highways, coinage,and numerous for organizations the simple pass into the handsof international to loyalty theuselessly give reasonthatmenwillnoteternally their that are of inherently of internationaladministration functions scope gets to be thoroughly nationalscope. As thisinternational in prestige theecoinfatuations national with our realized, present for imbecilities nomic spherewill show themselves the spiritual thattheyare. the of to development culture. Allthis much do with eventual has is appanageoflarge As longas culture lookeduponas a decorative
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is politicalunits,one can plausiblyargue that its preservation of of themaintenance theprestige these units. But boundup with excepton the basis of a highly is genuineculture inconceivable it healthyand spiritual consciousness, rarelyremains individual overan interminable and in itshigher area, subtle whenspreadthin bonds. and to it reaches is in no moodto submit economic political thinkable. The culture hardly is Now a generalized international to and up to culture itself unit national-political tendsto arrogate in a certain pointit succeeds doingso, but onlyat thepriceofseriof of impoverishmentvast portions its terrain. If the ous cultural units of largestate-controlled and integrity these economic political by becomesgraduallyundermined the growthof international raisond'etremust also tend to weaken. theircultural functions, to mustthentendwitheverincreasing intensity clingto Culture unitsthat are smallsocial and to minor politicalunits, relatively that as the not too largeto incorporate individuality is to culture the of theverybreath life. Betweenthesetwoprocesses, integration of economicand politicalforcesinto a world sovereignty culture unitsinto of unwieldy and the disintegration our present of the virileand individual, fetich smallunitswhoselifeis truly may sovereignty, in the the present state,withits uncontrolled has stateoftoday away. The political be to dimfuture trusted melt long been on trial and has been foundwanting. Our nationalunitsare too smallforpeace, too largeforsafety. They political in of solution the largeproblems are too smallforthe intelligent enrichof ends; theyare toolargeforthefruitful thesphere direct mentoftheremoter ends,forculture. partof morethanin anyother perhaps It is in theNew World, wideof nature a geographically theglobe,thattheunsatisfactory to of spread culture, littledepthor individuality beginwith,is the manifestations, manifest. To findsubstantially same cultural details,in oftenindeed to the minutest materialand spiritual, is New Yorkand Chicagoand San Francisco saddening. It argues in to a shallowness theculture in itself a readiness imitation its and thatis not reassuring.Even ifno definite out of the bearers way there no is for discernible thepresent, flatcultural morass clearly is forever self-sufficiency.canonlybe ofbenefit in It goodin basking
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and to find wherein to search thedepths ourhearts out of theyare it doesnotmatter;better wanting. If we exaggerate weakness, our We chastening than self-glorification. have been in the habit of for quantitative results thatare giving ourselves credit essentially natureand to a favoring set due rather an unusually to favoring than to anything ourselves. Our vicin of economic conditions have beenbrilliant, they but have also too often beenbarren tories withloaded dice has givenus a forculture. The habitofplaying attitudeof passivity-dangerous, that is, for culture. dangerous back opulently our easy chairs,we expect great in Stretching to to up cultural things happen us. We havewound themachinery, it to and admirable machinery is; it is "up to" culture comeforth, increment individuality of which in heavypanoply. The minute alonemakesculture theselfand eventually in builds a culture up in is the community somehow overlooked. Cannedculture so seems mucheasierto administer. nowwe are expecting greatdeal from Europeanwar. the Just a No doubtthewarand its aftermath shakeus out ofsomepart will ofoursmugness letin a few invigorating currents cultural air of and theseinfluences may soon influence, but, if we are not careful, or hardenintonew standardizations becomedilutedinto another stockofimitative attitudes reactions. The war and its afterand math cannotbe a sufficient culturalcause, theyare at bestbut astonanother offavoring set conditions.We neednotbe toomuch ishedif a Periclean culture burst automatically does not somehow intobloom. Sooner later shallhavetogetdownto thehumble or we to task of exploring depthsof our consciousness dragging and the the lightwhat sincerebits of reflected experience can find. we they be Thesebitswillnotalways beautiful, willnotalways pleasbe in we ing,but they be genuine. And then can build. In time, will cultureplentyof time-forwe musthave patience-a genuine better cultures-will graceour yet,a seriesof linkedautonomous lives. And New York and Chicagoand San Franciscowill live eachin its owncultural not from to another one strength, squinting to see whichgets ahead in a race forexternal values, but each in serenely oblivious its rivalsbecausegrowing a soil ofgenuine of cultural values.

Sapir - Culture Genuine Spurious

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Culture, Genuine and Spurious Author(s): E. Sapir Reviewed work(s): Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 29, No.

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAAL SOCIOLOGY OF

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

CULTURE, GENUINE AND SPURIOUS

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