Compostul rapid metoda Berkeley

Compostul obinuit, cunoscut sub numele de compost rece presupune s punem o varietate de materiale organice intr-o cutie pentru compost, sau ntr-un cadru, sau chiar ntr-o grmad mare i s le lsm acolo pn la descompunerea lor, cteva luni mai trziu. Este un proces foarte lent i, de obicei, dureaz ntre 6 i 12 luni. Acest proces poate fi grbit prin ntoarcerea compostului, punnd materialul de deasupra dedesubt i invers, pentru a le amesteca i pentru a mri cantitatea de oxigen, dar, chiar i aa, tot vom fi nevoii s ateptm mult vreme. Cealalt modalitate de a face compost este compostul fierbinte, care produce compost ntr-un timp mult mai scurt. Aceast modalitate are avantajul c distruge seminele de buruieni i germenii patogeni (care provoac bolile), iar descompunerea materiei organice duce la formarea unui compost foarte fin. Dimpotriv, compostarea la rece nu distruge seminele, iar daca vei folosi buruieni pentru compost la rece, seminele acestora vor ncoli atunci cnd vei aplica compostul n grdin. Deasemenea, compostarea la rece nu distruge nici germenii patogeni, deci dac vei pune plante bolnave n grmada de compost rece, exist posibilitatea ca bolile s se rspndeasc n grdin, de unde i recomandarea de a arde plantele bolnave i a nu le folosi pentru compost rece. Una dintre cele mai rapide i eficiente metode de compostare temperaturi mari este metoda Berkeley, studiat la Universitatea din California. Aceast metod produce compost de calitate superioar n 18 zile. Cerinele pentru compostarea fierbinte, folosind metoda Berkley sunt urmtoarele: 1. Temperatura de compostare este meninut ntre 55-65 grade Celsius. 2. Raportul C:N (carbon: azot) in materialele folosite pentru compost este de aproximativ 25-30 de pri de carbon la o parte azot. 3. Grmada de compost trebuie s fie de aproximativ 1,5 m nlime. 4. Crengile, bucile de lemn, n general orice material bogat in carbon, trebuiesc mrunite, de exemplu cu un toctor pentru mulci.

5. Compostul este ntors din afar spre interior i invers, pentru a amesteca materialele ntre ele. Metoda Berkley folosete urmtoarea tehnic: se formeaz grmada de compost; 4 zile se las fr s se ntoarc deloc; timp de 14 zile se ntoarce la fiecare dou zile. Materialele pentru compost i raportul carbon:azot

n materialele folosite pentru compostarea fierbinte, raportul ntre carbon i azot trebuie s fie ntre 25 i 30 pri carbon la o parte de azot, n greutate. Aceasta datorit faptului c bacteriile responsabile de procesul de compostare au nevoie de aceste dou elemente n aceste proporii, ca nutrieni pentru construirea corpurilor proprii, pe msur ce ele se reproduc i se nmulesc. Materialele care sunt bogate n carbon sunt, de obicei, materiale uscate, de exemplu rumeguul, cartonul, frunzele uscate, paiele, crengile i alte materiale lemnoase sau fibroase care putrezesc foarte ncet.

Materialele care sunt bogate n azot sunt, de obicei, materiale umede, bogate n ap, cum ar fi iarba verde, resturile de fructe i legume, balega difertelor animale, ginaul, plantele bogate n frunze, care putrezesc foarterapid.

Dac raportul C:N este corect, cu aceast tehnic rapid de compostare aerobic la cald, materia organic va fi transformat n aproximativ acelai volum de compost. Prin contrast, compostarea la rece, anaerobica, va reduce drastic volumul de compost obinut n procesul de descompunere. Multe din materialele folosite pentru compostare nu au raportul ideal ntre carbon i hidrogen. Cnd folosii metoda de compostare rapid, trebuie s luai n considerare ct de rapid se descompun natural materialele folosite i s amestecai materiale care se descompun uor cu materialele care se descompun greu. Materialele care au raport foarte mic carbon:azot, de cca. 7:1, se vor descompune foarte repede, deoarece ele sunt bogate n azot. De exemplu pestele, care se descompune foarte repede. Materialele care au un raport foarte mare carbon:azot, de pana la 500:1, vor avea nevoie de mai mult timp pentru a se descompune, deoarece sunt srace n azot, i este necesar s le mrunim de exemplu crengile. De exemplu, dac raportul C:N este prea mare, l putem micora prin adugarea de baleg sau iarb verde. Dac raportul C:N este prea mic, il putem mri adugnd carton, frunze uscate, rumegu sau lemn mrunit.

Mai jos sunt redate rapoartele medii ntre carbon i azot pentru unele dintre cele mai obinuite materiale folosite pentru compost: Materiale uscate: bogate n Carbon C:N Chipsuri de lemn Carton mrunit Rumegu Hrtie (ziare mrunite) Ace de conifere Tulpini de porumb, Paie Frunze uscate Resturi de fructe Coji de nuci Cenus Materiale proaspete bogate n 400:1 350:1 325:1 175:1 80:1 75:1 75:1 35:1 35:1 35:1 25:1 C:N

azot Resturi din grdin Buruieni Lemn verde Fn Resturi de legume Trifoi Za de cafea Resturi alimentare Iarb verde Alge marine Baleg de cal Baleg de vac Alfalfa Gina de pui Gina de porumbei Pete Urin 30:1 30:1 25:1 25:1 25:1 23:1 20:1 20:1 20:1 19:1 18:1 16:1 12:1 12:1 10:1 7:1 1:1

Orice a trit cndva poate fi compostat chiar orice. Tot felul de lucruri, incluznd chestii mai puin obinuite, ca lna, haine de bumbac, oase, pielea (tbcit sau nu), chiar i animale mici dar acestea trebuiesc puse n centrul grmezii pentru a se putea descompune cum trebuie. Cnd procesul este complet, nu mai exist nicio urm a ingredientelor originare! Reinei, cu ct este mai mare varietatea materialeleor folosite pentru compost, cu att compostul obinut este mai bun, pentru c vei avea o mare varietate de nutrieni n produsul final. La modul general, dac suntei grbii, folosii o parte materie animal (blegar) i dou pri de materie uscat bogat n carbon i va funciona. Trebuie doar s cldii grmada de compost n straturi subiri, alternnd materia animal cu cea vegetal pn cnd obinei o grmad cu laturile de aproximativ 1 metru i nlimea de cca 1,5m. Nu avei cu adevrat nevoie s calculai exact raia de C:N, e mai mult o chestie orientativ, dac inei cont de raportul materie uscat-materie umed i alternai straturile, nu avei niciun motiv de ngrijorare.

Cu cteva roabe de frunze uscate, o roaba de buruieni din grdin, un balot de paie i ceva blegar de vac, putei construi relativ rapid o grmad de compost din care, n aproximativ trei sptmni putei obine mai mult de un metru cub din cel mai bun compost pentru grdin, din acela care se vinde la saci in magazinele de profil (la preuri deloc neglijabile). Compostul fierbinte, pas cu pas Ziua 1 Amestecai mpreun ingredientele, aternnd materia uscat alternativ cu cea umed, n straturi de cca. 5 cm fiecare.

Udai grmada de compost foarte bine, pn la saturare, astfel nct apa s nceap s se scurg n afar prin partea de jos a grmezii. Putei pune un activator n mijlocul grmezii de compost, pentru a porni mai repede procesul de compostare. Ca activatori, putei folosi ttneas, urzici, coada oricelului, pete, urin sau compost vechi. Ziua 4

ntoarcei grmada de compost n aa fel nct prile care au fost n exterior s fie acum n interior i materialul care a fost in interior s fie la exterior. Decupai mai nti prile de la exteriorul grmezii i punei-le pe locul noii grmezi. Interiorul vechii grmezi, care este in cel mai avansat stadiu de compostare, trebuie lsat pentru la sfrit i aezat n aa fel nct s acopere noua grmad la exterior.

Asigurai-v c grmada este destul de umed. Dac stoarcei o mn din materialele folosite i stoarcei, ar trebui s curg mcar o pictur de ap. Dac materialele devin prea umede, putei aera puin baza, sau face o gaur de circa 7-10 cm diametru sau, i mai bine, putei pune bee dedesubt, pentru drenaj. Ziua a 6-a i ziua a 8-a

Grmada de compost ar trebui s ating temperatura maxim n aceste zile. Ca o regul simpl, dac putei baga mna pn la cot n grmad, atunci temperatura e mai mic de 50 de grade i nu este suficient de fierbinte. Cel mai bine e s folosii un termometru pentru compost sau un termometru de buctrie.

Temperatura optim este intre 55 i 65 de grade Celsius. La temperaturi de peste 65 de grade, n compost se dezvolt o bacterie anaerob, uor de depistat datorita culorii albe. ntoarcei grmada de compost la fiecare dou zile pentru a preveni supranclzirea. Dac grmada de compost ncepe s scad rapid n nalime, atunci este prea mult azot n compost. Ca s grbii nclzirea grmezii, putei aduga n grmad o mn de fin de oase sau fin de snge (bleah!). Dac compostul se ncinge prea tare, miroase urt i scade rapid n nlime, din cauza proporiei prea mari de azot, trebuie s ncetinii procesul prin adugarea de rumegu; ntoarcei grmada i, la fiecare furca de compost ntors adugai o mn de rumegu. Ziua a 18-a

Cnd rmele apar n compost, este semn c procesul s-a terminat, i compostul e gata, plin de nutrieni. Obinei astfel un compost proaspt, maro inchis, bine mirositor. Cteva lucruri important de tiut: Punei grmada de compost ntr-un loc din grdin unde este protejat de prea mult soare i sau de prea mult ploaie, astfel nct s evitai pericolul de uscare sau de suprasaturare cu apa. Lsai destul spaiu n jurul grmezii, n aa fel nct s avei loc pentru toate operaiunile necesare pentru a o ntoarce. Cnd construii grmada, udai fiecare strat, n aa fel nct acestea sa aib suficient ap. Dup patru zile aerai compostul ntorcndu-l, apoi ntoarcei la fiecare dou zile pn cnd compostul este gata. Reinei c noarcerile frecvente i aerarea sunt secretul unui compost bine fcut. Pentru ntoarcerea compostului folosii o furc.

Folosirea compostului in agricultura

1. Domeniile de utilizare a compostului:

Agricultur pentru a ameliora solul, Refacerea ecologic a zonelor degradate, Reconstrucia peisagistic prin revegetalizarea suprafeelor, Grdinile private, Horticultur, Legumicultur, mbuntiri funciare.

2. Tehnologia de preparare a compostului are dou faze principale:

Prepararea mecanic a materialului pentru compostare, Fermentarea deeurilor.

Deeurile menajere necesit o pregtire nainte de fermentare. Pregtirea const din mrunirea i omogenizarea deeurilor. Metoda pentru transformarea acestora n compost trebuie s fie aerob, deoarece aceasta este mai rapid i evit producerea mirosurilor neplcute. 3. Factori care influeneaz procesul de fermentare: Oxigenul Cantitatea de aer care asigur oxigenul necesar fermentrii este de 4,5 5 litri aer pe 1 kg de materie uscat i pe or. Unde este posibil, aceast cantitate de aer poate fi mrit prin aerare simpl, rsturnarea grmezilor de compost (n cazul compostrii pe platforme n aer liber), introducerea aerului prin conducte perforate (n cazul compostrii n grmezi), introducerea de aer rece sau cald n camerele de fermentare, prin amestecarea deeurilor n mod continuu cu ajutorul unor utilaje speciale. Apa Procentul de umiditate optim este n funcie de cantitatea de materii organice existente n deeuri. Cnd coninutul de materii organice este < 50% umiditatea trebuie s fie de 45%. Cnd coninutul de materii organice este > 50% umiditatea trebuie s fie de 50 55%. Pentru creterea eficienei procesului de fermentare se impune un control al procesului. Materialul pentru compost trebuie s fie ferit de ploaie, deoarece creterea umiditii duce la accentuarea proceselor de fermentare anaerob. Compoziia deeurilor Este un factor important n declanarea procesului de fermentare. Dac reziduurile menajere sunt bogate n materii fermentabile i temperatura mediului este ridicat, procesul de compostare se declaneaz rapid i se desfoar corespunztor. Dac reziduurile sunt srace n substane organice, mai ales iarna, fermentarea este ntrziat iar introducerea de aer suplimentar nu face dect s duneze procesului de fermentare. Ali factori:

Gradul de omogenizare a amestecului,

Granulaia deeurilor supuse fermentrii, Modul de aezare a deeurilor mcinate n grmezi sau n recipienii de fermentare, ncetinirea vitezei de cretere a temperaturii.

4. sfaturi Deeurile proaspt mcinate sunt foarte active din punct de vedere biologic i pot fi utilizate doar ca paturi calde pentru culturile de iarn sau primvar n solarii sau sere, dar produc gaze urt mirositoare. 5. sfaturi Pe durata procesului de compostare se urmrete n mod deosebit obinerea unei temperaturi mai ridicate pentru distrugerea microbilor patogeni i producerea de materii coloide specifice. 6. Maturitatea compostului Un compost poate fi utilizat n agricultur doar n stare finit (matur). Un compost este considerat matur n momentul n care activitatea microorganismelor este redus la minimum. Determinarea maturitii se face prin determinarea consumului de O2 (sau a produciei de CO2) prin ncercri pe plante, prin analiza structurii fizice, etc. 7. Utilizarea optima a compostului Compostul este bine s fie utilizat n agricultur la sfritul fazei termofile, cnd produsul este mai bogat n substane organice. Maturizarea excesiv n depozit, duce la o mineralizare prea avansat a acestuia, ceea ce face si piard o parte din efectele sale favorabile solului. 8. Fazele procesului de fermentare: Faza latent. Corespunde perioadei de timp necesar pentru a realiza colonii de microorganisme n noul mediu creat. Aceast faz ncepe practic nc din perioada de depozitare a deeurilor i dureaz pn la nceperea creterii temperaturii n masa deeurilor, Faza de cretere. Faza corespunztoare creterii temperaturii depinde n mare msur de compoziia deeurilor, umiditate i de prezena aerului, Faza termofil. Perioada corespunztoare celei mai nalte temperaturi. Aceast faz poate dura mai mult sau mai puin n funcie de cantitatea de substane organice i de gradul de izolare termic realizat. n aceast faz se poate aciona mai eficace asupra fermentrii, Faza de maturizare. Corespunde fermentrii secundare, lente, favorabil umezelii, respectiv transformrii unor compui organici n humus sub aciunea microorganismelor. Compostul este bine s fie utilizat n agricultur la sfritul fazei termofile, cnd produsul este mai bogat n substane organice. Maturizarea excesiv n depozit, duce la o mineralizare prea avansat a acestuia, ceea ce face si piard o parte din efectele sale favorabile solului. Se recomand un timp maxim de 3 luni de depozitare a compostului pn la utilizare. 9. Un element foarte important ce caracterizeaz starea i calitatea compostului esteraportul carbon/azot. Acest raport reflect stadiul evoluiei fermentrii deeurilor menajere. 10. Caracteristicile unui compost bun pentru agricultur:

Granulaia: 90% din compost s treac printro sit cu ochiul sitei de 35 mm, Procentul de carbon: > 50%, determinat din materiile uscate, Procentul de azot: > 0,3%, determinat din materiile uscate, Raportul carbon/azot: s fie cuprins ntre 2030 (la deeurile menajere proaspete, se accept 1015).

11. Modaliti de utilizare a compostului Un compost este acel produs care respect urmtoarele condiii:

La cernere, 90% din material trebuie s treac prin sita cu mrimea ochiurilor de 35 mm, Procentul de carbon echivalent trebuie s fie mai mare de 5% n masa de materii uscate, Procentul de azot echivalent trebuie s fie mai mare de 0,3% n masa de materii uscate, Raportul C/N (carbon/azot) s fie cuprins ntre 10 20.

12. Conditii de indeplinit pentru utilizarea in agricultura: Utilizatorii trebuie s respecte urmtoarele condiii:

mprtierea compostului trebuie sa se fac la suprafaa solului, Dac deeurile sunt proaspete i se utilizeaz mai mult de 10 t/ha, trebuie s se lase dup mprtierea acestuia, pn la nsmnarea recoltei (1 1,5 luni) pentru ca s se finalizeze fermentarea i s aib loc maturarea, Se va utiliza de preferin compost grosier pe terenurile argiloase compacte i compost fin pe terenurile uscate nisipoase, Compostul cu un coninut mai mare de 5% calciu va fi utilizat de preferin pe solurile acide, Compostul poate fi folosit pe terenurile cu solul srac n humus, Dozele recomandate variaz ntre 20 100 t/ha n funcie de calitatea solului i natura culturii ce va fi nsmnat i poate conduce la o cretere a recoltelor, n medie, cu circa 15 %/an.

Utilizarea compostului este rentabil n general pentru utilizatorii aflai la o distan de maximum 200 km fa de instalaia de producere a compostului. Peste aceast distan, cresc costurile cu transportul i nu mai este economic utilizarea lor.

Compostarea rezidurilor din ferma zootehnica romaneasca

Compostarea, reprezinta tehnica de transfomare a deseurilor organice in ingrasaminte, cuprinzand totalitatea transformarilor microbiene, biochimice si fizice pe care le sufera deseurile vegetale sau animale de la starea lor initiala si pana cand ajung in diferite stadii de humificare, stare calitativ superioara diferita starii initiale.

Dintre sursele de reziduuri folosite astazi in compostare se pot aminti: reziduuri din agricultura, din industrie si nu in ultimul rand din administratiile locale (parcuri, plaje, statiile de epurare orasenesti). Cele mai mari probleme legate de cantitatile uriase de reziduri o reprezinta deseurile menajere si reziduurile zootehnice. In general dejectiile din zootehnie imbraca doua forme cea lichida, numite si ape uzate decantate, si forma solida de namoluri. Problemele ce le creeaza aceste deseuri sunt multiple printre care se enumera: - volumul mare al apelor uzate decantate si al namolului; - poluarea apelor de suprafata cand evacuarea apelor uzate se face in cursuri de apa din apropierea complexelor zootehnice; -suprafete mari ocupate cu depozitarea dejectiilor solide etc. In tara noastra, odata cu aparitia crescatoriilor mari de animale din ultimele decenii ale secolului trecut, si a statiilor de epurare a apelor uzate, a aparut necesitatea valorificarii in agricultura a namolurilor ca ingrasaminte organice. Namolurile din iazurile biologice sau din lagune, dupa ce se pompeaza apa supernatanta si se foloseste la irigarea culturilor, se lasa sa se zvante. Dupa zvantare, cand namolul devine lopatabil se incarca in remorci si se trasnporta pe terenurile ce urmeaza a fi ingrasate organic. Namolurile din iazurile biologice si lagunele crescatoriilor de taurine, de ovine sau de pasari, nu pun probleme prea dificile, tehnic sau administrativ, pentru ca nu reprezinta cantitati prea mari. Probleme deosebite au aparut in legatura cu degrevarea statiilor de epurare ale complexelor pentru cresterea porcilor, de cantitatile uriase de namol partial deshidratat (minimum 70% umiditate). Spre exemplu, de la complexul de crestere al porcilor Peris, care avea o capacitate de 150 000 de porci rezulta zilnic 30-45 de tone de namol, calculat la 70% umiditate. Deshidratarea totala (care rezolva problema si din punct de vedere igenico-sanitar) este prea costisitoare si presupune cantitati prea mari de energie ca sa fie rentabila. Valorificarea rezidurilor din ferme Continutul acestor namoluri este bogat in elemente nutritive pentru plante legate in combinatii organice usor biodegradabile. Un calcul sumar arata ca prin ingrasarea solului cu 10 tone namol la hectar se administreaza 45,3-102 kg/ de azot, 28,5-60 kg/ha fosfor (P2O5) si 3,3-9 kg/ha de potasiu total (K2O). Variatiile atat de mari ale continuturilor de elemente nutritie se datoreza cantitatii hranei

in cursul unui an, in functie de tipul de furaje administrate in unitatile zootehnice. Compostarea se poate clasifica, in functie de cantitatile de deseuri ce urmeaza a fi supuse transfomarilor microbiene, biochimice si fizice pe care le sufera acestea, in: - compostare de tip gospodaresc si - compostare de tip industrial. Compostarea de tip gospodaresc Aceste tip de compostare a aparut odata cu dezvoltarea cresterii animalelor si acumularii dejectiilor in preajma adaposturilor animalelor si a omului. Cunoscand valoarea pentru productia agricola a gunoiului de grajd de la animale, agricultorii il carau, ca si in zilele de astazi, si-l raspandeau pe ogoare. Datorita insa caracterului sezonier al lucrarilor solului si al cantitatilor de gunoi de grajd mici care se acumuleaza zilnic, a aparut nevoia de al stoca. Dupa felul si durata stocarii se pot deosebi doua tehnologii de biotransformare: - compostare extensiva si - compostare intensiva. Compostarea extensiva reprezinta aruncarea gunoaielor in gramezi dezordonate in care transformarea materialelor vegetale si a dejectiilor animale se produce de regula in absenta aerului datorita prezentei apei si tasarii puternice. In aceste conditii descompunerea se produce lent, incomplet si la temperaturi care nici vara nu depasesc 40oC, fapt care duce dupa un an de zile, ca doar stratul superior al gramezii sa fie fermentat, iar restul sa sufere o fermentare incompleta unde se acumuleaza cantitati mari de acizi organici unii avand actiune toxica pentru radacinile plantelor. Compostarea intensiva reuneste toate tipurile de compostare, care desi se realizeaza in sistem gospodaresc, totusi ele se executa dupa anumite reguli tehnologice, are la baza o conceptie si o experineta, ducand la obtinerea unor produse cu o anumita calitate. In functie de tehnologia de constituire a gramezii de compostare, de pot deosebi trei tipuri de compostare cum sunt: - compostarea intensiv anaeroba; - compostarea intensiv anaeroba cu strat aerob urmata de o faza prelungita in anaerobioza; - compostarea intensiva aeroba.

Compostarea intensiva anaeroba se bazeaza in principiu pe eliminarea aerului din interiorul gramezii de compostare. Pentru aceasta, gramezile se construiesc cu materiale avand o umiditate mai mare de 70%, in pachete paralelipipedice (inaltime mai mare de 2 m si laturile mai mari de 4 m), bine indesate in timpul construirii lor.

In cazul in care productia zilnica de gunoi de grajd este mica se construiesc pachete cu laturi mici, a doua zi se continua inaltarea lor. Se recomanda acoperirea gramezii cu scanduri sau alte materiale impotriva uscarii stratului de la suprafata si totodata contra infiltratiei provenite din precipitatii. Astfel, in absenta oxigenului atmosferic se dezvolta o microflora anaeroba care descompune lent si incomplet celuloza, hemicelulozele, pectinele si foarte putin lignina, lasand in masa compostului produsi intermediari ai descompunerii. Dupa acelasi principiu se executa si o tehnologie de compostare anaeroba in gramezi semiingropate sau ingropate total. Literatura clasica microbiologica citeaza ca model al tehnologiei de compostare anaerobe compostarea traditionala Wrttenberg, aplicata la Scoala Superioara de Agricultura din Hohenheim Germania.

Compostarea intensiva cu strat aerob urmata de o faza anaeroba s-a raspandit in Germania inainte de primul razboi mondial metoda fiind cunoscuta sub numele de metoda Krantz, dupa numele unui capitan bavarez care avusese ocazia sa cunoasca metodele traditionale din India. Principiul metodei consta in asezarea gunoiului de grajd pe un strat de vreascuri uscat de 30cm care sa asigure drenajul mustului de grajd si accesul aerului la baza gramezii. Gramezile se construiesc in platforme ingropate in pamant care au peretii si fundul impemeabilizati. Blocurile de gramezi se cladesc incepand de la un capat al platformei, care gramezi vor forma un trunchi de piramida inalt de cel putin 1m si cu latura bazei de aproximativ 1m. Gunoiul se aseaza afanat, bloc dupa bloc timp in care se verifica temperatura primului bloc si daca aceasta a atins in interiorul stratului de gunoi 55oC se trece la indesarea gunoiului prin calcare. Daca nu se ating cele 55 grade C se mai asteapta o zi timp in care se continua cladirea de noi blocuri pana la umplerea platformei. La acest procedeu, in primele zile (3-4 zile) se dezvolta microflora aeroba, care determina procese biochimice de energie si temperaturi ridicate, favorizand activitatea microflorei mezofile si inmultirea celei termofile.

Apoi, prin indesare se elimina aerul din stratul de gunoi micsorandu-se astfel activitatea microflorei aerobe, fiind favorizate microorganismele anaerobe. Prin acest procedeu se obtin mai putini produsi intermediari. Prin autoliza celulozelor microbiene aerobe care s-au inmultit, se asigura o cantitate insemnata de enzime care vor actiona si in conditii de anaerobioza asupra celulozei, hemicelulozelor, proteinelor, grasimilor si altor compusi astfel descompunerea acestora se va afla intr-un stadiu mult mai avansat asa zisa forma de humus brut. Trebuie mentionat faptul ca humusul nutritiv nu se poate realiza in lipsa oxigenului.

Compostarea aeroba intensiva a avut la origine doua tehnologii ai caror initiatori sunt R. Steiner (procedeul biodinamic) si A. Howard (procedeul Indore).

Steiner a elaborat in 1921 o tehnologie originala de descompunere a gunoiului de grajd si a enuntat principiile dupa care gunoiul poate fi transfomat intr-un ingrasamant organic concentrat, cu efect favorabil pentru mentinerea si cresterea fertilitatii solului, la obtinerea unor culturi sanatoase de plante cu productivitate ridicata. Dirijarea proceselor de compostare se realizeaza prin biopreparate, acestea reprezentand elementul de noutate in tehnologia timpului. Biopreparatele sunt produse din maceratele unor plante medicinale (musetel, valeriana, papadie si coada calului), ele avand rolul, asemanator celui hormonal, de a dirija intensitatea si directia transformarilor din gramada de gunoi. Continuator al cercetarilor din domeniu compostarii lui Steiner a fost E. Pfeiffer care recomanda mai multe procese de construire a gramezilor printre care se enumera si urmatorul. Procedeul pentru fermele agricole mici prevedea construirea de gramezi cu sectiunea transversala trapezoidala cu baza mare de 2,5-4m, baza mica de 1m si inaltimea de 2m. acestea trebuiau acoperite cu un strat subtire de pamant (15cm). A. Howard (cercetator englez) a perfectionat metodele traditionale de compostare ale bastinasilor lansand in Anglia (1931) procedeul sau denumit procedeul Indore prin care composta gunoaiele provenite de la statiile de epurare orasenesti. Acest procedeu a fost elaborat intre anii 1924 si 1931 folosind ca materiale de compostat urmatoarele: - deseuri vegetale (paie, buruieni, fanuri degradate, pleava, plante acvatice, alge, deseuri de la taierile din livada si podgorii, vreji de cartofi, deseuri de legume, furaje degradate, frunze si rumegus); - deseuri animale (dejectii, organe, sange, animale moarte etc.);

- materiale pentru neutralizarea aciditatii (calcar macinat, carbonat de potasiu sau cenusa). Compostarea decurge mai bine cand resturile vegetale sunt zdrobite, pentru ca astfel se produce o imbibare mai rapida cu apa a tesuturilor vegetale, facilitandu-se astfel atacul microbian. La amestecarea materialelor trebuie avut grija sa se realizeze un raport C:N=33:1 prin proportionarea deseurilor animale fata de cele vegetale. Inaltimea gramezii sa nu depaseasca 2m. locul pe care se aseaza gramada de compostare trebuie sa fie usor inclinat pentru a nu balti apa din precipitatii. Gramada trebuie orientata cu axul lung in asa fel incat sa fie protejata contra vantului dominant si sa fie cat mai egal insorita de ambele parti. Dupa 2-3 saptamani de compostare se executa prima remaniere a gramezii, cu scopul aerisirii, omogenizarii si trecerii straturilor de la baza catre varf si a celor exterioare catre interior. In acest fel se asigura o transformare mai uniforma a resturilor organice si se grabeste compostarea prin aerisirea gramezii. Se mai executa o remaniere dupa inca 2-3 saptamani. Cu ocazia fiecarei remnieri se pot aduce corecturi pentru umiditate. Dupa 3 luni compostul este gata de folosire. Compostarea de tip industrial Acest tip de compostare aparut ca o necesitate in momentul in care municipalitatile nu mai faceau fata cantitatilor uriase de gunoaie menajere care poluau mediul ambiant, zonele marginase ale orselor, si cand legile impotriva celor care polueaza prin arderea intamplatoare a gunoaielor s-au inasprit. Probleme si mai mari ridicau si ridica actualmente namolurile separate din apele uzate orasenesti. Arderea lor, ca si a gunoaielor menajere, in cuptoare special construite, devenea din ce in ce mai costisitoare, odata cu scumpirea petrolului si nu eliminau decat partial poluarea atmosferei. Multitudinea de tehnologii brevetate de compostare aplicate in lume se poate clasifica in doua categorii: 1. tehnologii care pun accentul pe instalatii tehnice pentru o compostare fortata; 2. tehnologii care folosesc tehnica industriala, in special in faza finala a productiei, adica dupa terminarea compostarii. Ultimul recensamant general agricol demonstraza faptul ca peste 80% din efectivele de animale din tara noastra se regasesc in explotatiile agricole de tip familial. Acesta stare de fapt arata ca cea mai mare cantitate de reziduuri zootehnice va fi intalnita in exploatatiile agricole individuale care nu au puterea economica sau tehnica a

transformarii acestor cantitati imense de dejectii intr-un ingrasamant organic de calitate. Actual problema dejectiilor din zootehnia individuala este rezolvata de micul femier prin imprastierea gunoiului de grajd direct pe terenurile agricole, acest gunoi de grajd fiind in general necompostat, necunoscand faptul ca aplicarea directa a dejectiilor animaliere (necompostate) din gospodaria proprie ii poate aduce si dezavantaje nu numai avantaje. Printre dezavantajele majore ale aplicarii gunoiului de grajd , depozitat la marginile tarlalelor, direct pe terenurile agricole se realizeaza o pierdere continua a azotului, carbonului energetic si trofic si nu in ultimul rand poluarea mediului ambiant. Chiar daca gunoiul de grajd, care se evacuaeza zilnic din gospodaria agricola, ar fi incorporat in sol acesta ar creea dezechilibre biologice in sol prin raportul C:N prea mic al gunoiului cu paie prea putine , fapt care ar determina procese puternice de amonificare, cu pierderea amoniacului in atmosfera, precum si o nitrificare exagerata, urmata de levigarea nitratilor. In conditiile actuale pentru evitarea neplacerilor create de cantitatile de dejectii rezultate din zootehnie pentru fermierul roman este de preferat sa porneasca printr-o depozitare corecta a reziduurilor din propria explotatie. Depozitare care daca este insotita de remanieri periodice (2-3 saptamani) si de corecTarea raportului C:N prin introducerea de resturi vegetale tocate (paie de la culturile cerealiere, coceni de porumb tocati, etc), duce in final (dupa 3-4 luni)la obtinerea unui produs nou mai putin poluant si mai usor de biodegradat de catre sol - compost. Avantajele compostului obtinut in gospodaria proprie sunt multiple dintre care enumeram doar doua primul consta in faptul ca prin compostare se inlatura neplacerile create de fertilizarea directa a solului cu gunoi de grajd si al doilea avantaj este acela ca in viitorul foarte apropiat legislatia interna se va armoniza cu cea europeana in domeniul agriculturii si protectiei mediului iar depozitarea imprastierea directa a gunoiului de grajd pe sol nu vor mai fi posibile decat daca acesta se va afla intr-o stare noua din punct de vedere fizic chimic - bilogic. Faptul ca in viitorul apropiat vom fi tara membra a Uniunii Europene presupune ca problemele legate de dejectiile din zootehnie sa le rezolvam cat mai repede iar compostarea este una din metodele simple, practice si cu rezultate deosebit de benefice asupra fertilitatii solurilor, metoda care se poate aplica atat la nivelul marilor crescatori de animale cat si de catre micii femieri. Trebuie ca micul fermier roman sa accepte ca intr-o buna zi nu va mai putea depozita gunoiul de graj oriunde si oricat, ca acest reziduu nu este indicat a fi folosit ca fertilizant oganic decat daca este liber de agenti patogeni, liber de seminte de buruieni calitati ce le poate indeplinii numai prin transfomarea acestuia in urma proceselor de fementare.

.......................................................................................................................................
Composting as a recognized practice dates to at least the early Roman Empire since Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79). Traditionally, composting was to pile organic materials until the next planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in the soil. The advantage of this method is that little working time or effort is required from the composter and it fits in naturally with agricultural practices in temperate climates. Disadvantages (from the modern perspective) are that space is used for a whole year, some nutrients might be leached due to exposure to rainfall, and disease producing organisms and insects may not be adequately controlled. Composting was somewhat modernized beginning in the 1920s in Europe as a tool for organic farming.[1] The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials into compost was set up in Wels/Austria in the year 1921.[2] The early personages most cited for propounding composting within farming are for the German-speaking world Rudolf Steiner, founder of a farming method called biodynamics, and Annie Franc-Harrar, who was appointed on behalf of the government in Mexico and supported the country 19501958 to set up a large humus organization in the fight against erosion and soil degradation. In the English-speaking world it was Sir Albert Howard who worked extensively in India on sustainable practices and Lady Eve Balfour who was a huge proponent of composting. Composting was imported to America by various followers of these early European movements in the form of persons such as J.I. Rodale(founder of Rodale Organic Gardening), E.E. Pfeiffer (who developed scientific practices in biodynamic farming), Paul Keene (founder of Walnut Acres in Pennsylvania), and Scott and Helen Nearing (who inspired the back-to-land movement of the 1960s). Coincidentally, some of these personages met briefly in India - all were quite influential in the U.S. from the 1960s into the 1980s. There are many modern proponents of rapid composting that attempt to correct some of the perceived problems associated with traditional, slow composting. Many advocate that compost can be made in 2 to 3 weeks.[3] Many such short processes involve a few changes to traditional methods, including smaller, more homogenized pieces in the compost, controlling carbon to nitrogen (CN) ratio at 30 to 1 or less, and monitoring the moisture level more carefully. However, none of these parameters differ significantly from early writings of Howard and Balfour, suggesting that in fact modern composting has not made significant advances over the traditional methods that take a few months to work. For this reason and others, many modern scientists who deal with carbon transformations are sceptical that there is a "super-charged" way to get nature to make compost rapidly.[1] They also point to the fact that it is the structure of the natural molecules - such ascarbohydrates, proteins, and cellulose - that really dictate the rate at which microbial-mediated transformations are possible. Some cities such as Seattle and San Francisco require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting.[4][5] Composting organisms require four equally important things to work effectively: Carbon for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat, if included at suggested levels [2].

High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry. High nitrogen materials tend to be green (or colorful, such as fruits and

Nitrogen to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon.

vegetables) and wet.[6] Oxygen for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process. Water in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions.

Materials in a compost pile.

Certain ratios of these materials will provide beneficial bacteria with the nutrients to work at a rate that will heat up the pile. In that process much water will be released as vapor ("steam"), and the oxygen will be quickly depleted, explaining the need to actively manage the pile. The hotter the pile gets, the more often added air and water is necessary; the air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures (135-160 Fahrenheit) until the materials are broken down. At the same time, too much air or water also slows the process, as does too much carbon (or too little nitrogen). The most efficient composting occurs with a carbon:nitrogen mix of about 30 to 1. Nearly all plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary widely, with characteristics noted above (dry/wet, brown/green).[7] Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15 to 1 and dry autumn leaves about 50 to 1 depending on species. Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal C:N range. Few individual situations will provide the ideal mix of materials at any point in time. Observation of amounts, and consideration of different materials[8] as a pile is built over time, can quickly achieve a workable technique for the individual situation. [edit]Urine People excrete far more of certain water-soluble plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in urine than in feces.[9] Human urine can be used directly as fertilizer or it can be put onto compost. Adding a healthy person's urine to compost usually will increase temperatures and therefore increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Urine from a person with no obvious symptoms of infection is generally much more sanitary than fresh feces. Unlike feces, urine doesn't attract disease-spreading flies (such as house flies or blow flies), and it doesn't contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as parasitic worm eggs. Urine usually does not stink for long, particularly when it is fresh, diluted, or put on sorbents.[citation needed]

Urine is primarily composed of water and urea. Although metabolites of urea are nitrogen fertilizers, it is easy to over-fertilize with urine, or to utilize urine containing pharmaceutical (or other) content, creating too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or otherphytotoxicity.[10] [edit]Manure

and bedding

On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are manure generated on the farm and bedding. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Non-traditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard. The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting. Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure also must be blended with carbonaceous materials - those low in nitrogen preferred, such as sawdust or straw.[11] [edit]Micro-organisms With the proper mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, micro-organisms are allowed to break down organic matter to produce compost.[12] The composting process is dependant on micro-organisms to break down organic matter into compost. There are many types of microorganisms found in active compost of which the most common are:[13] Bacteria- The most numerous of all the micro organisms found in compost.

Actinomycetes- Necessary for breaking down paper products such as newspaper, bark, etc. Fungi- Molds and yeast help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially lignin in woody material. Protozoa- Help consume bacteria, fungi and micro organic particulates. Rotifers- Rotifers help control populations of bacteria and small protozoans.

In addition, earthworms not only ingest partly-composted material, but also continually re-create aeration and drainage tunnels as they move through the compost. A lack of a healthy micro-organism community is the main reason why composting processes are slow in landfills with environmental factors such as lack of oxygen, nutrients or water being the cause of the depleted biological community.[13] [edit]Common

items suitable for composting

These common items can likely be added to compost with no negative effect. Paperboard or clean paper Dried-out egg shells Leaves, yard trimmings Fruits and vegetables Coffee and tea

[edit]Uses Main article: Uses of compost Compost is generally recommended as an additive to soil, or other matrices such as coir and peat, as a tilth improver, supplying humus and nutrients. It provides a rich growing medium, or a porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and nutrients in which plants can flourish, although it is rarely used alone, being primarily mixed with soil, sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite,perlite, or clay granules to produce loam. Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell.[14] Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry and the possible presence ofphytotoxins that may inhibit germination,[15][16][17] and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.[8] It is very common to see blends of 20 30% compost used for transplanting seedlings at cotyledon stage or later. [edit]Destroying

pathogens, seeds, or unwanted plants

Composting can destroy pathogens or unwanted seeds. Unwanted living plants (or weeds) can be discouraged by covering with mulch/compost. The "microbial pesticides" in compost may include thermophiles and mesophiles, however certain composting detritivores such as black soldier fly larvae and redworms, also reduce many pathogens. Thermophilic (high-temperature) composting is well known to destroy many seeds and nearly all types of pathogens (exceptions may include prions). The sanitizing qualities of (thermophilic) composting are desirable where there is a high likelihood of pathogens, such as with manure. Applications include humanure composting or the deep litter technique. [edit]Types In addition to the traditional compost pile, various approaches have been developed to handle different composting processes, ingredients, locations, and applications for the composted product. [edit]Bokashi

composting

Inside a recently started bokashi bin. The aerated base is just visible through the food scraps and bokashi bran.

Bokashi composting uses an aerobic or anaerobic inoculation to produce the compost. Once astarter culture is made, it can be used to extend the culture indefinitely, like yogurt culture. Since the popular introduction of effective microorganisms (EM), bokashi is commonly made with onlymolasses, water, EM, and wheat bran. In home composting applications, kitchen waste is placed into a container (often known as a bokashi bin or bokashi bucket) that can be sealed with an air-tight lid. These scraps are theninoculated with a bokashi EM mix. This usually takes the form of a carrier, such as rice hulls, wheat bran, or sawdust, that has been inoculated with composting micro-organisms. The EM are natural lactic acid bacteria, yeast, and phototrophic bacteria that act as a microbe community within the kitchen scraps, fermenting and accelerating breakdown of the organic matter. The user would place alternating layers of food scraps and Bokashi mix until the container is full. Liquid "compost tea" is drained once or twice a week and can be diluted 1:100 and added to plants as fertilizer, or poured directly down drains to help clean them.[18] Once the container is full, it is left to ferment for one to two weeks in the container, and then buried under 6-8 inches of soil, in ground or in a non-reactive container. After another two weeks buried under soil, the food scraps should be broken down into rich humus. [edit]Compost

tea

Compost tea is a liquid extract or a dissolved solution but not simply a suspension of compost. It is made by steeping compost in water for 3-7 days. It was discovered in Germany and became a practice to suppress foliar fungal diseases by nature of the bacterial competition, suppression, antibiosis on the leaf surface (phyllosphere). It has also been used as a fertilizer although lab tests show it is very weak in nutrients with less than 100ppm of available nitrogen and potassium. Other salts present in the tea solution are sodium, chlorides and sulfates.[19] The extract is applied as a spray to non-edible plant parts such as seedlings, or as a soil-drench (root dip), or as a surface spray to reduce incidence of harmful phytopathogenic fungi in the phyllosphere.[20] [edit]Hgelkultur The practice of making raised beds filled with rotting wood.[21][22] It is in effect creating a Nurse log, however, covered with dirt. The buried decomposing wood will give off heat, as all compost does, for several years. This effect has been used by Sepp Holzer for one to allow fruit trees to survive at otherwise inhospitable temperatures and altitudes. [edit]"Humanure" "Humanure" is a portmanteau neologism designating human excrement (faeces and urine) that is recycled via composting for agricultural or other purposes. The term was popularized in a 1994 book by Joseph Jenkins[23] that advocates the use of this organic soil amendment.[24] Humanure is not traditional sewage that has been processed by waste-treatment facilities, which may include waste from industrial and other sources; rather, it is the combination of feces and urine with paper and additional carbon material (such as sawdust). A humanure system, such as a composting toilet, does not require water or electricity, and when properly managed does not smell. Because the term "humanure" has no authoritative definition it is subject to misuse; news reporters occasionally fail to correctly distinguish between humanure and "sewer sludge" or "biosolids".[25]

By disposing of feces and urine through composting, the nutrients contained in them are returned to the soil. This aids in preventing soil degradation. Human fecal matter and urine have high percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon, and calcium. It is equal to many fertilizers and manures purchased in garden stores. Humanure aids in the conservation of fresh water by avoiding the usage of potable water required by the typical flush toilet. It further prevents the pollution of ground water by controlling the fecal matter decomposition before entering the system. When properly managed, there should be no ground contamination from leachate. As a substitute for a flush water process, it reduces the energy consumption and, hence, greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transportation and processing of water and waste water. Humanure may be deemed safe for humans to use on crops if handled in accordance with local health regulations, and composted properly. This means that thermophilic decomposition of the humanure must heat it sufficiently to destroy harmful pathogens, or enough time must have elapsed since fresh material was added that biological activity has killed any pathogens. To be safe for crops, a curing stage is often needed to allow a second mesophilic phase to reduce potential phytotoxins. Humanure is different from night soil, which is raw human waste spread on crops. While aiding the return of nutrients in fecal matter to the soil, it can carry and spread a vast number of human pathogens. Humanure kills these pathogens both by the extreme heat of the composting and the extended amount of time (1 to 2 years) that it is allowed to decompose. [edit]Vermicompost

Rotary screen harvested worm castings

Vermicompost is the product of composting utilizing various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and earthworms to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste (not to include meat, dairy, fats, or oils), bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is the end-

product of the breakdown of organic matter by species of earthworm.[26] This type of composting is sometimes suggested as a feasible indoor composting method[27] The earthworm species (or composting worms) most often used are red wigglers (Eisenia foetidaor Eisenia andrei), though European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis) could also be used. Red wigglers are recommended by most vermiculture experts, as they have some of the best appetites and breed very quickly. Users refer to European nightcrawlers by a variety of other names, including dendrobaenas, dendras, and Belgian nightcrawlers. Containing water-soluble nutrients, vermicompost is a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner in a form that is relatively easy for plants to absorb.[28] Worm castings are sometimes used as an organic fertilizer. Because the earthworms grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple forms, plants need only minimal effort to obtain them. The worms' digestive systems also add beneficial microbes to help create a "living" soil environment for plants.[citation needed] Vermicompost tea has been shown to cause a 173.5% increase in plant growth by mass over plants grown without castings. These results were seen with only 10% addition of castings to produce these results.[29] [edit]Alternative

to land-filling

As concern about landfill space increases, worldwide interest in recycling by means of composting is growing, since composting is a process for converting decomposable organic materials into useful stable products.[30] Industrial scale composting in the form of in-vessel composting,aerated static pile composting, and anaerobic digestion takes place in most Western countries now, and in many areas is mandated by law. There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards.[31] [32] The USA is the only Western country that does not distinguish sludge-source compost from green-composts, and by default in the USA 50% of states expect composts to comply in some manner with the federal EPA 503 rule promulgated in 1984 for sludge products.[33] Compost is regulated in Canada and Australia as well. [edit]Industrial

systems

A large compost pile that is steaming with the heat generated by thermophilicmicroorganisms.

Industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste management alternative to landfills, along with other advanced waste processing systems. Mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams combined with anaerobic digestion or in-vessel composting is called mechanical biological treatment, and are increasingly being used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating biodegradable waste before it enters a landfill reduces global warming from fugitive methane; untreated waste breaks downanaerobically in a landfill, producing landfill gas that contains methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Large-scale composting systems are used by many urban areas around the world. Cocomposting is a technique that combines solid waste with de-watered biosolids, although difficulties controlling inert and plastics contamination from municipal solid waste makes this approach less attractive. The world's largest MSW co-composter is the Edmonton Composting Facility in Edmonton,Alberta, Canada, which turns 220,000 tonnes of residential solid waste and 22,500 dry tonnes of biosolids per year into 80,000 tonnes of compost. The facility is 38,690 meters2 (416,500 ft2), equivalent to 4 Canadian football fields, and the operating structure is the largest stainless steel building in North America, the size of 14 NHL rinks.[34] In 2006, the State of Qatarawarded Keppel Seghers Singapore, a subsidiary of Keppel Corporation to begin construction on a 275,000 tonne/year Anaerobic Digestion and Composting Plant licensed by Kompogas Switzerland. This plant, with 15 independent anaerobic digestors will be the world's largest composting facility once fully operational in early 2011 and forms part of the Qatar Domestic Solid Waste Management Center, the largest integrated waste management complex in the Middle East.[35]

List of composting systems

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A modern compost bin constructed from plastics

The following page contains a list of different composting systems:

[edit]Home

composting (small-scale)

Composting toilet Container composting German mound

Sheet composting Trench composting Vermicomposting

[edit]Industrial

composting (large scale)

Aeration system for a closed chamber composting facility

Aerated Static Pile Composting Anaerobic digestion High fibre composting In-vessel composting Mechanical biological treatment Tunnel composting Vermicomposting Windrow composting

[edit]See

also

Bibliografie http://www.fermierul.ro/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=933 http://www.ecorural.ro/reducerea-poluarii-din-agricultura/compostarea-in-gospodarie/ http://www.scribd.com/doc/61382829/Compostarea-cu-descompunere-anaeroba-ininstalatii-cu-biogaz www.icpa.ro/Coduri/Compostarea.pdf http://www.revista-ferma.ro/articole-tehnologii-agricole/compostul-un-produs-carepoate-fi-obtinut-in-ferma.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compost http://www.twinning-waste-bacau.ro/waste-1/ce-putem-face/materialele/manual-pentruobtinerea-compostului-in-gospodarii