Submitted November 2004

Impact Echo Scanning for Discontinuity Detection and Imaging in Posttensioned Concrete Bridges and Other Structures
by Y. Tinkey,* L.D. Olson and H. Wiggenhauser
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on experimental results from two scanning impact echo systems on the internal condition of posttensioned ducts. The first system uses an impact echo head attached to an X/Y scanner and the second system is a rolling impact echo scanning system. The experimental tests were performed by two different research agencies and comparisons of the blind interpretation and the actual design conditions of the posttensioned ducts and slab are included herein. Background of the impact echo technique and its implementation with a rolling scanning transducer are discussed in the paper. The impact echo technique is generally used to either determine the internal condition of concrete structures or to measure the thickness of concrete members. The rolling transducer in the impact echo scanner expedites the test process by allowing for rapid, near continuous testing. The results from the rolling impact echo scanning system are presented in a three dimensional fashion to provide better interpretation of the internal conditions of the ducts. In these studies, the impact echo results from both research agencies show good agreement in correctly identifying grouting discontinuities in tendon ducts. Discontinuities of grout in bridge ducts are located based on an indirect indication of a void due to an apparent impact echo increase in bridge wall/slab thickness that actually reflects the lower resonant echo frequency due to the decreased stiffness associated with the duct void. No direct reflection from the duct with grouting discontinuities was observed in these experiments. Keywords: concrete, grout, honeycomb, impact echo, impact echo scanning, nondestructive testing, posttensioned bridge ducts, voids, void detection.

Figure 1 The X/Y scanner system with ultrasonic and IE-1 impact echo (inset) devices mounted on a pneumatic lift system.

INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses the experimental results of impact echo tests by the Bundesanstalt fr Materialforschung und prfung (BAM) X/Y scanner and a rolling impact echo scanning system in terms of their ability to detect and image discontinuities in posttensioned ducts of a mockup slab and bridge (Figure 1). Comparisons of the blind interpretation and the actual design conditions of the posttensioned ducts and slab are presented. The impact echo results are presented in a three dimensional fashion using thickness surface plots to provide better visualization and interpretation of the internal conditions of the slab. The impact echo tests were performed twice with the two different scanning systems (by two different research agencies): the first with a traditional point by point impact echo head mounted on an automated measurement frame similar to an X/Y plotter (the X/Y scanner) and a second with a

portable rolling scanning system (the impact echo scanner). Results from both test systems are presented. The impact echo technique has traditionally been used on a point by point basis to either determine the internal condition of concrete structures or measure the thickness of structures. The automation of point by point testing with an X/Y scanner approach that quickly raises, moves, lowers and performs an impact echo test is discussed first. The use of a rolling transducer, the impact echo scanner, further expedites the impact echo test process by allowing for rapid, near continuous testing and true scanning capabilities to test concrete structures even faster than the X/Y scanner system. This paper also includes results of impact echo scanning of the internal conditions of ducts from a posttensioned bridge. Coring was performed on the tested duct to confirm the accuracy of the impact echo scanning results.

BACKGROUND OF THE IMPACT ECHO TECHNIQUE

The impact echo test involves impacting a concrete structure with a small impactor and identifying the reflected wave energy with a displacement transducer. The resonant echoes in the displacement responses are usually not apparent in the time domain, but are more easily identified in the frequency domain. Consequently, amplitude spectra of the displacement responses are calculated by performing a fast Fourier transform analysis to determine the resonant echo peaks. The relationship among the depth frequency peak f, the compressional wave velocity VP and the echo depth D is expressed in the following equation: (1) D= Vp 2f

* Olson Engineering, Inc., 12401 W. 49th Ave., Wheat Ridge, CO 800331927; (303) 423-1212; fax (303) 423-6071; e-mail <yajai@olsonengineering .com>. Olson Engineering, Inc., 12401 W. 49th Ave., Wheat Ridge, CO 80033-1927; (303) 423-1212; fax (303) 423-6071; e-mail <ldolson@olsonengineering .com>. BAM Bundesanstalt fr Materialforschung und prfung, Unter den Eichen 87, Berlin D-12205, Germany; 49 (0) 30 81041440; fax 49 (0) 30 81041447; e-mail <herbert.wiggenhauser@bam.de>.
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Here, is a factor which varies based on geometry and is equal to 0.96 for a slab/wall shape (Sansalone and Streett, 1997).

General Description of the Mockup Slab In 2002, a large concrete slab was designed and constructed at the BAM main campus in Berlin, Germany. Practical experience in nondestructive testing (NDT) for more than ten years and pressing research topics defined the construction. The concrete slab covers an area of 10 by 4 m (32.8 by 13.1 ft) with a principal thickness of 300 mm (1 ft). The large dimensions of the specimen are necessary to minimize boundary effects on the measured signals and to establish well defined discontinuities without interference between them. The concrete slab is partitioned in two sections with different testing problems. One section contains tendon ducts with varying diameters and grouting discontinuities and different amounts of posttension wire strand cables. The other section provides areas with varying thickness and voids. Auxiliary elements, like thermoelements, water inlet and reinforcement mats, are implemented. In addition, 10 m (32.8 ft) long ducts with 300 mm (1 ft) spacing below the bottom of the slab in the subsurface allow future radiography for detailed reference testing. The large concrete slab section with metal tendon ducts has dimensions of 4 by 5 m (13.1 ft by 16.4 ft) and contains 11 tendon ducts with well defined grouting discontinuities (Figure 2). The metal ducts were chosen and positioned to represent typical testing situations as they are encountered in structures. Because of the exceedingly difficult testing problem, test situations were created without introducing crossing ducts. Also, only one layer of reinforcement (diameter 8 mm [0.3 in.], spacing 150 mm [5.9 in.]) was positioned below the surface, with a concrete cover of 50 mm (2 in.).

varying number and position of wire strand cables (individual diameters of 15.2 mm [0.6 in.]) in the tendon ducts.

X/Y SCANNER FOR IMPACT ECHO TESTS

A multifunctional scanner frame to perform automated radar, ultrasonic and impact echo testing has been developed and implemented at the large concrete slab facility at the government research laboratory BAM. The full size of the 10 by 4 by 0.3 m (32.8 by 13.1 by 1 ft) thick large concrete slab specimen is covered with the X/Y scanner, although in principle the scanner is independent of the large concrete slab and can be mounted on flat surfaces in horizontal and overhead arrangements. The scanner system has a very high positioning resolution for the sensors. Positioning and repositioning accuracy of the sensors is better than 1 mm (0.04 in.) over the entire area. Sensors that require direct coupling to the surface, such as ultrasonic probes or impact echo sensors, are mounted on a holder attached to a pneumatic lift system. The sensors can such be pressed to the surface with preset force (up to 100 N [22.5 lb]). The system allows automated pointwise scanning in regular grids, which can be defined using the software required for the scanner system. NDT equipment is either integrated into the scanner through TCP/IP sockets (which require software changes in the equipment software) or through electrical trigger signals, which are generated by the control box of the scanner axes. Typical measurement times for point scanning are 400 s for 100 points in the case of impact echo or ultrasound. Radar scanning is typically done with a speed of 4 m/min (13.1 ft/min). Experience has proven that due to this automated data acquisition system, high quality data independent of any operator influence is collected and a high reproducibility of the measurements is guaranteed. X/Y Scanner Impact Echo Testing of Tendon Duct Grouting Discontinuities Extensive impact echo testing was performed on the large concrete slab to validate the performance and reliability of impact echo localization of grouting discontinuities in tendon ducts (Wiggenhauser, 2003). Automated testing in a 50 mm by 50 mm (2 by 2 in.) grid was carried out utilizing the X/Y scanner system. In addition, each tendon duct was scanned separately exactly along its position. The impact echo system was slightly modified to allow interfacing with the X/Y scanner software and hardware through electrical triggers. In house software was used for data collection and data analysis. Typically, at each position the average of three impacts preceeded by one preshot was recorded. The preshot was introduced to account for any dust or soft spots on the concrete surface and consequentially ignored. Data analysis and visualization was achieved using the in house software. Raw data were first filtered in the time domain (after offset removal a band pass selected data in the range of 0 to 3 ms after the impact). A subsequent fast Fourier transform transformed the data into the frequency domain, where larger power amplitudes were assigned to geometrical properties of the specimen. Impact echograms were generated by combining measurements along a line or over an entire area. Grayscale images of the power amplitudes over position and frequency/depth provide the impact echo results as an image. Interpretation of Impact Echo Data Localization of grouting discontinuities through impact echo in the large concrete slab is based on an indirect indication. A direct signal from the discontinuity, for example an impact echo frequency indication which corresponds to the depth of the discontinuity (given by the formula d = v/2f, where v = the velocity of sound and f = frequency), was never observed with BAM equipment. The only indication for the presence of tendon ducts is the apparent minor increase in slab thickness in the presence of a tendon duct. Grouting discontinuities do cause a further increase of the apparent slab thickness. This is in accordance with the interpretation of the impact echo signal as a resonance effect, rather than a reflection of a localized acoustical wave. In Figure 3, the average of all impact
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(a)

(b) Figure 2 Components of the concrete slab: (a) tendon ducts with different diameters before casting; (b) duct with grouting discontinuities before placement. Tendons with the following properties were built in: diameter of 35, 40, 80, 100 and 120 mm (1.4, 1.6, 3.2, 3.9 and 4.7 in.) concrete cover of 70, 80, 100, 110, 115, 140, 170 and 190 mm (2.8, 3.2, 3.9, 4.3, 4.5, 5.5, 6.7 and 7.5 in.) and one sloped duct 50 to 160 mm (2 to 6.3 in.) deep the size of each of the grouting discontinuities is at least 200 mm (8 in.) in length and represents either a fully ungrouted section (void) or a half filled duct (the exact position of the discontinuities is not revealed to the public in order for others to be able to perform future blind tests)

echo data in the direction of the tendon ducts is shown. Dark colors indicate high frequency/position values. The position of the ducts is indicated by the letters at the top margin of the image. The frequency shift towards lower frequencies in the presence of the voided ducts is clearly shown. Also, the magnitude of this frequency shift largely depends on the diameter of the duct and, to a lesser degree, also on the concrete cover (A = 35 mm [1.4 in.]; B = 120 mm [4.7 in.]; C = 100 mm [3.9 in.]; E and G = 80 mm [3.2 in.]; K = 60 mm [2.4 in.]; H, I and J = 40 mm [1.6 in.] diameter). The apparent thickness of the slab as measured by impact echo is not constant; it seems thinnest near the ducts with a 40 mm (1.6 in.) diameter. The reason for this remains unknown.

Tendon Duct I In this case, the concrete cover of 190 mm (7.5 in.) far exceeds the 40 mm (1.6 in.) diameter of the tendon duct and the testing problem represents one of the more difficult testing scenarios. Test conditions in this case were the same as in the previous case. The measurement line along the duct shows the frequency signal of the slab thickness at 6.9 0.1 kHz (corresponding to an apparent thickness of 290 50 mm [11.4 2 in.]). Over the intended discontinuities, the frequency shifts very slightly to 6.7 kHz, which is due to the duct. However, the signal interpretation as to the duct void/grout conditions would not be possible without prior knowledge of the discontinuity location for this small diameter, deep duct. Results The other tendon ducts in the large concrete slab lie somewhere between the two cases described above. A systematic analysis reveals that the frequency shift at the presence of a discontinuity shifts systematically with the ratio of duct diameter to concrete cover. Further research is needed to quantify this relation. The large concrete slab was designed to overcome the problem of boundary effects in impact echo problems of specimens with a limited size. However, even the large dimensions of the large concrete slab do not suppress the effect of surface waves reflected at the edges of the specimen. This experimental observation is a very strong indication that point measurements at structures must be carefully checked against effects due to such boundary effects, even if their distance to any edge is as large as 3 to 5 m (118 to 197 in.).

IMPACT ECHO SCANNER TEST RESULTS

The impact echo rolling scanner was first conceived by Olson and researched and developed as a part of a US Bureau of Reclamation prestressed concrete cylinder pipe integrity research project (Sack and Olson, 1995). This technique is based on the impact echo technique (Sansalone and Streett, 1997; ASTM, 2004). In general, the purpose of the impact echo test is usually to either locate delaminations, honeycombing or cracks parallel to the surface or to measure

Figure 3 Averaged B-scans across all ducts. The darker color indicates high intensity at the given frequency and X position. Duct positions are indicated by letters at the top margin.

X/Y Impact Echo Scanning of Grouting Discontinuities Extensive impact echo scanning tests were performed on the large concrete slab to validate the performance and reliability of the impact echo method to locate grouting discontinuities in tendon ducts. The scanning was carried out in a line fashion for an interval of 50 mm (2 in.) using the impact echo scanning system. The design thickness of the slab is 300 mm (11.8 in.) and at the time of initial testing, the sound velocity v was determined to be 4050 m/s (13 300 ft/s) from the average value from approximately 8000 point measurements for the average thickness echo frequency of 6.75 kHz 2%. Results from a few of the tendon duct tests are discussed below. Tendon Duct B This is by far the least difficult test problem presented by any of the tendon ducts. The diameter of the duct is 120 mm (4.7 in.) and the cover is 70 mm (2.8 in.), which is less than the diameter. The thickness frequency of the slab increased to 6.1 kHz at grouted positions, indicating an apparent increase of thickness of 10% to 332 mm (13.1 in.). There are three intended voids in the duct: 250 mm (9.8 in.) and 650 mm (25.6 in.) fully ungrouted and 650 mm (25.6 in.) half ungrouted. Both grouting discontinuities very clearly show up as a large frequency shift to 5.2 kHz full. The apparent thickness at these discontinuities is 390 mm (15.4 in.), a very large shift of 30% relative to the design slab thickness of 300 mm (11.8 in.). However, there are frequency shifts at positions where no discontinuities have intentionally been placed. Also, the half filled tendon discontinuity does not result in a distinct frequency shift. Radiographic tests are needed to verify the correct realization of the discontinuity design. At positions without grouting discontinuities, an additional frequency indication is observed at less than twice the frequency of the slab thickness signal (10.8 kHz). As can be seen in Figure 3, this signal is not directly above the ducts, but at the edges of the ducts.
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(a)

(b) Figure 4 Impact echo scanner unit and the point by point impact echo unit that was used in the X/Y scanner in Figure 1: (a) top view; (b) bottom and lateral view.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5 Impact echo scanning results showing changes in large concrete slab thickness: (a) three dimensional view; (b) profile view. the thickness of the structures (concrete beams, floors or walls). To expedite the impact echo testing process, an impact echo rolling scanning device has been developed with a rolling transducer assembly incorporating multiple transducers, which is attached underneath the test unit. When the test unit is rolled across the testing surface, an optocoupler on the central wheel keeps track of the distance. This unit is calibrated to send an impact at intervals of nominally 25 mm (1 in.). If the concrete surface is smooth, a coupling agent between the rolling transducer and test specimen is not required. However, if the concrete surface is rough, water can be used as a coupling material. A comparison of the impact echo scanner and the point by point impact echo unit is shown in Figure 4. Typical scanning time for a line of 4 m (157 in.), approximately 150 points, is 60 s. In an impact echo scanning line, the resolution of the scanning is about 28 mm (1.09 in.) between impact points. Data analysis and visualization was achieved using impact echo scanning software developed by Tinkey for the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Innovations Deserving Exploratory Analysis (NCHRPIDEA) grant for stress wave scanning of posttensioned bridges. Raw data in the frequency domain were first filtered using a butterworth filter with a bandpass range of 2 to 20 kHz. Due to some rolling noise generated by the impact echo scanner, a bandstop filter was also used to remove the undesired rolling noise frequency. Automatic and manual picks of dominant frequency were performed on each data spectrum and an impact echo thickness was calculated based on the selected dominant frequency. A three dimensional plot of the condition of the large concrete slab was generated by combining all the calculated impact echo thicknesses from each scanning line. The three dimensional results can be presented in either color or grayscale. Results from the Portable Impact Echo Rolling Scanner As mentioned earlier, the design thickness of the slab is 300 mm (12 in.) and the sound velocity during impact echo scanner tests was determined to be 4270 m/s (14 000 ft/s). A dominant thickness frequency for the slab was 6.9 kHz. Changes in slab thickness were clearly detected by impact echo scanning tests and well visualized by the three dimensional display of impact echo scanning results (Figure 5). In this portion of the slab, the thickness varies in a step fashion from 177 to 300 mm (7 to 12 in.). Tendon Duct C The interpretation of the internal conditions of the ducts was more complicated. However, visualization from three dimensional surface plots (combined impact echo thickness plots) helped with interpretation of the data. Figure 6 presents the impact echo scanning results indicating duct locations inside the slab, with raised areas indicating full to half area duct void conditions. The exact location of the voids presented herein remain unpublished so that others can perform blind tests on the large concrete slab specimen. Test results from duct C, which has a diameter of 100 mm (3.9 in.) and a cover of 80 mm (3.2 in.), are presented in an expanded view in Figure 7. The results are interpreted to indicate that one section of the duct has a partial grout discontinuity and two sections of the duct are empty or void. The dominant frequency of the fully grouted duct is approximately 6.8 kHz, resulting in an apparent

Figure 6 Impact echo scanner results indicating duct locations in slab (voided areas are indicated by higher peaks).

Figure 7 Three dimensional apparent thickness plot for duct C.

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impact echo thickness of 310 mm (12.2 in.). The dominant frequency shifted to approximately 5.27 kHz for an empty duct, which corresponds to an apparent impact echo thickness of 404 mm (15.9 in.). This is a relatively large thickness shift of over 30% compared to the nominal thickness of the slab. A partial grouting discontinuity was interpreted from double peak features in the frequency spectrum and a few data points in this area that show apparent higher impact echo thickness. The partial discontinuity zone did not produce as large of a thickness increase as can be seen in Figure 7. A comparison of this blind interpretation of the impact echo scanner results and the large concrete slab design discontinuity locations is presented in Figure 8. The interpretation of the impact echo scanner results, however, shows a downshift in frequencies, indicating empty or problematic areas at duct locations where no discontinuities were intentionally placed. Radiographic tests are needed to verify the correct realization of the design and are planned by BAM in the future as similar unplanned discontinuities were identified in the X/Y scanner point by point impact echo testing.

IMPACT ECHO SCANNER TEST RESULTS FROM A POSTTENSIONED BRIDGE

This section discusses results from impact echo scanning on a cable stayed posttensioned bridge by the first two authors. The typical thickness of the wall section was 300 mm (12 in.) with four steel ducts inside. The sound velocity used to calculate the impact echo thickness was determined to be 3960 m/s (13 000 ft/s). The dominant impact echo thickness frequency of a 300 mm (12 in.) bridge wall was found to be 6.5 kHz between the ducts. The ducts were first located with ground penetrating radar. Impact echo scanning was used to test the internal grout condition of four ducts in a box girder, which were also destructively investigated. The impact echo scans were performed in such a way as to cross all four ducts vertically and along each duct laterally but the results from only the vertical scan are presented herein. The impact echo scanner results showed that the dominant frequency of the fully grouted duct is approximately 6.0 kHz, resulting

Figure 8 Comparison of the blind interpretation of the impact echo scanner results and the actual design discontinuity locations for duct C.

Figure 9 Comparison of the blind interpretation of the impact echo scanner results and the actual conditions of four ducts inside a posttensioned bridge.
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in an apparent impact echo thickness of 330 mm (13 in.). The frequency shifted to 4.6 to 5.4 kHz for an empty duct and resulted in an apparent impact echo thickness of 365 to 430 mm (14.4 to 16.9 in.). The thickness/frequency shift is between 21 to 43% compared to the nominal thickness of the wall. Destructive coring tests and further testing using a video borescope were performed to observe the actual condition of all four ducts after impact echo scanner tests. A comparison of the blind interpretation of the impact echo scanner results from these four ducts and the actual condition of the ducts (from coring and video borescope) are presented in Figure 9. The video borescope image of the actual condition of duct 1 (with void) is presented in Figure 10. The video borescope showed that the first two ducts were empty, the third duct was fully grouted and the fourth duct was mostly grouted, with a little water. Review of Figure 9 shows that the results from the impact echo scanner can be used effectively to identify internal conditions of the grouted ducts in the fully grouted and empty condition. However,

the impact echo scanning tests were not yet able to identify the mostly grouted but water filled condition of duct 4. This is likely because compressional waves can travel through water, resulting in conditions similar to those of the fully grouted ducts. More experimental research is planned with an impactor with a shorter contact time (generating higher frequency) during the NCHRP research.

SUMMARY
Both impact echo tests (with the X/Y scanner automatic measurement frame and the portable rolling impact echo scanner system) showed good agreement in identifing grouting discontinuities in tendon ducts that were located using impact echo scanning. In the impact echo testing by the authors to date, the clearest indication of the presence of grouting discontinuities is the apparent increase in slab thickness. No direct reflection from the duct with grouting discontinuities was observed in these experiments. This is because of the larger wavelength generated by the impactor inside the impact echo scanner. It is also more difficult to interpret the impact echo scanner results correctly when the ratio of concrete cover and duct diameter becomes larger. Further research is needed to quantity this relation. In addition, the impact echo scanning results from a cable stayed bridge showed good agreement with further testing using a video borescope. However, the impact echo scanning was not able to identify voids if the duct was mostly grouted and partially (or completely) filled with water. Further experimental research is planned to address the sensitivity of the impact echo scanner for grout/void condition assessment in posttensioned ducts during the current NCHRP research.

REFERENCES
ASTM International, C1383-04: Test Method for Measuring the P-Wave Speed and the Thickness of Concrete Plates Using the Impact-echo Method, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, ASTM International, 2004. Sack, D. and L.D. Olson, Impact-echo Scanning of Concrete Slabs and Pipes: Advances in Concrete Technology, Proceedings of the 2nd CANMET/ACI International Symposium, Las Vegas, Nevada, 1995, pp. 683-692. Sansalone, M.J. and W.B. Streett, Impact-echo Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete and Masonry, Ithaca, New York, Bullbrier Press, 1997. Wiggenhauser, H., Duct Inspection Using Scanning Impact-echo, International Symposium on Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering (NDT-CE), CD ROM Proceedings BB 85-CD, V101, Berlin, Germany, 1619 September 2003.

Figure 10 Voids inside duct 1 (see Figure 9) as seen by a video borescope.

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