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Thermoelectric generators

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Thermoelectric generators
Adolf Cortel
IES Pompeu Fabra, Duran i Ca ameras 3, 08760 Martorell, Barcelona, Spain n E-mail: acortel@xtec.net

Abstract Nowadays thermoelectric generators have only a few uses. Some are easy to build from simple materials or commercially available Peltier cells, and they can be used for demonstration purposes. Experimenting with these low efciency devices gives opportunities for class discussions on energy conservation.

Introduction
In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck found that the needle of a compass was deected when it was placed near a loop made of two different metals and one of the two junctions was heated. The deection was proportional to the temperature difference and depended on the metals used [1]. This resulted in the design of thermoelectric generators (thermopiles) comprising a large number of junctions. Since a couple of junctions gives only some tens of millivolts, many unions connected in series, alternately heated and cooled (usually with radiating ns), are necessary to produce a few volts [2]. George Simon Ohm discovered his wellknown law around 1825 using this type of generator connected to circuits with wires which he had manufactured [3]. In 1834, Jean Peltier proved the opposite effect: the current owing through these junctions gives rise to the absorption or liberation of heat depending on the direction of the current. Later, semiconductors based on more efcient non-metallic materials, such as bismuth or lead telluride, were developed. Even with these materials, the conversion efciency is low (about 5% was reached in the 1950s), much below that of the best photovoltaic cells. This limits the use of thermoelectric generators for supplying power, and the main application of Seebecks discovery is temperature measurement from the
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voltage produced when a junction of two metals is heated (a thermocouple) [4]. In water-heaters there is a thermocouple acting over the electrovalve that controls the ow of gas (gure 1); in the past these generators were used as power supplies for radios, using the heat of a kerosene lamp or a stove [5]; nowadays, they are used in isolated farms of Northern Sweden on stoves, as a supply of a DCDC converter circuit which charges a battery [6]. Thermoelectric generators, using the heating from radioactive decay [7], are the power sources for space probes, such as Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, which have been sent to the outer planets in the solar system, where photovoltaic cells would not be viable. Nowadays, Peltier cells are commercially available devices used mainly in portable coolers for cars. They are made up of a large number of junctions in series, so that a temperature difference higher than 40 C appears between the two faces of the cell when a current ows. A Peltier cell can work as a thermoelectric generator simply by cooling one of the faces and heating the other. Several experiments and demonstrations have been described using these generators. A simple thermocouple made from wires of different metals and a voltmeter allows checking that a voltage is generated when a junction is heated [8]. A compass can be used to detect the current in a thermoelectric generator made with a loop of two metals with two junctions [9], and effective
2007 IOP Publishing Ltd

0031-9120/07/010088+05$30.00

Thermoelectric generators

Figure 1. Thermocouple acting on an electrovalve, dismantled from an old water-heater.

Figure 2. Thermomagnet built with copper tubing and a screw. Two cupronickel coins have to be held on the attened part of the tube using bulldog clips.

Figure 3. The magnetic poles of the needle of a compass are alternatively attracted when one arm or the other of the thermomagnet is heated.

demonstrations can be carried out with powerful thermomagnets [10]. The purpose of this article is to describe how to build thermoelectric generators or to use commercially available Peltier cells to supply electric power.

A thermomagnet with copper tubing and coins

A weak but effective electromagnet running on a simple thermoelectric generator (thermomagnet) can be built using a piece of copper tubing and a couple of coins of nickel or cupronickel1. Even though the voltage obtained with only a couple of
1 The 25 cent US (cupronickel, 8.33% Ni) and the 25 cent Canada (pure nickel) coins work very well. In the euro zone, the 2 euro coin, which has a cupronickel (25% Ni) outer ring, also works well. Many countries have some of their present or old coins made of cupronickel. As the voltage of a thermoelectric generator is proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions, the bigger the coin, the better.

junctions is low, the low electrical resistance of the copper tubing allows a relatively strong current. A piece of copper tubing (about 45 cm long, 6 mm in diameter and 1 mm thick, of the type used by plumbers), is coiled (5 turns) around a thick screw. The straight ends of the tubing are bent so that they are parallel and about 2 cm apart; the tube is then attened with a hammer. Two coins are held on either side of the attened part of the tube with bulldog clips (gures 2 and 3). The screw, lined with paper to insulate it from the copper tubing, is used as a core inside the coiled tubing. Since the resistivity of iron is ve times that of copper, lining the iron core with paper is not strictly necessary. The unlined core would act as a resistance in parallel with the low resistance of the copper coil. Isolating the core increases the efciency of the thermomagnet by a small amount. The coil is held by a clamp and a compass is placed in front of the screw. As one of the copper arms is heated with a ame, the needle is quickly attracted towards the screw. When the other arm
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Figure 4. A paperclip is held when one arm of the thermomagnet is strongly heated.

Figure 6. Motor running on the power of a thermoelectric generator made with ve couples of Cuconstantan junctions.

of Cuconstantan4 in series, heated strongly in a ame. When red-hot, a couple gives a maximum voltage of about 40 mV. The hot junctions can be made by twisting the ends of 10 cm long wires or, for a more permanent set-up, soldering them together5. The wires of the cool junctions are inserted in terminal blocks and secured with screws as shown in gure 6.
Figure 5. Thermomagnet built with an Alpaca fork and thick copper wire.

Powerful thermomagnets
Powerful thermomagnets able to withstand the weight of a person can be built [10, 12]; however, a lathe and a gas welding torch are required6. One of these thermomagnets is shown in gures 7 and 87 : a thick copper rod has been bent
4 The experiments were made using wires of 0.75 mm of constantan (60% Cu and 40% Ni) and copper. Sixteen junctions (8 2) give a maximum voltage of 350 mV (open circuit) and an intensity of 150 mA (shorted). 5 If the junction is not soldered it easily oxidizes at the ame temperature. An appropriate soldered joint (after twisting the ends of the wires) can be made with CastolinTM (e.g. 1810 XFC) or another high-temperature solder, but a gas welding torch with oxygen and butane is required. 6 These thermomagnets can be bought from some suppliers, such as PHYWE (thermoelectric magnet, catalogue number 06593.01). 7 The cylinder of iron is 75 mm in diameter and 20 mm in height. After making the groove, the face of the cylinder has been heated with a gas welding torch to partially oxidize the surface and decrease its electrical conductivity. The cupronickel coins (Spanish coins from the 1970s and 1980s) have been soldered according to footnote 5. The pieces of iron to be held with this magnet must have a at smooth face in order to close the magnetic circuit. This particular thermomagnet is able to support a weight of about 600 g.

is heated the needle on the compass swings 180 , proving the change of the direction of the current. When one of the junctions is strongly heated the screw is able to hold a paper clip (gure 4). As shown in gure 5, similar thermomagnets can be built using different parts, such as an Alpaca fork and thick copper wire2 .

Motor working on thermocouples in series

A small motor can work with 60 FeCu junctions (30 couples) in series, heated in a ame [11]. An efcient motor, such as a MABUCHI RF 300C14 2703 , turns using only 5 couples (10 junctions)
2 Alpaca (actually Alpacca) is a tradename for German silver or nickel silver. It contains copper, nickel and zinc. There are different formulations; a representative one is 65% Cu, 18% Ni, 17% Zn. It was widely used in atware and cutlery. See also pages.zoom.co.uk/leveridge/nickel1.html. 3 This motor needs only around 170 mV and 17 mA to start turning. It can be bought from several suppliers, but it is very easy to remove a similar motor from an old CD player, since it is often used to move the optical set along its guide.

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Thermoelectric generators

Figure 7. Thermomagnet made with a single turn of a thick copper rod and two soldered cupronickel coins, inserted in an iron core.

Figure 9. The heat produced after rubbing hands is enough to run a small motor using commercially available Peltier cells.

Peltier cells as thermogenerators

A commercially available Peltier cell with a large number of junctions can work as a thermoelectric generator able to give relatively high voltages even with a small temperature difference8, 9 . Figure 9 shows how the motor turns when connected to two Peltier cells in series on a heat sink, using only the heat created from rubbing hands together.
8 The Peltier cells TEC1-12706T125, manufactured by Beijing Huimao Cooling Equipment (www.huimao.com/ series1.htm) are particularly appropriate. There are several suppliers at prices from $12 to $20 each. Each cell contains 127 junctions and, working as a thermogenerator, can give a voltage of around 1.2 V with a temperature difference of about 70 C. Other Peltier cells with a large number of junctions can also work well. The contact of the cells and the heat sink must be secured using a heat-conducting grease. 9 A commercial device can be bought from PASCO (thermoelectric converter, catalogue number TD-8550A) or Sargent-Welch (thermoelectric demonstrator, catalogue number CP32729-00).

Figure 8. When heated, the magnetized core can hold an iron disc from which successive weights can be hung.

to t into a circular groove made in a cylindrical piece of iron and two cupronickel coins have been soldered to the arms of the rod. Prior to heating, it can be shown that washers or other at pieces of iron are not attracted, but when one of the arms is strongly heated the current along the copper rod is strong enough to make the iron core an electromagnet able to hold an iron disc with a hook, from which successive weights can be hung. The other arm of the copper rod can be immersed in a cup of water or ice to increase the temperature difference between the junctions.
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[2] physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/ Thermodynamics/Thermoelectric Battery/ Thermoelectric Battery.html [3] Rogers E M 1960 Physics for the Inquiring Mind (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press) p 519 [4] www.omega.com/prodinfo/Thermocouples.html www.omega.com/temperature/Z/pdf/z021-032. pdf [5] Freier G D and Anderson F J 1981 A Demonstration Handbook for Physics (American Association of Physics Teachers) p E-77 see also www.dself.dsl.pipex.com/MUSEUM/ POWER/thermoelectric/thermoelectric.htm [6] www.triz-journal.com/archives/1997/01/a/index. htm [7] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Radioisotope thermoelectric generator [8] Graf R F 1973 Safe and Simple Electrical Experiments (New York: Dover) pp 812 [9] Greenslade T B Jr 2006 A quick thermoelectricity demonstration Phys. Teach. 44 501 [10] Freier G D and Anderson F J 1981 A Demonstration Handbook for Physics (American Association of Physics Teachers) p E-76 Sutton R M 1938 Demonstration Experiments in Physics (New York: McGraw-Hill) pp 3245 [11] Meiners H F (ed) 1970 Physics Demonstration Experiments vol II (New York: Ronald Press) p 901 [12] groups.physics.umn.edu/demo/old page/ demo gifs/5E50 30.GIF rigel.phys.ualberta.ca/demos/Mechanics/HTML/ thermomagnet.html www.oberlin.edu/physics/catalog/demonstrations/ em/thermomagnet.html
Adolf Cortel received a PhD in chemistry from Universitat Autonoma of Barcelona and has taught high school physics and chemistry since 1981. He enjoys developing new demonstrations and experiments and, for this work, he has been honoured with an Eiroforum Teachers Award, as well as awards from Museu de la Ci` ncia de Barcelona and e Real Sociedad Espa ola de Fsica. n

Figure 10. Heating a piece of aluminium on the upper face of two Peltier cells in series, and cooling the other face with a heat sink in a tray of water, gives sufcient power to supply a portable radio.

Radio Peltier
The Peltier cells and the heat sink used in the previous experiment are put in a plastic tray with water or ice. A rectangular piece of aluminium placed on the cells is heated as shown in gure 10. A voltmeter connected to the cells shows the polarity and the value of the voltage, so that they can be connected correctly to the battery compartment of a portable radio. Using the Peltier cells given in footnote 8, a voltage of around 2.4 V is obtained when the aluminium reaches about 100 C, and the radio starts working10 (with water at 20 C in the tray). When the heating is stopped the radio works for a while until the aluminium cools.
Received 13 June 2006, in nal form 1 August 2006 doi:10.1088/0031-9120/42/1/012

References
[1] www.thermoelectrics.com/introduction.htm chem.ch.huji.ac.il/eugeniik/history/seebeck. html

10 The radio is a conventional portable model which works with four 1.5 V batteries. It is audible from 2.4 V.

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