Introduction to the Research Process

Session 2

What correlations do you observe in the table below?

Death rates by social class (n=1316)
Men 1st class 2nd class 3rd class Total 67% 92% 84% 82% Women 3% 14% 54% 26% Children 0 0 66% 48% Total 38% 59% 62% 62%
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The previous slide shows death rates by class of ticket on the Titanic, a large ocean liner that sank after colliding with an iceberg in 1912
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What is research?
Use of facts, use of theories, data analysis, sampling, doing an experiment, going to library to read up on a topic?

Research is a careful and systematic process of inquiry to find answers to problem of interest.
To do research is to investigate the problem systematically and thoroughly
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Non-scientific mode of Inquiry

Tradition, belief, intuition

May lead to false conclusions

Scientific modes of Inquiry

Based on research procedure and testing Objective Controlled for bias Empirical Evidence Generalization to larger groups
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Why do research?
Critically evaluate literature in your area Inform your practice Keep current in your field Need to expose you to research experiences in health Need to introduce the next generation of health workers to the vital role of research.

Why attend a research class?

To get my degree So that I can do my thesis So that I can read or evaluate other peoples research reports So that I can evaluate what I see or hear about my profession So that I can do research in my work
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Research in Practice
Conduct research

Consume research

Monitor & Evaluate Health Services

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Aims of Research - Describe

Descriptive studies
describe what is going on or what exists Surveys
administration of questionnaires

Interview groups of people Eg. Describe frequency of certain characteristics (depression) among groups of population (students).
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Aim of Research - Predict

Causal studies
Correlational research is used to predict trend or pattern
What is the relation between smoking and cancer?

Experimental research is used when we want to demonstrate cause/effect relationships

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Eg.
Death rates from lung cancer (per 1000) by number of cigarettes smoked, British doctors, 1951-1961
Annual lung cancer death rates per 1000

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Average number of cigarettes smoked per day

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Aims of Research - Explain

Explain phenomena by explaining the why or underlying cause of a specific natural phenomena

Generally linked to theories

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Aims of Research - Interpret

Understand or interprete the reasons and intentions behind individual actions and meanings of events
We may want to know how it feels to be unemployed rather than look at the unemployment rate
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Types of Research
Quantitative research
Quantitative research using data that can express by numbers

Qualitative research
Qualitative research using data that cant be express by numbers and emphasize on human intention
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Quantitative
Statistical or experimental studies Explanation, prediction Test theories Known variables Large sample Standardized instruments Numbers Determine

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Qualitative
Biographical narratives or case studies Explanation, exploration Build theories Unknown variables Small sample Observations, interviews Words Explore? Understand?
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How do we start a research project?

1. 2.

Research question Design

Plan on how the research study will be executed to answer the research question and to ensure the validity of the findings

3. 4.

Implement Write up
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The research design should be valid & coherent so that the purpose and methodology logically fit within the research framework provided by the paradigm
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1. Purpose of your research?

Who or what do you want to draw conclusions about? What type of conclusions do you want to draw about your object of analysis
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2. What do you want to do?

Preliminary investigations into relatively unknown areas of research? Describe phenomena? Provide causal explanations?
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Eg. Examine phenomena

Develop emerging interpretations? Meaning of phenomena? Seek patterns? You need
Collect qualitative data (written or spoken language )
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Eg. Examine discrete properties

Describe characteristics? Test hypotheses? Seek generalisaton? You need
Collect quantitative data (numbers

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3. Congruent methodology
Methodology Sampling Data collection Data Analysis

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The research process is structured.

Formulation of Research Problem Determination of research design Selection of data collection methods Proposal Data collection and processing Data analysis and conclusion Research Report
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Research Proposals
Research proposals are documents that describe the intended research plan.
Protocol Ethics application Permission letters Appendices (data collection tools)

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Research Protocol Headings

Title of study Aim of study Specific objectives Framework / theoretical model Background Literature Study location Study design Study period (work plan) Limitations to the study Ethical considerations

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Study Design Headings

Study population Sampling strategy Statistical planning Sample size Inclusion / exclusion criteria Data collection methods and tools Data analysis techniques Statistical analysis

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1. What are your research questions?

Area of interest to investigate Create a problem statement or research question
eg. The purpose of the study is to .. What is the .? Specific who, where, when, what and how
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Research sub-units: Objectives

Completely researchable sub-units. Small in number. Add up to the total problem. Relates to the aim Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the data.

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2. Hypotheses
Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. There is often a 1-1 correspondence between a objectives and a hypothesis

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3. Define your terms

Define each technical term as it is used in relation to your research project. This helps remove significant ambiguity from the research itself by ensuring that reviewers, while they may not agree with your definitions, at least know what youre talking about
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4. Describe the rationale for the research

Brief and to the point. Significance of the study Possibilities
Gap in literature Untested theory Replication in SA. Dissatisfaction with existing practice.

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5. Do a literature review
The available literature is reviewed to determine if there is already a solution to the problem.
Methodology Similar studies Definition of variables and outcomes

A literature review is a necessity. Major component in protocol and final research report
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6. Develop a data collection plan

Methodology
Design of Study Sampling Strategy

Ethics Logistics
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Select correct methodology

Methodologies are high-level approaches to conducting research. Two commonly used research methodologies:
Quantitative. Qualitative.
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Population & Samples

Population: the set of individuals (or objects) having some common observable characteristics. Sample: the subset of a population which represents the characteristics of the population.
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How will you collect the data?

What is the source of the data?
People Records

What data collection tool?

Questionnaires Checklists Observation Clinical measurements

Validity and Reliability of data collection tool

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What are the ethical issues?

Consent De-indentified Dont cause harm
Asking question that embarrassing or threatening Reporting information that against privacy

The researcher should honest in observing, analyzing and reporting finding.

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What are the logistics?

What sort of time frame are you going to need to do the sort of research you are planning? How much time have you got? Are your plans unrealistic? Money? Budget?
20 cents per questionnaire [100*20 = R200,00]
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7. Collect the data

Training of Researchers Pilot studies Reliability / Validity of Measurement Tools Field work
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8. Analyse the data

Number crunching Theme identifying Steps
Clean Organise Statistics Display of data
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9. Discussion what does it all mean?

Interpretation of data Support of Hypotheses Links to other studies

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10. Report writing

Outline
Proposal + Findings (Data Analysis) Discussion (Data Interpretation) Limitations of research Conclusion (Implications and recommendations for further research) References Appendices
Tools
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Activity
MOODLE
Excersize 2 Due: next Thursday

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